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THE  UNIVERSITY 
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LIBRARY 


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Julius  Doerner,  Chicago 

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L.  J.  R.  wessen; 


L.  J.  R,  WESSEX 

•>  : . ' v - 

THE  FARMER’S 

• \ 

^ompl^te  Epeyelopedia 


A COMPENDIUM  OF  PRACTICAL  INFORMATION 
ON  ALL  SUBJECTS  RELATING  TO  THE 
FARM  AND  HOUSEHOLD. 


Corripiled  fro u\  t^e  irpst  Reliable  Sources,' 


Mercantile  Publishing  and  Advertising  Co, 
CHICAGO,  ILL," 

1891. 


COPYRIGHT,  1888. 


W’l.SON 


Id  yOs 


A List  of  the  Principal  Books  Consulted  in  the  Prepa- 
ration of  this  Encyclopedia. 

The  New  American  Farm  Booky  R.  L.  and  L.  F.  Allen. 
Talks  on  Manures,  Joseph  Harris,  M.  S.  Dairy  Farming, 
Prof.  J.  P.  Sheldon.  Every  Horse  Owner's  Cyclopedia , J.  H. 
Walsh.  F.  R.  C.  S.  The  Book  of  the  Horse,  by  Samuel  Sid- 
ney. The  Modern  Horse  Doctor , Geo.  H.  Dadd,  M.  D.  The 
Complete  Farrier,  Jno.  C.  Knowlson.  American  Cattle,  Lewis 
F.  Allen.  American  Stock  Book . American  Cattle  Doctor, 
Geo.  H.  Dadd,  M.  D.  Cattle  and  their  Diseases,  Robert  Jen- 
nings, V.  S.  American  Gentleman' s Stable  Guide,  Robert 
McClure,  M.  D.,  V.  S.  Randall's  Sheep  Husbandry . Milch 
Cows  a?id  Dairy  Farming,  Chas.  L.  Flint.  Injurious  Insects, 
A.  J.  Cook.  Sheep,  Swine,  and  Poultry , Robert  Jennings,  V. 
S.  Illustrated  Book  of  Poultry , L.  Wright.  The  Pig,  H.  D. 
Richardson.  Poultry,  Elizabeth  Watts.  The  Horticulturist, 
J.  C.  Loudon.  Domestic  Medicine  and  Surgery,  J.  H.  Walsh, 
F.  R.  C.  S.  The  Modern  Householder , Ross  Murray.  The 
Family  Physician . A Handbook  of  Nursing,  Catharine  J. 
Wood.  Cassell's  Dictionary  of  Cooking , And  files  of  the  prin- 
cipal agricultural  papers. 


679396 


DIVISIONS. 

The  Farm, S3 

Bee  Keeping. 77 

The  Horse, 86 

Cattle, 173 

Sheep, 279 

Swine, 333 

Poultry, ...  381 

Medicinal, 413 

Household,  663 

Domestic  Pets, 698 

Legal  Points,  ........  . 721 


Useful  Tables, 


. 743 


I IO- 


The  Farm. 

A.nimal  manures 41 

Apple-tree  borers 74 

Apples 53 

Aslies  from  the  soil  by  combustion 22 

Barnyard  manure 40 

Bones  for  manure 35 

Buckwheat 51 

Cabbage  cut-worms 73 

Canker  worm  75 

Cherry 53 

Cherry-tree  slugs 76 

Clay  lands,  plowing 42 

Clover 45 

Clover,  cutting  and  curing 45 

Codling  moth - 73 

Colorado  potato  beetle 67 

Cranberries .57 

Cucumber  beetle 73 

Curing  grass 45 

Currant 53 

Cutting  grass,  time  for 44 

Cut-worms 69 

Filter,  water 59 

Fi9h  compost,  for  manure 37 

Fruit-trees 51 

Garden,  the ..60 

Grapes 54 

Grapes  and  pears  for  the  holidays  ...  . 59 

Grasses 43 

Grass  seed,  sowing 44 

Green  crops  for  manures 42 

Guano,  home  made 35 

Hot-bed 63 

Xce-house 58 

Indian  corn 50 

Injurious  insects  and  remedies. 67 

Insects,  injurious 67 

Eime  plaster  for  manure 40 

Liquid  manure,  value  of 41 

Manures 33 

May  beetle 70 

Meadows,  pasturing 44 

Oats 49 

Pastures 46 

Pasturing  meadows 44 

Peach 55 

Pear 56 

Pear-tree  slugs 76 

Pea  weavil 71 

Plant  lice 76 

Plowing 42 

Plowing,  depth  of 43 

Plum  curculio 76 

Potato  beetle 67 


Raspberry 56 

Refrigerator 58 

Rye 48 

Salt  for  manure 39 

Sandy  or  dry  soils  for  plowing 43 

Saving  seed 64 

Seed,  preserving 64 

Seed,  sowing 65 

Squash  bug 72 

Strawberry 57 

Substitute  for  barnyard  manme 38 

Super-phosphate  of  lime 34 

Tomato  worm 72 

Transplanting 66 

Water-filter 59 

Wheat 47 

Wire-worm '.1 

Fee  Keeping. 

JLpiary,  the 80 

Rees,  diseases  of 81 

Bees,  Italian 79 

Bees,  wintering 81 

Biseasesof  bees 81 

Drones 78 

Egg,  the 77 

Feeding 82 

Foul  brood 81 

Hatching 78 

Hive,  the 79 

Hives,  stands  for 8o 

Hiving  bees 80 

Italian  Bees 79 

Queen,  the 77 

Queen,  the  loss  of 81 

Stands  for  hives .80 

Swarming.  80 

Transferring. 82 

Wintering  bees 81 

Worker  Bee 78 

The  Horse. 

A.sthma  and  cough 107 

Age,  how  to  tell  the 91 

Back,  sprain  in  the 135 

Bladder,  disorders  of 123 

Blinds.... 165 

Blood  spavin 141 

Bone  liniment 159 

Bone  spavin 140 

Bots 102 

Bots,  cure  for 156 

Bowels,  inflammation  of 103 

Breaking 90  > 


INDEX. 


Bleeding 

Broken  noof 156 

Broken  wind 117 

Bronchitis 104 

Bruises  of  the  Withers 148 

Burns  and  scalds 105 

Castrating 90 

Coffin-joint,  sprain  in  the 137 

Cold,  remedy  for 105 

Colic,  cure  163 

Colic,  bilious  or  inflammatory 100 

Colic,  flatulent  or  windy 108 

Colic  or  gripes 108 

Colt,  the 90 

Condition  powders 159 

Consumption H9 

Contracted  hoof  160 

Convulsions,  or  stag  evil 114 

Corb 142 

Cordial  balls 162 

Cough  155 

Cough  and  asthma 107 

Cough  mixtures ! 

Cracked  heels 163 

Crown  scab . 151 

Cup-bone  lameness 139 

Cuts 161 

"Diseases  and  remedies 102 

Diseases  and  causes 100 

Disorders  of  the  intestines 120 

Disorders  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder . .123 

Distemper,  cures  for ..156, 158,  164 

Draft  horses  head 87 

Eye  Water 161 

Farcy 129 

Farcy,  the  water 133 

Feeding 95 

Feeding,  hints  on 153 

Feet,  hurts  in  the 146 

Fevers 115 

Fistula 148 

Flat  nose  head 87 

Flesh  wounds 163 

Founder 134 

Founder  cured  in  twenty-four  hours. . .156 

Founder,  remedies  for. 161 

Fundament  bot 103 

Girt  galls 149 

Glanders 144 

Grease 150 

Grease,  molten 125 

Grease,  heel., 158 

Gripes 103 

Gripes,  dry Ill 

Hair,  to  grow 164 

Healing  mixtures 

Heaves,  remedies  for 160 

Heaves,  relief  for ..119 

Hidebound 128 

Hints  on  feeding 153 

Horizontal  head — . 87 

How  to  make  a horse  follow  you 164 

How  to  manage  ahorse  on  a journey..  151 

Hurts  in  the  feet...-. 146 

Imposthumes 144 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels 103 

Intestines,  disorders  of, 120 

Jaundice 112 

Kidneys,  disorders  of 123 

Knees  and  pasterns,  spains  of  the 138 

Dame  ness  in  the  cup-bone 139 

in  the  stifle 138 


Laxative  balls 162 

Liniments  . 160 

Looseness,  or  ecouring 157 

Lop-eared  head 87 

Miallenders  and  sallenders 142 

Mange 128 

Mange  cure  for 163 

Miscellaneous  recipes. 155 

Molten  Grease 125 

Nerve  and  bone  liniment 159 

Ointments 161 

Fhysic  balls 159 

Pin-worms  157 

Points  of  the  horse 85 

Poll  evil 135 

Powders,  condition 159 

Quarter  crack 163 

Rainbow  neck 87 

Rhinoceros  head 87 

Ringbone ..142 

Ringbone  and  spavin 156 

Rules  for  purchasing .166 

Saddle  horses  head  . 8T 

Saddle  plushes  and  galls 149 

Scalds  and  burns 105 

Scouring 120 

Scours  and  pin-worms  157 

Scratches 151 

Sheep-faced  head 87 

Shoeing 96 

Shoulder,  sprain  In  the 136 

Sore  lips 162 

Sores 161 

Sound  or  not  by  law...  168 

Spavin 156 

Spavin,  blood  or  bog 141 

Spavin,  bone — 140 

Split  hoof 156 

Sprains,  cure  for 163 

Sprain  m the  back 135 

Sprain  in  the  back  sinews 137 

Sprain  in  the  coffin-joint 137 

Sprain  in  the  shoulder 136 

Sprains  of  knees  and  pasterns 


Stag-evil JJJ 

Staggers JijJ 

Staggers,  cure  for 15b 


Strangles 143 

Surfeit 126 

Sweeny  liniment 15  < 

Swellings — I44 

Thrush 

To  make  a horse  stand  without  holding.165 

Tonic  balls 162 

To  prevent  a horse  from  scaring lh) 

Twitter  bone 14" 

Warbles }49 

Warranty 1J1 

Wind  broken 

Wind  galls 149 

Withers,  bruises  of  the 146 

Worms • I”4 

Wounds 145, 161 

Yellows  or  jaundice H2 

Cattle . 

A-bortion 245 

Abortion  treatment *4< 

Alderneys J” 

Aphthae 


.270 


INDEX. 


Apoplexy,  pulmonary 267 

Ayrshires 181 

Beef 229 

Beef,  its  preservation 230 

Bowels,  spasm  of  the 271 

Breaking  steers 232 

Breeds 177 

Breeds,  ramarks  on 185 

Bronchitis 254 

Butter 206 

Butter,  comparitive  profits  of  making..  212 

Butter  from  whey 211 

Butter,  marketing 208 

Butter,  packing  andshipping 210 

Buttermilk 213 

Buttermilk  cheese 215 

Calf,  the 189 

Calving 187 

Calving  table 189 

Castration 243 

Catarrh,  epizootic  . 262 

Chapped  teats 256 

Cheese 213 

Cheese,  buttermilk 215 

Cheese,  qualities  of 217 

Cheese,  size  of 219 

Cheese,  whey. . . 215 

Choking 260 

Colic,  flatulent 270 

Constipation 271 

Coryza 256 

Cow-house 198 

Cow-pox 256 

Curd,  treatment  of  the 218 

Curing 219 

Cutting  up 226 

Cutting  tip,  English  mode 228 

Cutting  up,  Scotch  mode  227 

T>airy 203 

Dairy  produce 203 

Devons 179 

Diarrhoea  257 

Diseases  and  remedies 245 

Diseases  of  the  teats 255 

Dysentery 257 

Xilpizootic  catarrh 262 

Balse  presentation 250 

Fat  cattle,  points  of 221 

Fattening  for  market 220 

Feeding 199 

Fever,  milk 251 

Fever,  puerperal 251 

Fever,  simple 253 

Flatulent  colic 270 

Formation  of  teeth A93 

Foul  in  the  foot 260 

Oad  flies 276 

Galloways 182 

Galls,  yoke 277 

Garget 249 

Gastric  enteritis 263 

Tlerefords 180 

Hoove 259 

Hoven 1 1 259 

House,  cow 198 

Tnflammation  of  the  kidneys 274 

Inflammation  of  the  liver 275 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs 264 

Jerseys 184 

Kidneys,  inflammation  of  the 274 

Leather 231 


Lice 262 

Liver,  inflamation  of  the 275 

Lungs,  inflammation  of  the 264 

Management  of  oxen 233 

Mange 261 

Method  of  ascertaining  weight  of  living 

cattle 231 

Milk 204 

Milk  fever 251 

Milking 202 

Murrain 268 

IV ative  cattle  179 

Navel-ill 268 

Offal,  the 230 

Oxen,  management  of 233 

Bharyngitis 266 

Phrenitis 269 

Pleurisy 269 

Polled  cattle 182 

Points  of  cattle 173, 185 

Points  of  fat  cattle. 221 

Presentation  false 250 

Puerperal  fever 251 

Pulmonary  appoplexy 267 

Babies 272 

Red  water  273 

Remarks  on  breeds 185 

Rennet 215 

Rennet,  making  the 216 

Rheumatism 274 

Salt,  how  it  is  applied 219 

Shorthorns 183 

Slaughtering 225 

Sore  teats 256 

Spasm  of  the  bowels 271 

Spaying ' 234 

Spaying,  advantages  of  the  operation . .235 

nnr  o rvnorof  inn  9 


Spaying^  the  operation 238 

Steers,  breakin  g 232 

Table  of  food 202 

Teats,  diseases  of 255 

Teats,  chapped  and  chafed 256 

Teats,  injuries  to  the 255 

Teats,  obstruction  in  the. 255 

Teats,  sore  256 

Teats,  tumors  in  the 255 

Teeth,  diagrams  of 194,  195,  196,  197 

Teeth,  formation  of 193 

Udder,  chafed 256 

"Warbles..  262 

Weight  of  living  cattle,  how  to  ascer- 
tain   231 

Whey,  butter  from 211 

Whey,  cheese  from 215 

Yoke  galls 277 

Sheep, 

Administering  medicine 324 

Age  of  sheep 296 

Barn 309 

Bleeding 324 

Bowels,  constipation  of 330 

Branding  or  marking 322 

Breeding 299 

Breeding,  Merinos 286 

Breeding,  selections  for 307 

Oastrating  and  docking 308 

Catarrh,  common 329 

Chevoit,  the. 204 


INDEX. 


Cold  storms 

Colic 

Constipation  of  the  bowels 

Cotswold,  the 

Cutting  hoof 

[Dentition 

Diarrhoea  and  dysentery 

Dipping 

Diseases  and  remedies 

Docking  and  castrating 

Dog  guard 

Dysentery  and  diarrhoea 

Ewes,  care  of  after  weaning 

Eye,  inflammation  of  the 

Food 

Food,  additional 

Food  and  management  in  winter. 

Foot  rot 

Fracture 

G iddiness  or  vertigo 

Grub  in  nostrils 

Roofs,  cutting 

Horns?  shortening 

Hydatids  in  the  liver 

Inflammation  in  the  eye 

Inflamation  in  the  lungs 

Lamb,  the . 

Leicester,  the  new 

Lincoln.,  the 

Lungs,  inflammation  in  the 

Maggots 

Management  and  food  in  summer, 
Management  and  food  in  winter. . , 

Mangers  or  racks 

Marking  or  branding. . 

Medicines,  administering 

Merinos,  breeding 

Merinos,  Spanish  

IV  ative  sheep 

Nostrils,  grubs  in 

Foints  of  sheep 

Racks  or  mangers 

Rot  or  hydatids  in  the  liver 

Rot  in  foot 

Saxon,  the 

Selection  for  breeding 

Shearing 

Shed 

Shelters 

Shortening  horns 

South  Downs,  the . 

Spanish  Merinos 

Storms,  cold 

Summer  management 

Sun  scald 

Teeth,  the 

Ticks 

Tympanitis 

Vertigo  or  giddiness 

Washing 

Washing,  apparatus 

Weaning 

Weaning,  care  of  ewes  after . 
Winter  management  and  food — 
Yellows 

Sivine, 

American  swine 

Bacon,  Yorkshire 


.320 

.330 

.330 

.293 

.314 

,299 

.329 


Barrel,  swill.. 
Bedford,  the  . 
Belfast  hams. 

Bleeding 

Breeding 

Berkshire,  the 
Byfield,  the. . . , 


.353 

335 

.305 

.366 

345 


.335 


321 
.324 
303 
51 : 
.329 


.312 

.304 

.307 

..327 

..330 

.327 

,.328 

.314 

.323 

.325 

.328 

.329 

.302 

.288 

.295 

.329 

.323 

.313 

.307 

.310 

.322 

.324 

.286 

.281 

.280 

.328 

.279 

.310 

.325 

.327 

.287 

.307 

.318 

.311 


Castration 353 

Catarrh .377 

Catching  the  pig . . . . 366 

Chinese,  the 336 

Cholera 378 

Cleaminess ”...  ’.367 

Cone  3J8 

Crackings 373 

Curing  and  pickling 362 

Diarrhoea 376 

Diseases  and  remedies 365 

Drenching  pig 365 

Epilepsy 377 

Fattening 356 

Feeding 351 

Fever 368 

Food,  table  of 357 

Formation  of  teeth 339 

Foul  skin.  370 

Hams,  Limerick  and  Belfast 365 

Hams,  Westphalian 363 

Heavings,or  inflammation  of  the  lungs.396 

Hog,  points  of  a good 343 

Houses  and  piggeries 340 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs 376 

Jaundice 370 

Eeiscester,  the 335 

Leprosy . . .369 

Lethargy 376 

Lice 380 

Limerick  and  Belfast  hams 365 

Lungs,  inflammation  of  the 376 

TMange 370 

Measles 370 

Murrain 369 

Farturition 349 

Pickling  aud  curing 362 

Piggeries  and  houses 340 

Pigs,  drenching 365 

Points  of  a good  hog 343 

Points  of  swine 333 


.320 

.330 

.327 

.314 

.315 

.305 

.306 

.307 


Quinzy 

Rabies 

Ratille 

Skin,  foul 

Slaughtering 

Spaying 

Spleen,  swelling  of  the — 

Staggers 

Suffolk,  the 

Surfeit 

Swelling  of  the  spleen 

Swill  barrels  and  troughs, 

Swine,  American 

Swine,  points  of 

Teeth,  formation  of 

Troughs 

Tumors 

Weaning 

Westphalian  hams 

Yorkshire  bacon 

Yorkshires,  the 


.377 

.379 

.374 

.370 

.361 

354 

.374 

.373 

.337 

.376 

.374 

.352 

.333 

.333 

.339 

.352 

.377 

.355 

.363 

.364 

.326 


INDEX. 


Poultry . 

Asthma  

Bantam,  the 

Bolton  Gray,  the 

Breeding  stock,  management  of 

Chickens,  the 

China,  the  Cochin r.. 

Cochin  China,  the 

Costiveness 

Cuckoo,  the 

Biarrhcea 

Diseases  and  remedies 

Dominique,  the 

Dorking,  the 

Dorking,  the  Black 

Ducks 

Feathers,  loss  of — 

Fever 

Food 

Fowl,  the  game 

Fowls  and  sitters 

Fowls  for  layers 

Game  fowl,  the 

Game  fowl,  Spanish 

Game  fowl,  Wild  Indian 

Goose  

Goose,  breeding 

Gray,  the  Bolton 

Guinea  Hen 

Hamburgh,  the  Spangled 

Hen  house 

Indigestion 

.Layers,  fowls  for 

Lice  

Loss  of  feathers 

IVIalay,  the 

Management  of  breeding  stock. 

Beacock  and  Guinea  Hen 

Pheasant,  the  Silver 

Pip 

Plymouth  Rock,  the 

Poland,  the . 

Poultry 

Roup 

Silver  Pheasant,  the 

Sitters 

Spangled  Hamburgh,  the 

Spanish,  the 

Spanish,  game 

Sores  ana  wounds 

Turkey,  the 

Turkey,  breeding 

Wild  Indian  game 

Wounds  and  sores 

Medicinal . 

A.bdomen,  wounds  of  the 

Abortion 

Air,  fresh 

Ague 

Ague,  cure  for 

Alcoholic  stimulants 

Appoplexy 

Arterial  Haemorrhage 

Artery,  tying  of  an 

Asthma 

Asthma,  remedies  for 

Ayre’s  Cherry  Pectoral 

Barber’s  shampoo  mixture 


.406 
.381 
.382 
.397 
.401 
.383 
,.383 
.407 
,.384 
.407 
,.406 
.385 
..385 
,.387 
..405 
..409 
,.408 
.399 
.387 
.396 
394 
.387 
.388 
.388 
.403 
.404 
.382 
.403 
.389 
.400 
. 408 
.394 
..408 
,.409 
, 389 
,.397 
.403 
.393 
.409 
.391 
..391 
..381 
.410 
.393 
..396 
..389 
.393 
.388 
.411 
.401 
.402 
.388 
.411 


.511 

.485 

.413 

.423 

.523 

.549 

.425 

.513 

.515 

.427 

.525 

.517 

,520 


Barrell’s  Indian  liniment 

Baths  and  bathing 

Baths,  cold 

Baths,  hot 

Baths,  hot-air 

Baths,  sponge 

Baths,  terpid 

Baths,  Turkish 

Beef  tea 

Biliary  derangements 

Biliousness 

Bite,  dog 

Bite,  serpent 

Bladder  haemorrhage  from  the 

Bladder,  inflammation  of  the 

Bleeding  from  the  bowels 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs 

Bleeding  from  the  nose 

Bleeding  from  the  stomach 

Blistering  liquid 

Blistering  plaster  and  liquid 

Blood,  expectoration  of 

Bloody  flux 

Bites,  leech 

Boils 

Bone  liniment 

Bowels,  bleeding  from  the 

Bowels,  inflammation  of  the 

Bowels,  strangulation  of  the ....... 

Brain,  concussion  of  the 

Brain,  congestion  of  the 

Brain  fever 

Brain,  inflammation  of  the 

Brain,  irritation  of  the 

Breast,  inflammation  of  the 

Bright’s  disease  of  the  kidneys 

Bruises...  

Bruises,  dressings  for 

Broken  collar  bone 

Broken  ribs 

Bronchial  Troches,  Brown’s 

Bronchitis 

Bronchitis,  chronic 

Bronchocele 

Brown’s  Bronchial  Troches 

Buchu,  compound  extract  of. 

Burns  and  scalds 

Burns,  from  chemicals 

Burns,  gunpowder 

Camphor  Ice  

Cancer,  English  remedy  for 

Carbolated  oil 

Carbuncles 

Carded  oakum  stypium 

Catarrhal  ophthalmia 

Caution  in  the  use  of  stimulants . . . 

Chapped  hands 

Charcoal  cure  for  headache 

Cheese 

Chemicals,  burns  from 

Cherry  pectoral,  Ayre’s 

Chest,  inflammation  of  the 

Chest,  wounds  of  the 

Chicken  pox 

Chilblains 

Chin  cough 

Cholera 

Cholera,  Asiatic 

Cholera,  Egyptian  cure  for 

Cholera,  malignant 

Cholera,  spasmodic  

Circassian  cream 

Cleanliness 

Clergymen’s  sore  throat 

Climate. • 


.520 
.537 
.538 
.539 
.539 
.538 
- 539 
.540 
.545 
.428 
.428 
.431 
.430 
.474 
.432 
.433 
.432 
.431 
.433 
.417 
.416 
.432 
.462 
.515 
.434 
.523 
.433 
434 
.445 
.446 
.446 
.480 
.480 
.451 
.435 
.436 
.436 
513 
.470 
.470 
.517 
..440 
543 
.472 
.517 
.518 
437 
.438 
.4:18 
.520 
.523 
.513 


.513 

.454 

.419 

.439 

.523 

.549 

.438 

.517 

.439 

.511 

.441 

.442 

.476 

.442 

.442 

.527 

.442 

.442 

.519 

.414 

.444 

.Ml 


INDEX, 


Climate,  effects  of  change  of 541 

Cold  hath 538 

Cold  in  the  head 

Colic 444 

Colic,  the  painter’s 445 

Collar  bone,  broken 470 

Compound  dislocation 459 

Concussion  of  the  brain 446 

Congestion  of  the  brain 446 

Congestion  of  the  liver 438 

Constipation 447 

Consumption 447,  542 

Consumptives,  syrup  for 521 

Convulsions 448 

Cornea,  inflammation  of  the 456 

Corns 449 

Corns  and  warts  524 

Cough 449 

Cough,  chin 476 

Cough  syrup 520 

Cough,  whooping 476 

Counter-irritants 417 

Cramp 497 

Cream,  Circassian 519 

Cream,  oriental — 519 

Cream,  shaving  ....  519 

Croup 449 

Cuts,  stabs,  wounds,  etc 509 

T>andriff 450 

Deformity 465 

Degeneration  of  the  kidneys 436 

Delirium  tremens 450 

Dentition 451 

Derbyshire  neck 472 

Diabetes 452 

Diarrhoea '..453 

Diarrhoea,  English  or  autumnal, 442 

Diet, 421 

Diet,  general 547 

Diet,  in  relation  to  disease 543 

Diphtheria,  remedy  for 517 

Diseases  and  remedies 423 

Diseases  of  the  eye 453 

Dislocations 457 

Dislocations,  compound 

Dislocation  of  the  hip  joint 458 

Dislocation  of  the  jaw 457 

Dislocation  of  the  shoulder  joint 458 

Dog  bites 431, 459 

Dropsy 459 

Dropsy,  pills  for  the 526 

Drowning 459 

Dysentery 462 

Dyspepsia 478,  543 

J3ar-ache 

Ear,  inflammation  of  the 463 

Eclectic  liver  pills. .526 

Eggs 546 

Egyptian  cure  for  cholera 527 

E lectr  o-magnetic  liniment 

Embalming,  new  method  of 518 

English  remedy  for  cancer 523 

Enteric  or  intestinal  fever 503 

Epilepsy 463 

Expectoration  of  blood 432 

External  stimulants 417 

Eye,  diseases  of  the 453 

Eye  preparations 526 

Eyes,  sore,  Indian  prescription  for 527 

Eye  water,  Indian 527 

Fainting 464,  516 

Fainting  from  bleeding 516 

Farinaceous  foods 547 

Febrifuge  wine 520 


Feeding-bottles  objectionable 545 

Felons 523 

Felons,  salve  for 524 

Felons,  ointment  for 524 

Female  complaints 521 

Female  complaints,  chronic 522 

Fever,  infantile  remittent 478 

Fever,  intestinal  or  enteric 503 

Fever,  milk 485 

Fever,  puerperal ...489 

Fever,  remittent 490 

Fever,  scarlet 492 

Fever,  teething 451 

Fever,  typhoid ...503 

Fish 548 

Fish,  shell 548 

Fits 448 

Flooding,  powder  for  excessive 522 

Fomentations 415 

Food,  farinaceous 547 

Fowls,  game,  etc 548 

Fractures 454 

Fractures,  comminuted .465 

Fractures,  compound 464,  471 

Fractures,  compound  comminuted 465 

Fracture  of  the  armbones 466 

Fracture,  bone  of  the  nose !471 

Fracture,  fingers  and  hands 468 

Fracture,  knee-cap 469 

Fracture,  leg "468 

Fracture,  thigh 468 

Fracture,  simple 464 

Freckle,  cure 519 

Fresh  air 413 

Fruits,  vegetables,  etc 548 

Game,  poultry,  etc 548 

Ganglion ,471 

General  diet 547 

Goiture 472 

Gonorrhoea,  cure  for 520 

Good  Samaritan  liniment 524 

Gout 472,  543 

Gravel 474 

Gravel,  imperial  drops  for 520 

Great  London  liniment 524 

Green  Mountain  salve 523 

Green  ointment 525 

Gunpowder  burns 438 

Gunshot  wounds 512 

Haemoptymis 432 

Haemorrhage,  arterial 513 

Haemorrhage  from  the  bladder 474 

Haemorrhage  from  wounds 513 

Haemorrhage,  uterine 521 

Haemorrhage  venous 513 

Haemorrhoids 473 

Hands,  chapped 439 

Hair  dyes 518 

Hair  invigorator 519 

nair  restorer 519 

Headache 475 

Headache,  sick,  charcoal  cure  for 523 

Heart,  rheumatic  affection  of  the 491 

Hip  joint,  dislocation  of 458 

Hot  bath ...539 

Hot  air  bath 539 

Hydropathy 540 

Hydrophobia 459 

Hydrophobia,  cure  for  526 

Hysteria 477 

Ice 415 

Imperial  drops  for  kidney  complaint ..  520 

Incontinance  of  urine 477 

Indigestion 478 


INDEX. 


Indian  eye  water 527 

Indian  liniment.  Barrel’s 520 

Infantile  remittent  fever 478 

Infant,  management  of  the  new-born. . .420 

Infant,  to  give  medicine  to 423 

Infant’s  syrup 

Inflammation 

Inflammation  of  the  bladder 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels 434 

Inflammation  of  the  brain 

Inflammation  of  the  breast 435 

Inflammation  of  the  chest 

Inflammation  of  the  cornea 456 

Inflammation  of  the  ear 463 

Inflammation  of  the  eye  454 

Inflammation  of  the  iris 456 

Inflammationof  the  mouth 

Inflammatory  rheumatism 525 

Injection  for  leucorrhaea 522 

Insects,  stings  of 497 

Intestinal  or  enteric  fever 503 

Intestinal  worms 516 

Iris,  inflammation  of  the 456 

Irritants,  counter 417 

Irritation  of  the  brain 451 

Isinglass  plaster .514 

Itch 483 

Itch  ointment 525 

«T anndice,  Dr.  Peabody’s  cure 525 

Jaw,  dislocation  of  the 457 

Judkin's  ointment 525 

Kidney  complaint.  Imperial  drops  for.520 

Kidneys,  Bright’s  disease  of  the 436 

Kidneys,  degeneration  of  the 436 

King  of  oils,  for  neuralgia  and  rheuma- 
tism  527 

Labor 419 

Leech  bites ...515 

Leucorrhea,  injection  for 522 

Light 413 

Liniment,  Barrel's  Indian 520 

Liniment,  electro-magnetic 524 

Liniment,  for  old  sores 524 

Liniment,  Good  Samaritan .524 

Liniment,  great  London 524 

Liniment,  nerve  and  bone 523 

Liquid,  blistering 416, 417 

Liquors,  malt 549 

Liver,  congestion  of  the 428 

Lotions 414 

Lotions,  sedative 414 

Lozenges,  worm 577 

Lungs,  bleeding  from  the .432 

Lying-in  room 419 

Lying-in  woman,  treatment  of 421 

!fclalt  liquors 549 

Management  of  the  new-born  infant.  ...420 

Management  of  the  sickroom 413 

Mattico  and  tincture  of 516 

Mead’s  salt-rheum  ointment 525 

Measles 484 

Medicinal 413 

Medicine  to  give  to  an  infant 423 

Menstruation,  anodyne  for  painful 521 

Menstruation,  obstructed 521 

Menstruation,  difficult 472 

Milk  fever 485 

Milk 544 

Miscarriage,  or  abortion 485 

Miscellaneous  recipes 517 

Mouth,  inflammation  of  the 483 

IVavel,  protrusion  of  the 489 

Nerve  and  bone  liniment 523 


Nervous  shock 486 

Neuralgia,  internal  remedy  for .527 

Neuralgia,  king  of  oils  for 527 

New  method  of  embalming 518 

Nipples  sore ‘ * ’ j '423 

Nose,  bleeding  from ’ ’431 

Nose,  broken  bones All 

Nurse,  the 418 

Nursing  and  rest 422 

Oakum  etyplum,  carded 513 

Obstructed  menstruation 521 

Ointment,  for  old  sores 524 

Ointment,  green 5* 

Ointment,  itch 525 

Ointment,  Judkin’s §25 

Ointment,  Mead’s  ralt-rheum 525 

Ointment,  pile 520 

Opiates  438 

Ophthalmia,  catarrhal 454 

Ophthalmia,  purulent  of  adults 454 

Ophthalmia,  purulent  of  children 454 

Ophthalmia,  rheumatic 455 

Oriental  cold  cream 519 

^Paralysis 486 

Paregoric 520 

Paste,  razor-strop 519 

Pile  ointment 520 

Piles 473 

Pills,  dropsy 526 

Pills,  eclectic  liver 526 

Pills,  to  promote  menstrual  secretion.. 521 

Pitting,  to  prevent  in  small-pox 497 

Plaster,  blistering 416 

Plaster,  isinglass 514 

Poulticing 415 

Poultry,  game,  etc 548 

Pregnancy 487 

Pregnancy,  disorders  of 489 

Pregnancy,  signs  of 487 

Prolapsus  uteri 522 

Protrusion  of  the  navel 489 

Puerpural  fever 489 

Purpura 490 

Purulent  ophthalmia  of  adults 454 

Purulent  ophthalmia  of  children 454 

Razor-strop  paste 519 

Recipes,  miscellaneous 517 

Remittent  fever 478, 490 

Rest  and  nursing 422 

Revaccination 508 

Rheumatic  ophthalmia 455 

Rheumatism. . 491 

Rheumatism,  chronic. 492,  543 

Rheumatism,  inflammatory 525 

Rheumatism,  neuralgic 463 

Rheumatism,  sciatica 492 

Rheumatism,  sub-acute 491 

Ribs,  broken 470 

Ripe  fruit,  vegetables,  etc 548 

Russia  salve 517 

Salt  rheum  ointment,  Mead’s 525 

Salve,  Green  Mountain 523 

Salve,  Russia 517 

Scalds 437 

Scarlet  fever 492 

Scarletina 492 

Scrofula 502 

Sedative  lotions 414 

Serpent’s  bite 430 

Shaving  cream 519 

Shaving  mixture 519 

Shaving  soap,  Yankee 519 

Sheet,  wet ....415 


INDEX. 


Shen- ttsh. 548 

Shock,  nervous 486 

Shoulder- joint,  dislocations  of 458 

Sick  headache,  charcoal  cure  for 523 

Sick  room,  management  of 413 

Sleep  540 

Small  pox,  malignant 495 

Small  pox,  modified 493 

Soap,  Yankee  shaving 519 

Soothing  syrup 51? 

Sore  nipples 423 

Sore  throat,  clergymen’s 444 

Spasm 497 

Spirits 550 

Spitting  of  blood  432 

Splinters,  thoins,  etc 497 

Splints 465 

Sponge  bath 538 

Stabs",  cuts,  wounds,  etc 509 

Stimulants,  caution  in  the  use  of 419 

Stimulants,  alcoholic 549 

Stimulants,  external  417 

Stings  of  insects,  etc  497 

Stomach  ache  498 

Stomach,  bleeding  from  the 433 

Stone-pock.  500 

Stranguary 501 

Struma  or  scrofula 502 

Suckling. 422 

Sunstroke 502 

Swaim's  vermifuge 517 

Swallowing  foreign  bodies 502 

Sweating  drops 521 

Syrup,  cough 520 

Syrup,  f or  "consumptives  521 

Syrup,  infant’s 517 

Syrup,  soothing 517 

Tea,  h«ef 545 

Teething  fever 451 

Teeth  to  extract  with  little  pain 517 

Tepid  bath 539 

Thorns,  etc 497 

Throat  clergymen's  sore 444 

To  extract  teeth  with  little  pain 517 

To  give  medicine  to  an  infant 518 

Toothache 502 

Tooth  wash 518 

Treatment  of  lying-in  woman 421 

Tremens, delirium  450 

Troches,  Brown’s  bronchial 517 

Turkish  bath 540 

Typhoid  fever 503 

Typhus 505 

XJrine,  incontinence  of 477 

Uterine,  haemorrhages 521,  522 

Vaccination 507 

Vaccination,  mode  of 507 

Vapor  baths 539 

Variola 493 

Vegetables,  fruits,  etc 548 

Venous  haemorrhage 513 

Vermifuge,  Swaim’s 517 

Voice,  loss  of 509 

Vomiting 503 

Vomiting  (in  pregnancy)  488 

XV arts  and  corns 524 

'Viter 546 

Wens,  to  cure  527 

Wet  sheet 415 

Whooping  cough 476 

Wine  febrifuge 520 

Wines 550 

Woman,  treatment  of  the  lying-in 421 

Womb,  falling  of  the 522 


Worm  lozenges 517 

Worms,  intestinal 516 

Wounds  and  bruises,  dressings  for 513 

Wounds,  bruised 510 

Wounds,  contused 509 

Wounds,  cuts  and  stabs 509 

Wounds,  gunshot 512 

Wounds,  haemorrhage  from 514 

Wounds,  incised 509 

Wounds,  lacerated 509 

Wounds,  non-perforaticig 512 

Wounds,  perforating 512 

Wounds,  punctured 509 

Yankee  shaving  soap 519 

Poisons  and  Antidotes . 

Vcid,  carbolic 534 

Acid,  hydro  chloric 534 

Acid,  hydrocyanic. 533 

Acid,  muriatic 534 

Acid,  nitric r3t 

Acid,  oxalic 533 

Acid,  prussic 533 

Acid,  sulphuric 534 

Aconite 528 

Alkalies 537 

Ammonia 537 

Animal  poisons 528 

Antimony 535 

Aquafortis 534 

Arsenic 535 

Belladonna 529 

Blue  vitriol 536 

Butter  of  antimony 535 

Calomel 536 

Cambogia  530 

Carbolic  acid / 534 

Chloride  of  zinc 537 

Copper 536 

Corrosive  sublimate 536 

T>eadly  nightshade 529 

Digitalis  purpurea 529 

Fox-glove 529 

Gamboge 530 

Hellebores,  the 5T0 

Hemlock 5:  0 

Hemp,  Indian 531 

Henbaoe 531 

Hydrochloric  acid 534 

Hyoscyamus 531 

Indian  hemp 531 

^Laburnum . . 531 

Lead.  536 

Lead,  sugar  of 536 

Lead,  white 536 

Meadow  saffron 531 

Mercury 536 

Mineral  poisons 534 

Monkshood 528 

Muriatic  acid 534 

Mushrooms 532 

IVightshade,  deadly 529 

Nitric  acid 534 

Nux  Vomica 532 

Oil  of  Vitriol 534 

Opium 532 

Oxalic  acid 533 


Foisons 528 

Poisons,  animal 528 

Poisons,  mineral 534 


INDEX. 


Poisons,  vegetable 528 

Prussic  acid 533 

Saffron,  meadow 531 

Salt,  spirits  of 534 

Strychnine 53^ 

•Sugar  of  lead 53b 

Sulphuric  acid 534 

Tartar  emetic 535 

Vegetable  poisons 528 

Veraigris “6 

White  lead 53s 

Yew 533 

Zinc,  Chloride  of 53' 

Medicines  «£?  their  Doses. 

Articles  suitable  for  a medicine  chest. 552 

Household. 

,A.lmondcake --678 

Ants,  to  get  rid  of. . . . 592,  694 

Apples  (dried)  pies 667 

Apple  dumpling 6(U 

Apple  pies 667 

Artichokes 6^5 

Atmosp^ereVto  test  purity  of 681 

Uacon,  to  fry  or  boil 633 

Bass,  striped 591 

Beans  and  corn,  succotash ho*. 

Beans  and  pork 635 

Beans,  green 6o2 

Beans,  Lima 653 

Beans,  shelled -65a 

Beans,  string 655 

Bedbugs,  cure  for  6 J3 

Beef 603,  61  < 

Beef  and  onion  stew . .610 

Beef,  bouilli  605 

Beef,  corned. 606 

Beef,  hashed 609 

Beef  heart 609 

Beef,  remains  of  roast 617 

Beef,  soup  with  vegetables 580 

Beef,  spiced 616 

Beefsteaks 610 

Beefsteaks,  fried 610 

Beef,  to  boil  pickled 616 

Beef,  to  choose 607 

Beef  tongue 607 

Beef,  to  roast 611 

Beef,  to  stew 608 

Beef,  to  stew  a round 608 

Beetles,  to  kill 691 

Beets 650 

Berry  pie 669 

Beverages  and  condiments 572 

Birds 620 

Birds,  to  pot 624 

Biscuit,  milk 663 

Biscuit  or  bread  cake .661 

Black  bean  soup 58 1 

Black  fish  stewed 591 

Black  fish,  to  fry 591 

Bluing 693 

Board,  cleaning 682 

Boiled  meats  and  stews 604 

Boiled  or  roast  chickens 620 

Boiling  meats 617 

Brains,  to  make  a dish  of  calf’s 613 

Brass,  to  clean 684,  688 

Bread 657 

Bread,  brown 660 


Bread,  cake  or  biscuit . ...  661 

Bread,  corn 660 

Bread,  graham 658 

Bread-making  and  flour 656 

Bread, rye  .661 

Bread,  to  make  twist .660 

Bread,  wheat  and  Indian 660 

Breakfast,  for 559 

Bride  cake,  rich 677 

Brittania  metal,  to  clean 691 

Bronze,  to  clean 685 

Buns,  common 663 

Cabbage.... ^ ...646 

Cabbage  jelly ^654 

Cabbage,  to  prepare  the 637 

Cake,  icing  for 677 

Cake,  Indian  griddle 661 

Cake,  Johnny 661 

Cake,  loaf 675 

Cake,  molasses  cup 674 

Cake,  plum 676 

Cake,  pound 675 

Cake,  rich  bride 677 

Cake,  soft  gingerbread 674 

Cake,  spice 674 

Cake,  sponge 675 

Cake,  to  ice  or  frost 67? 

Cake,  wedding  676 

Cake,  wine 674 

Cakes 674 

Cakes,  almond 678 

Cakes,  common  cup 675 

Cakes,  currrant  short 678 

Cakes,  drop 676 

Cakes,  flannel 665 

Cakes,  French  tea 676 

Cakes,  griddle  Buckwheat 662 

Cakes,  griddle  Indian 661 

Calf’s  brains,  to  make  a dish  of 613 

Calf’s  head 612,  613 

Calf’s  head-cheese 613 

Calf’s  head  soup 583 

Candlesticks,  to  clean 689 

Canning  and  preserving 679 

Canning,  general  rules  for 68C 

Carpets,  how  to  clean 682 

Carpets,  to  remove  grease  from 682 

Carpets,  to  remove  ink  from 682 

Carrots 648 

Carrots,  old  or  winter 653 

Carrot  pudding 673 

Carving 562 

Cauliflower 646 

Cauliflower,  boiled 654 

Cement  for  glass 692 

Cheese,  calf’s  head 613 

Cherry  pie 6b9 

Chicken,  escalloped 625 

Chicken,  fricassee 625 

Chicken  jelly 626 

Chicken  pie 625 

Chicken  pie  and  rice 625 

Chickens,  jellied 622 

Chickens,  prairie 623 

Chickens,  roast  or  boiled 62C 

Chicken,  stuffing  for 623 

Chicken,  to  boii 623 

Chocolate 57? 

Chops,  veal 614 

Chowder 594 

Clam  chowder 59? 

Clams,  fried  hard  shell 697 

Clams,  hard  shell 596 

Clams,  stewed 596 


INDEX. 


Clams,  to  boil 596 

Clams,  to  boil  soft  shell 596 

Clams,  to  fry  soft  shell 596 

Cloths,  to  clean  floor 683 

Cocoanut  pie 669 

Cod,  baked 589 

Cod,  cold  boiled 588 

Codfish  cakes 588 

Codfish,  dried 587 

Codfish  steaks  fried 588 

Cod,  fresh 588 

Cod,  fresh,  to  boil 588 

Cod,  stewed  salt 587 

Coffee,  cream  and  milk  for 576 

Coffee,  good  New  England 576 

Coffee,  Vienna 576 

Cold  slaw 654 

Cookies 678 

Cookies,  soft 678 

Condiments  and  beverages 572 

Copper,  to  clean 688 

Corned  beef 606 

Corn  beef,  to  boil  salted  or 636 

Corn,  green 653,655 

Corn  green,  fritters 655 

Corn  oysters 653 

Corn  pudding 655 

Corn  soup 583 

Crabs,  to  boil 595 

Crabs,  to  choose 595 

Cream  and  milk  for  coffee. 576 

Crickets,  to  kill 691 

Crullers  and  doughnuts 664 

Crust,  plain  pie 666 

Crust,  tart 666 

Currant  short  cake 678 

Curtains,  to  clean 688 

Custard  pie 669 

[Dining  room,  the 555 

Dinner  table,  the 561 

Doughnuts 664 

Doughnuts,  to  fry  and  crullers 664 

Duck,  canvass-back 629 

Duck,  roast 620 

Duck,  to  choose 628 

Dumpling,  apple 670 

Dyeing 694 

Dyeing,  black 694,  697 

Dyeing,  blue  on  cotton  or  linen 697 

Dyeing,  blue,  quick  process 695 

Dyeing,  chrome  black  for  woolen  goods.694 

Dyeing,  crimson  .1 698 

Dyeing,  dark  colors 696 

Dyeing,  green 697,  698 

Dyeing,  green,  on  wool  or  silk 695 

Dyeing,  green,  with  oak  bark. . . 695 

Dyeing,  madder  red 695 

Dyeing,  orange 696 

Dyeing,  pink 696 

Dyeing  purple 096 

Dyeing,  red 69! 

Dyeing,  scarlet  with  cochineal 696 

Dyeing,  silver  drab 696 

Dyeing,  snuff  brown,  dark 695 

Dyeing,  stocking  yarn  or  wool 695 

Dyeing,  wine  color 695 

lyeing.  yellow 69!' 

JSelB 592 

Eels,  fried 593 

Egg  plant 651 

Eggs  and  ham  fried 635 

Eggs  and  ham  omelet 641 

Eggs  baked 641 

Egg  omelet 641 


Eggs  poached 642 

Eggs  sur  le  Plat 642 

Eggs,  to  boil 641 

Eggs,  to  choose 640 

English  breakfast  or  Oolong  tea 577 

Fish 585 

Fish,  baked  cod 589 

Fish,  black,  stewed 591 

Fish,  black  to  fry 591 

Fish,  cold  boiled  cod 588 

Fish,  dried  cod 587 

Fish,  fresh  cod 588 

Fish,  fresh  cod  to  boil 588 

Fish,  shell 594 

Fish,  stewed  fresh  cod 587 

Fish,  to  broil 586 

Fish,  to  fry  or  broil  properly 586 

Flannel  cakes 665 

Flannel,  colored,  to  wash 692 

Flannel,  to  wash  without  shrinking 692 

Flies 691 

Flour  and  bread  making 656 

French  polish 687 

Grame  and  poultry 618 

Gilt,  to  clean 685 

Gilding,  to  clean 691 

Gingerbread  soft,  molasses 674 

Gingerbread  without  eggs 674 

Ginger  pudding 672 

Glass,  to  clean 683 

Good  New  England  coffee 576 

Goose,  roast 626 

Goose,  to  choose 626 

Graham  bread 658 

Grease  spots,  to  remove 681 

Green  peas 651 

Greens  and  sprouts  650 

Griddle  cakes,  buckwheat 662 

Griddle  cakes,  buckwheat,  to  bake 663 

Griddle  cakes,  Indian 661 

Guest,  duties  of 571 


Haddock 

Halibut 

Halibut,  to  boil 

Ham  and  eggs,  fried 

Ham  boiled 

Ham  fried,  and  poached  eggs. 

Ham,  glazed 

Ham  gravv 

Ham  omelet 

Ham,  to  bake 

Ham,  to  boil 

Ham,  to  broil 

Ham,  to  fry 

Hashed  beef 

Heart,  beef,  baked  or  roabted 

Herrings 

Host,  duties  of 

Household 

Ice  cream  and  ices,  freezing. 

Ice  cream  of  cream 

Ice  cream  with  eggs  

Iced  tea 

Icing  for  cakes,  to  make 

Indian  muffins 

Ink,  to  remove 

Iron,  to  clean 

Japanned  waiters  to  clean  . . 

Jelly,  cabbage 

IiJdneys,  beef 

Kitchen,  the.  

Knives  and  forks,  to  clean. . . 


.589 

.591 

.591 

.635 

.632 

.635 

.618 

.634 

.641 

.618 

.632 


.609 

609 

594 

,569 

.553 

679 

679 

.679 

.577 

.677 

.664 

.692 

.685 


.685 

654 


INDEX. 


Lamb,  boiled.  

Lamb  quarter,  roasted 638 

Lamb,  quarter,  to  prepare  for  broiling. 638 

Lamb,  stewed  with  peas 638 

Lamb,  to  broil  a breast  of .637 

Lamb,  to  choose 637 

Leg  of  pork,  to  boil 633 

Lemon  pie 668 

Lima  beans 653 

Lirer,  beef 608 

Lobster  salad  595 

Lobsters,  to  choose 594 

Lobsters,  to  boil 595 

Loin,  to  roast 

Looking  glasses  to  clean 

Mlacaroni 645 

Mackerel,  dried 593 

Mackerel,  fresh 593 

Mackerel,  salt  or  dressed 593 

Matting,  to  clean 683 

Mahogany,  to  clean 687 

Marble,  to  clean 684 

Marrow  pudding 673 

Meats 603 

Meats,  boiling 617 

Meats,  boiled  and  stewed 604 

Mice  to  drive  away 694 

Mildew,  to  remove 693 

Milk  and  cream  for  coffee 576, 

Mince  pie 667 IQg,  to  bake  ... 

Mint  vinegar 602  £*ke  or  pickerel 


607 Pancakes,  rice.,,, rrk 

Parlor,  the .*.’**.**557 

Parsnip  stew 637 

Partridges  and  quail 623 

£astry 1666 

Pea  soup 584 

Pepper,  vinegar !!!.’!"!’.!!.'  602 

Perch 

Pie  crust .*!."!  666 

Pie,  cherry  and  berry 669 

Pie,  cocoanut 669 

Pie,  custard ” *669 

Pie,  dried-apple . . . . . . . . . . . .%7 

Pie,  grandmother’s  apple " .667 

Pie,  lemon 668 

Pie,  mince,  rich 667 

Pie,  orange 669 

Pie,  pie-plant 669 

Pie,  pumpkin 669 

Pie,  rich  mince 667 

Pie,  squash  or  pumpkin 668 

Pie,  strawberry 669 

Pie,  sweet  potato 668 

Pies 7 666 

Pickled  beef,  to  boil 616 

Pigeons  <•  cook 624 

Pig’s  check... 633 

Pig’s  feet  soused 4i,.632 

* ’ 631 

594 


Miscellaneous  recipes. 681  Piate,  to  clean 689 

Mock  turtle  soup,  perfect 580  Plum  cake 676 

” ’ ’ Plum  pudding,  any  day 671 

Plum  pudding,  English 671 

Poundcake 675 

Pork 604,  630 

Pork  and  beans 635 

Pork  chops,  steaks  and  cutlets 633 

Pork,  salt,  to  fry  or  broil 633 

Pork  sausages 630 

Pork,  sparerib 680 

Pork,  tenderloin 631 

Pork,  to  boil  leg  of 633 

Pork,  to  broil 633 

Potato  puffs 647 

Potatoes 643 

Potatoes,  browned 644 

Potatoes,  cream 644 

Potatoes,  creaming .647 

Potatoes,  fried 647 

Potatoes,  fritters 648 

Potatoes,  hashed 649 

Patatoes,  mashed 648 

Patatoes,  Saratoga 64? 

Potatoes,  snow • 644 

Potatoes,  sweet 649 

Potatoes,  sweet,  roasted 649 

Potatoes,  sweet,  to  bake 649 

Potatoes,  sweet,  to  boil 649 

Poultry 604 

Poultry  and  game 618 

Poultry,  dressing  for 619 

Poultry,  to  clean 618 

Preserving  and  canning 679 

Puddings 670 

Pudding  batter,  boiled  or  baked 671 

Pudding,  carrot 671 

Pudding,  cheap  apple 673 

Pudding,  cottage 672 

Pudding,  carrot 673 

Pudding,  ginger 673 

Pudding,  marrow 672 

Pudding,  plum,  any  day 673 

Pudding,  olum.  English 671 


Molasses  cup  cakes 674 

Muffins 663 

Muffins,  Indian  meal 662 

Muffins,  rice 664 

Mutton 604 

Mutton,  boiled 607 

Mutton,  breast  of  to  broil 640 

Mutton  chop  fried 

Mutton,  haunch  of 639 

Mutton,  leg  of  boiled 640 

Mutton,  observations  on 639 

Mutton,  shoulder  of 640 

New  England  coffee 576 

Omelet,  egg 641 

Omelet,  ham 641 

Onion  and  beef  stew 610 

Onions 654 

Oolong  tea 577 

Orange  pie 

Oyster  fritters . 597 

Oyster  patties 600 

Oyster  plant 647 

Oyster  pie 599 

Oysters 597 

Oysters  and  chicken  croquettes 600 

Oysters  broiled 598 

Oysters  broiled  on  the  shell 599 

Oysters  fricasseed 599 

Oysters  fried 598 

Oysters  griddled 598 

Oysters,  mock  or  fried  salsify 647 

Oysters,  panned 598 

Oysters,  pickled 600 

Osyters,  scalloped 600 

Oyster  soup 584,  585 

Oysters,  to  fry  with  batter. 599 

Oysters,  to  stew 598 

I»aint,  to  clean 681 

Paint,  to  remove  from  wood 685 

Paint  spots 643 

Pancakes 665 


INDEX. 


Pudding,  rice 

Pudding,  steamed  graham  bread, 

Pudding,  tapioca 

Pudding,  whortleberry 

Pumpkin  pie 

Quail 

Quail  on  toast 

Recipes 

Remarks 

Rice 

Rice  and  chicken  pie 

Rice  pancakes 

Rice  Puddings 

Round  of  beef,  to  stew 

Roux,  to  make  a 

Rusk,  tea 

Rust,  to  remove 

Ruta  baga 

Rye  bread 

Salads 

Salads  and  sauces 

Salad,  chicken 

Salads,  dressing  for 

Salmon 

Salmon,  boiled 

Salmon,  broiled 

Salmon,  salt 

Salmon,  spiced 

Salsify  fried,  or  mock  oysters. . . 

Sauce,  bread 

Sauce,  celery 

Sauce,  Chili 

Sauce,  cranberry 

Sauce,  Dutch 

Sauce,  egg 

Sauce,  horseradish 

Sauce,  mint 

Sauce,  mushroom 

Sauce,  oyster 

Sauces  and  salads 

Sauces,  to  serve  with  roast  pork. 

Sauce,  tomato 

Sauce,  white  

Sausage  meat 

Seasoning 

Scorches,  to  remove 

Shad 

Shad,  baked 

Shad,  broiled 

Shad,  fried 

Shellfish 

Silk  dresses,  to  clean 

Silver,  to  take  stains  out  of 

Soups 

Soup,  beef,  with  vegetables 

Soup,  black  bean 

Soup,  calf’s  head 

Soup,  corn 

Soup,  oyster 

Soup, pea 

Soup,  perfect  mock  turtle 

Soup,  summer  or  winter  corn 

Soup,  tomato 

Soup,  to  season  the 

Soup,  turkey 

Soyer’s  cafe  aulait 

Spinach 

Sponge  cakes 

Sprouts  and  greens 

Squash  pie 

Squash,  summer 

Squash,  winter.  

Stains,  grass,  to  remove 

Stains,  iron  rust,  to  remove 


....672 
....673 
....671 
...673 
....669 
....623 
....624 
....580 
....559 
..  644 
. . . .625 
....665 
....672 
....608 
....601 
....663 
....683 
....650 
. ..661 
....665 
....601 
....665 
....666 
...591 
...592 
'...592 
....592 
....592 
....647 
....601 
....601 
....602 
....602 
....603 
...,602 
....603 
....602 
....603 
....602 
....601 
....631 
....602 
....603 
....630 
....577 
....693 
....589 
....591 
....589 
. . . .589 
....594 
....693 
....690 
....580 
....580 
....584 
....583 
....583 
....584 
....584 
..580 
....583 
....584 
....582 
....583 
....576 
651,655 
....675 
....650 
....668 
....650 
....650 


Stair  rods,  to  clean 689 

Starch 692 

Steaks,  beef 610 

Steaks,  fried * ’ " [ ' 6io 

Steel,  to  clean * " ” * * 685 

Stock  and  seasoning " ' 577 

Strawberry  pie ” ” 669 

Straw  matting,  to  clean ! . ! 683 

Succotash !".!.!  636 

Summer  and  winter  corn  soup 583 

Sweet  breads,  broiled 643 

Sweet  breads,  roasted ’ ’ ’ ” ^643 

Sweet  breads,  stewed " ' * * * 642 

Sweet  breads,  veal 642 

Sweet  potato  pie  or  pudding ”” . ^668 

Tables,  to  polish 686 

Tapioca  pudding *.!”!.* 671 

Tart  crust 666 

Tea '.'.'.”'.'.'.'.'.'.577 

Tea,  English  breakfast  or  Ooiong. . . . 577 

Tea,  iced ’577 

Tea  rusk 661 

Tenderloin,  pork. . : * * ’ * ' 631 

Tins,  to  clean *688 

Tomato  soup ” ” . . .584 

Tomatoes,  stewed * 645 , 656 

Tongue,  boiled ..607 

To  clean  silk  dresses 693 

To  prevent  blue  fabrics  from  fading. . .693 

To  remove  grass  stains 692 

To  remove  iron  rust  stains 692 

To  remove  mildew ^693 

To  remove  scorches ! !693 

To  season  the  soup 533 

To  wash  colored  flannels 692 

To  wash  flannel  without  shrinking  it.  .692 

Tripe,  to  fry 608 

Trout 594 

Turkey  and  chicken  stuffling 623 

Turkey,  boiled 620 

Turkey,  boned 621 

Turkey,  escalloped 623 

Turkey,  roast 619 

Turkey,  soup 583 

Turkey,  to  boil 623 

Turnips,  young. 649 

Veal 612 

Veal  and  potato  pie 616 

Veal,  boiled 607 

Veal  chops 614 

"Veal,  hashed  615 

Veal  pie  616 

Veal  stewed  with  vegetables 614 

Yeal  sweet  breads 642 

Veal,  to  broil 612 

Veal,  to  roast 615 

Vegetables 643 

Venison 629 

Venison  steak,  fried 629 

Vienna  coffee 576 

"W all  papers,  to  clean 681 

Water,  t6  preserve  fresh 692 

Wedding  cake 676 

Whortleberry  pudding 673 

Wine  cakes 674 

Wood  furniture 686 

Yeast  656 

Yeast,  hop 659 

Yeast,  old  school  Presbyterian 659 

Domestic  Pets . 

Birds 703 

Canaries 709 


INDEX. 


T>omestic  pets  699 

Dormouse 701 

Doves 719 

Goldfinch 706 

Mice 703 

TVestlings 705 

Nightingale,  Virginian 717 

Parrots 717 

Pete,  domestic 699 

Squirrel 699 

"Virginian  Nightingale 717 

Legal  Points, 

A.rticles  of  agreement 721 

Attorney,  power  of 737 

Bill  of  sale  of  personal  property 737 

Bills  of  sale 721 

Building  contract  short 737 

Chattel  mortgages 721 

“ “ with  power  of  sale.  .739 

Contract,  building 737 

J>eeds  ,,722 


Exemptions  from  forced  sales 727 

Eorm  of  will 741 

Forms  of  notes 735 

Landlord  and  tenant 723 

Legal  points 721 

Mortgage  deed,  sale  and  release 740 

Mortgage  of  personal  property 738 

Mortgages,  chattel 721 

Mortgages, chattel, with  power  of  sale.. 739 

IVotes,  forms  of 735 

Partnerships 724 

Personal  property,  bill  of  sale 737 

Personal  property,  mortgage 738 

Points,  legal...... .... 721 

Power  of  attorney 737 

Sale,  bills  of 721 

Sales,  exemptions  from 727 

Tenant  and  landlord  723 

"Will,  form  of  741 

Wills 722 

Useful  Tables 74a 


THE  HORSE  FAIR.3 


I 


THE  E^RM. 


Manures. — In  their  broadest  sense,  manures  embrace  every 
material,  which,  if  added  to  the  soil,  tends  to  its  fertilization. 
They  are  appropriately  divided  into  organic  and  inorganic  : 
the  first  embracing  animal  and  vegetable  substances  which 
have  an  appreciable  quantity  of  nitrogen  ; the  last  compre- 
hending only  such  as  are  purely  mineral  or  earthy,  and  which 
in  general  contain  no  nitrogen.  These  characteristics  are 
sometimes  partially  blended,  but  they  are  sufficiently  distinct 
for  classification. 

Much  pertinacity  has  been  exhibited  by  some  highly  intelli- 
gent minds,  who  should  have  entertained  more  liberal  views, 
as  to  the  peculiar  kinds  of  manures  necessary  to  support  a 
satisfactory  productiveness.  We  have  seen  that  Tull  main- 
tained that  the  deepening  and  thorough  pulverization  of  the 
soil  was  alone  sufficient  to  secure  perfect  fertility.  But  this 
crude  notion,  it  is  evident  to  the  most  superficial  modern 
reader,  is  wholly  untenable.  Some  agriculturists  of  the  pres- 
ent day,  however,  while  they  scout  at  the  theory  of  Tull,  (who 
was  really  a shrewd  man  for  his  day,)  will  yet  claim  as  essen- 
1 


34 


THE  FARM. 


tial  to  successful  vegetation,  the  existence  in  the  soil  of  but  a 
part  only  of  the  food  of  plants.  Thus,  one  asserts  that  the 
salts  alone  will  secure  good  crops  ; others  maintain  that  the 
nitrogenous  substances  are  the  true  source  of  fertility  ; while 
still  another  class  refer  to  the  presence  of  humus  or  geine  (the 
available  product  of  vegetable  and  animal  decay  in  the  soil)  as 
the  only  valuable  foundation  of  vegetable  nutriment  in  all 
manures.  Truth  and  sound  practice  lie  between,  or  rather  in 
the  combination  of  all  these  opinions. 

It  is  obvious  that  such  principles  as  all  fertile  soils  furnish 
to  vegetables  must  be  contained  in  manures.  It  is  no  satis- 
factory answer  to  this  position  to  assert  that  numerous  experi- 
ments have  apparently  been  successful,  of  growing  plants  in 
pure  sand  and  water  ; or  with  charcoal  and  the  salts  added  ; 
or  even  that  there  are  some  atmospheric  plants  that  fulfill 
their  zoophytic  existence  in  air.  Growth  may  continue  for  a 
long  time  under  such  circumstances  ; but  full  maturity  never 
arrives,  and  probably  never  can,  without  the  available  presence 
in  the  soil  of  every  element  which  enters  into  the  composition 
of  plants. 

Profitable  farming  requires  that  manures  embodying  all 
these  elements  should  be  added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  the 
soil,  to  develop  fully  and  rapidly  such  crops  as  are  sought 
from  it.  It  becomes,  then,  a matter  of  the  highest  conse- 
quence to  the  farmer  to  understand,  not  only  what  substances 
may  be  useful  as  manures,  but  also  how  to  apply  them  in  the 
best  manner  to  his  crops  so  far  as  they  may  be  made  profitable. 

Superphosphate  of  Lime. — Take  a large  tub,  or  barrel, 
and  put  into  it  ioo  lbs.  water  ; add,  very  slowly  and  cautiously, 
43  lbs.  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  ; you  must  be  very  careful  while 
handling  this  article  not  to  let  it  touch  your  skin  or  clothing, 
as  it  will  instantly  blacken  the  skin,  and  destroy  the  clothing, 
wherever  it  comes  in  contact ; and,  when  mixed  with  water,  it 
engenders  a very  intense  heat.  Into  this  mixture  throw  ioo 
lbs.  weight  of  bones,  no  matter  how  old  or  useless  they  may 
be. , The  sulphuric  acid  instantly  attacks  and  enters  into  com- 
bination with  the  bones,  reducing  them  to  a pasty  consistency, 
and  completely  dissolving  them.  Keep  under  cover,  and 
turn  them  over  occasionally,  while  the  process  is  going  on  ; 


THE  FARM. 


35 


and,  when  completed,  dump  out  the  whole  contents  on  the 
barn  floor  or  on  a platform  of  boards,  and  thoroughly  work 
into  the  mass  four  times  its  bulk  of  dry  bog  earth  or  dry  road 
dust ; mix  and  pulverize  completely  with  a wooden  shovel. 
The  bog  earth  acts  as  an  absorbent,  or  dryer,  retaining  the  fer- 
tilizing properties  of  the  compound,  and  rendering  it  easy  of 
uniform  distribution.  If  whole  bones  are  used,  it  will  take  six 
or  eight  weeks  to  dissolve  them  ; if  they  are  broken  with  an 
axe,  they  will  dissolve  in  about  three  weeks  ; if  they  are  ground 
in  a bone  mill,  four  days  will  be  sufficient.  This  manure  is 
the  most  powerful  fertilizer  in  existence  ; and,  when  made  by 
these  directions,  it  is  the  cheapest,  as  one  ton  is  equal  to  thirty- 
two  tons  of  barn-yard  manure.  For  top  dressing  grass  lands, 
use  300  lbs.  per  acre  ; for  corn,  potatoes,  beans,  turnips,  &c., 
apply  450  lbs.  per  acre  in  the  drill,  mixing  with  the  soil ; for 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  or  barley,  400  lbs.  per  acre,  harrowing  in  with 
the  seed  ; for  buckwheat,  300  lbs.  per  acre. 

Home-made  Guano  of  Unequalled  Excellence. — 
Save  all  your  fowl  manure  from  sun  and  rain.  To  prepare  it 
for  use,  spread  a layer  of  dry  swamp  muck  (the  blacker  it  is 
the  better)  on  your  barn  floor,  and  dump  on  it  the  whole  of 
your  fowl  manure  ; beat  it  into  a fine  powder  with  the  back  of 
your  spade  ; this  done,  add  hard  wood  ashes  and  plaster  of 
Paris,  so  that  the  compound  shall  be  composed  of  the  follow- 
ing proportions  : Dried  muck,  three  bushels  ; fowl  manure, 
two  bushels  ; ashes,  one  bushel ; plaster,  one  and  one-half 
bushels  ; mix  thoroughly,  and  spare  no  labor  ; for  in  this  mat- 
ter the  elbow  grease  expended  will  be  well  paid  for.  A little 
before  planting  moisten  the  heap  with  water,  or,  better  still, 
with  urine,  cover  well  over  with  old  mats  and  let  it  lie  till 
wanted  for  use.  Apply  it  to  beans,  corn,  or  potatoes  at  the 
rate  of  a handful  to  a hill,  and  mix  with  the  soil  before  drop- 
ping the  seed.  This  will  be  found  the  best  substitute  for 
guano  ever  invented,  and  may  be  depended  on  for  bringing 
great  crops  of  turnips,  corn,  potatoes,  &c. 

To  DISSOLVE  LARGE  BONES  FOR  MANURE  WITHOUT  EX- 
PENSE.— Take  any  old  flour-barrel,  and  put  into  the  bottom  a 
layer  of  hardwood  ashes  ; put  a layer  of  bones  on  the  top  of 
the  ashes,  filling  the  space  between  the  bones  with  them  ; then 


THE  FARM. 


56 

add  bones  and  ashes  alternately,  finishing  off  with  a thick 
layer  of  ashes.  When  your  barrel  is  filled,  pour  on  water 
(urine  is  better),  just  sufficient  to  keep  them  wet,  but  do  not  on 
any  account  suffer  it  to  leach  one  drop  ; for  that  would  be 
like  leaching  your  dungheap.  In  the  course  of  time  they  will 
heat,  and  eventually  soften  down  so  that  you  can  crumble 
them  with  your  finger.  When  sufficiently  softened,  dump  them 
out  of  the  barrel  on  a heap  of  dry  loam,  and  pulverize  and 
crumble  them  up  till  they  are  completely  amalgamated  into  one 
homogeneous  mat>s  with  the  loam,  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
handled  and  distributed  whenever  required.  You  may  rely  on 
it,  this  manure  will  leave  its  mark,  and  show  good  results  wher- 
ever it  is  used. 

How  to  Double  the  usual  Quantity  of  Manure  on 
a Farm. — Provide  a good  supply  of  black  swamp  mould  or 
loam  from  the  woods  within  easy  reach  of  your  stable,  and 
place  a layer  of  this,  one  foot  thick,  under  each  horse,  with 
litter,  as  usual,  on  the  top  of  the  loam  or  mould.  Remove  the 
droppings  of  the  animal  every  day,  but  let  the  loam  remain 
for  two  weeks ; then  remove  it,  mixing  it  with  other  manure, 
and  replace  with  fresh  mould.  By  this  simple  means  any  far- 
mer can  double,  not  only  the  quantity,  but  also  the  quality,  of 
his  manure,  and  never  feel  himself  one  penny  the  poorer  by 
the  trouble  or  expense  incurred,  while  the  fertilizing  value  of 
the  ingredients  absorbed  and  saved  by  the  loam  can  scarcely 
be  estimated. 

Josiah  Quincy,  jun.,  h:.s  been  very  successful  in  keeping 
cattle  in  stables  the  year  through,  and  feeding  them,  by  means 
of  soiling.  The  amount  of  manure  thus  made  had  enabled 
him  to  improve  the  fertility  of  a poor  farm  of  ioo  acres,  so 
that  in  twenty  years  the  hay  crop  had  increased  from  20  tons 
to  300.  The  cattle  are  kept  in  well  arranged  stables,  and  are 
let  out  into  the  yard  an  hour  or  two  morning  and  afternoon  ; 
but  they  generally  appear  glad  to  return  to  their  quarters.  By 
this  process,  one  acre  enables  him  to  support  three  or  four 
cows.  They  are  fed  on  grass,  green  oats,  corn  fodder,  barley, 
&c.,  which  are  sown  at  intervals  through  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer months  to  be  cut  as  required  ; but  he  remarks  that  his 
most  valuable  crop  is  his  manure  crop.  Each  cow  produces 


THE  FARM. 


S? 


^1-2  cords  of  solid,  and  3 cords  of  liquid,  manure,  or  6 1-2 
cords  in  all.  He  uses  twice  as  much  muck  to  mix  with  it, 
, making  20  cords  in  all.  Five  to  8 miles  from  Boston,  such 
j?  manure  is  worth  five  to  eight  dollars  a cord.  From  this  esti- 
mate, he  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a cow’s  manure  may- 
be made  as  valuable  as  her  mi'lk 


Twenty  Dollars’  Worth  of  Manure  for  almost 
Nothing. — If  you  have  any  dead  animal,  say,  for  instance,  the 
body  of  a horse,  do  not  suffer  it  to  pollute  the  atmosphere  by 
drawing  it  away  to  the  woods,  or  any  other  out  of  the  way 
place,  but  remove  it  a short  distance  only  from  your  premises, 
and  put  down  four  or  five  loads  of  muck  or  sods,  place  the  car- 
cass thereon,  sprinkle  it  over  with  quick-lime,  and  cover 
over  immediately  with  sods  or  mould  sufficient  to  make,  with 
what  had  been  previously  added,  20  good  wagon  loads,  and 
you  will  have  within  twelve  months  a pile  of  manure  worth  $20 
for  any  crop  you  choose  to  put  it  upon.  Use  a proportionate 
quantity  of  mould  for  smaller  animals,  but  never  less  than 
twenty  good  wagon  loads  for  a horse  ; and,  if  any  dogs  mani- 
fest too  great  a regard  for  the  enclosed  carcass,  shoot  them  on 
the  spot. 

Fish  Compost,  Substitute  for  Bone-Dust.  Manure 
from  Fish  Refuse,  &c. — The  fish  owes  its  fertilizing  value 
to  the  animal  matter  and  bone  earth  which  it  contains.  The 
former  is  precisely  similar  to  flesh  or  blood,  consisting  of  25 
per  cent,  of  fibrin,  the  rest  being  water  ; and  their  bones  are 
similar  in  composition  to  terrestrial  animals.  As  fertilizing 
agents,  therefore,  the  bodies  of  fish  will  act  nearly  in  the  same 
way  as  the  bodies  and  blood  of  animals  ; 100  lbs.  in  decaying 
produce  21-2  lbs.  of  ammonia.  Hence,  400  lbs.  of  fish  rotted 
in  compost  are  enough  for  an  acre.  The  great  effect  is  due  to 
the  ammoniacal  portion  ; for  it  renders  the  herbage  dark  green, 
and  starts  it  very  rapidly.  One  of  the  best  composts  is  made 
as  follows  : Dried  bog  earth,  loam,  or  peat,  seven  barrels  ; 
hardwood  ashes,  two  barrels  ; fish,  one  barrel  ; slacked  lime, 
one  bushel.  Place  a thick  layer  of  the  bog  earth  on  the  bot- 
tom ; on  the  top  of  this  put  a layer  of  the  fish,  then  a sprink- ' 
ling  of  lime,  then  a layer  of  ashes  ; on  top  of  the  ashes  put  a 
thick  layer  of  bog  earth,  loam,  or  peat ; then  another  thin 


38 


THE  FARM. 


layer  of  fish,  lime,  and  ashes,  and  so  on  till  your  materials  are 
worked  in  ; then  top  off  with  a thick  layer  of  the  absorbents 
to  retain  the  fertilizing  gases.  The  decomposition  of  the  fish 
will  proceed  very  rapidly,  and  a very  rich  compost  will  be  the 
result.  It  should  be  shoveled  over  and  over,  and  thoroughly 
intermixed  and  pulverized.  Put  this  on  so  as  to  have  400  lbs. 
of  fish  to  the  acre.  It  may  be  applied  with  the  greatest  bene- 
fit to  corn,  turnips,  potatoes,  beans,  &c..  in  the  drill,  and 
broad-cast  on  the  grass. 

Ashes  from  Soil  by  Spontaneous  Combustion. — Make 
your  mound  2t  feet  long  by  10  1-2  feet  wide.  To  fire,  use  72 
bushels  of  lime.  First  a layer  of  dry  sods  or  parings  on  which 
a quantitv  of  lime  is  spread,  mixing  sods  with  it,  then  a cover- 
ing of  eight  inches  of  sods,  on  which  the  other  half  of  the  lime 
is  sp’iead,  and  covered  a foot  thick,  the  height  of  the  mound 
being  about  a yard.  In  twenty-four  hours  it  will  take  fire. 
The  lime  should  be  fresh  from  the  kiln.  It  is  better  to  suffer 
it  to  ignite  itself  than  to  effect  it  by  the  operation  of  water. 
When  the  fire  is  fairly  kindled,  fresh  sods  must  be  applied, 
but  get  a good  body  of  ashes  in  the  first  place.  I think  it  may 
be  fairly  supposed  that  the  lime  adds  full  its  worth  to*  the 
quality  of  the  ashes,  and  when  limestone  can  be  got  I would 
advise  the  burning  a small  quantity  in  the  mounds,  which 
would  be  a great  improvement  to  the  ashes,  and  would  help  to 
keep  the  fire  in. 

Substitute  for  Barn  Manure. — Dissolve  a bushel  of 
salt  in  water  enough  to  slack  5 or  6 bushels  of  lime.  The  best 
rule  for  preparing  the  compost  heap  is,  1 bushel  of  this  lime  to 
1 load  of  swamp  muck  intimately  mixed,  though  3 bushels  to 
5 loads  makes  a very  good  manure.  In  laying  up  the  heap  let 
the  layers  of  muck  and  lime  be  thin,  so  that  decomposition 
may  be  more  rapid  ancLcomplete.  When  lime  cannot  be  got, 
use  unleached  ashes,  3 or  4 bushels  to  a ccyrd  of  muck.  In  a 
month  or  six  weeks  overhaul  and  work  over  the  heap,  when  it 
will  be  ready  for  use.  Sprinkle  the  salt  water  on  the  lime  as 
the  heap  goes  up. 

Ashes  may  be  pronounced  the  best  of  the  saline  manures. 
They  are  also  among  the  most  economical ; as,  from  our  free 
use  of  fuel,  they  are  largely  produced  by  almost  every  house- 


THE  FARM. 


39 


hold.  Good  husbandry  dictates  that  not  a pound  of  ashes 
should  be  wasted,  but  all  should  be  saved  and  applied  to  the 
land  ; and,  where  they  can  be  procured  at  a reasonable  price, 
they  should  be  purchased  for  manure.  Leached  ashes,  though 
less  valuable,  contain  all  the  elements  of  the  unleached,  having 
been  deprived  only  of  a part  of  their  potash  and  soda.  They 
may  be  drilled  into  the  soil  with  roots  and  grain,  sown  broad- 
cast on  meadows  or  pastures,  or  mixed  with  the  muck  heap. 
They  improve  all  soils  not  already  saturated  with  the  princi- 
ples which  they  contain. 

The  quantity  of  ashes  that  should  be  applied  to  the  acre 
must  depend  on  the  soil  and  crops  cultivated.  Potatoes,  tur- 
nips and  all  roots — clover,  lucern,  peas,  beans,  and  the  grasses, 
are  great  exhausters  of  the  salts,  and  they  are  consequently 
much  benefited  by  ashes.  They  are  used  with  decided  advan- 
tage for  the  above  crops  in  connection  with  bone  dust  ; and 
for  clover,  peas  and  roots,  their  effects  are  much  enhanced 
when  mixed  with  gypsum.  Light  soils  should  have  a smaller, 
and  rich  lands  or  clays,  a heavier,  dressing.  From  twelve  to 
fifteen  bushels  per  acre  for  the  former,  and  thirty  for  the  lat- 
ter, is  not  too  much  ; or,  if  they  are  leached,  the  quantity  may 
be  increased  one-half,  as  they  act  with  less  energy.  Repeated 
dressings  of  ashes,  like  those  of  lime  and  gypsum,  without  a 
corresponding  addition  of  vegetable  or  barnyard  manures,  will 
eventually  exhaust  tillage  lands. 

Salt. — As  a manure,  salt  was  extensively  used  by  the  an- 
cients, and  has  ever  since  been  employed  by  intelligent  agri- 
culturists. On  some  soils  it  yields  no  apparent  benefit.  Such 
as  are  near  the  sea-coast,  and  occasionally  receive  deposits 
from  the  salt  spray,  which  is  often  carried  far  inland  by  the 
ocean  storms  ; or  such  as  contain  chlorine  and  soda  in  any 
other  forms,  are  not  affected  by  it.  But  in  other  situations, 
when  used  at  the  rate  of  three  to  sixteen  bushels  per  acre,  the 
crops  of  grains,  roots  or  grasses  have  been  increased  from  20 
to  50  per  cent.  It  may  be  applied  in  minute  portions  in  the 
hill,  or  scattered  broadcast,  or  mixed  with  the  muck  heap.  Its 
great  affinity  for  water  has  the  effect,  like  that  of  gypsum,  of 
attracting  dews  and  atmospheric  vapor  to  the  growing  vegeta- 
tion, by  which  it  is  supplied  with  moisture  in  a period  of 


40 


THE  FARM. 


drought,  much  beyond  what  is  conveyed  to  such  as  are  desti- 
tute of  these  manures.  Salt  is  also  useful  in  destroying  slugs, 
worms  and  larvae,  which  frequently  do  much  injury  to  the 
crops. 

Old  Lime  Plaster,  from  Walls  of  Buildings,  Etc. — 
For  meadows,  and  for  most  other  crops,  especially  on  clays 
and  loams,  this  is  worth  twice  its  weight  in  hay  ; as  it  will 
produce  a large  growth  of  grass  for  years  in  succession,  with- 
out other  manure.  But  the  farmer  cannot  too  carefully  remem- 
ber that  with  this,  as  with  all  other  saline  manures,  but  a part 
of  the  ingredients  only  is  thus  supplied  to  vegetables  ; and, 
without  the  addition  of  the  others,  the  soil  will  sooner  or  later 
become  exhausted. 

Barn- yard  Manure. — The  bulk,  solubility  and  peculiar 
tendency  to  fermentation  of  barn-yard  manure,  renders  it  a 
matter  of  no  little  study  so  to  arrange  it  as  to  preserve  all  its 
good  qualities  and  apply  it  undiminished  to  the  soil.  A part 
of  the  droppings  of  the  cattle  are  necessarily  left  in  the  pas- 
tures, or  about  the  stacks  where  they  are  fed';  though  it  is 
better,  for  various  reasons,  that  they  should  never  receive  their 
food  from  the  stack.  The  manure  thus  left  in  the  fields  should 
be  beaten  up  and  scattered  with  light,  long-handled  mallets, 
immediately  after  the  grass  starts  in  the  spring,  and  again  be- 
fore the  rains  in  the  autumn.  With  these  exceptions,  and  the 
slight  waste  which  may  occur  in  driving  cattle  to  and  from  the 
pasture,  all  the  manure  should  be  dropped  either  in  the  stables 
or  in  the  yards.  These  should  be  so  arranged  that  cattle  may 
pass  from  one  directly  into  the  other  ; and  the  yard  should,  if 
possible,  be  furnished  with  wells,  cisterns,  or  running  water. 
There  is  twice  the  value  of  manure  wasted  annually  on  some 
farms  in  sending  the  cattle  abroad  to  water,  that  would  be  re- 
quired to  provide  it  for  them  in  the  yard  for  fifty  years. 

The  premises  where  the  manure  is  dropped  should  be 
kept  as  dry  as  possible  ; and  the  eaves  should  project  several 
feet  beyond  the  side  of  the  building  so  as  to  protect  the 
manure  thrown  out  of  the  stables  from  the  wash  of  rains.  The 
barns  and  all  the  shed'  :hould  have  eave-troughs  to  carry  off 
the  water,  which,  if  saved  in  a sufficiently  capacious  cistern, 
would  furnish  a supply  for  the  cattle.  The  form  of  the  yard 


THE  FARM. 


41 


ought  to  be  dishing  toward  the  center,  and,  if  on  sandy  or 
gravelly  soil,  it  should  be  puddled  or  covered  with  clay  to 
prevent  the  leaking  and  escape  of  the  liquid  manure.  The 
floors  of  the  stables  may  be  so  made  as  to  permit  the  urine  to 
fall  on  a properly  prepared  bed  of  turf  under  them,  where]  it 
would  be  retained  till  removed  ; or  it  should  be  led  off  by 
troughs  into  the  yard  or  to  a muck  heap. 

Value  of  Liquid  Manures. — The  urine  voided  from  a 
single  cow  is  considered  in  Flanders,  where  agricultural  prac- 
tice has  reached  a high  state  of  advancement,  to  be  worth  $10 
per  year.  It  furnishes  nine  hundred  pounds  of  solid  matter, 
and,  at  the  price  of  $50  per  ton,  for  which  guano  is  frequently 
sold,  the  urine  of  a cow  for  one  year  is  worth  $20.  And  yet 
economical  farmers  will  waste  urine  and  buy  guano  ! The 
urine  of  a cow  for  a year  will  manure  one  and  a quarter  acres 
of  land,  and  is  more  valuable  than  its  dung,  in  the  ratio  by 
bulk,  of  seven  to  six  ; and  in  real  value  as  two  to  one.  How 
important,  then,  that  every  particle  of  it  be  carefully  husbanded 
for  the  crops. 

Solid  Animal  Manures. — Of  these  horse  dung  is  the 
richest  and  the  easiest  to  decompose.  If  in  heaps,  fermenta- 
tion will  sometimes  commence  in  twenty-four  hours  ; and  even 
in  midwinter,  if  a large  pile  be  accumulated,  it  will  proceed 
with  great  rapidity  ; and,  if  not  arrested,  a few  weeks,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  are  sufficient  to  reduce  it  to  a small 
part  of  its  original  weight  and  value* 

The  manure  of  sheep  is  rich  and  very  active,  and,  next  to 
that  of  the  horse,  is  the  most  subject  to  heat  and  decomposition. 
The  manure  of  cattle  and  swine,  being  of  a colder  nature,  may 
be  thrown  in  with  that  of  the  horse  and  sheep  in  alternate 
layers.  If  fresh  manure  be  intermixed  with  straw  and  other 
absorbents  (vegetables,  peat,  turf,  etc.,)  and  constantly  added, 
the  recent  coating  will  combine  with  any  volatile  matters  which 
fermentation  develops  in  the  lower  part  of  the  mass.  Frequent 
turning  of  the  manures  is  a practice  attended  with  no  benefit, 
but  with  certainty  of  the  escape  of  much  of  its  valuable  pro- 
perties. Many  farmers  assign  a distinct  o^peculiar  merit  to 
the  different  manures.  Much  of  this  opinion  is  fanciful,  for 
there  is  frequently  more  difference  in  the  comparative  value  of 


42 


THE  FARM. 


that  from  the  same  species,  and  even  the  same  individual,  at 
different  times  and  under  different  circumstances,  than  from 
those  of  different  species. 

Manuring  with  Green  Crops. — This  system  has  within 
a few  years  been  extensively  adopted  in  some  of  the  older  set- 
tled portions  of  the  United  States.  The  comparative  cheap- 
ness of  land  and  its  products,  the  high  price  of  labor,  and  the 
consequent  expense  of  making  artificial  manures,  renders  this 
at  present  the  most  economical  plan  which  can  be  pursued. 
The  object  of  this  practice  is,  primarily,  fertilization  ; and 
connected  with  it,  is  the  clearing  of  the  ground  from  noxious 
weeds,  as  in  fallows,  by  plowing  in  the  vegetation  before  the 
seed  is  ripened  ; and  finally  to  loosen  the  soil  and  place  it  in 
the  mellowest  condition  for  the  crops  which  are  to  succeed. 
Its  results  have  been  entirely  successful,  when  steadily  pursued 
with  a due  consideration  of  the  objects  sought,  and  the  means 
Dy  which  they  are  to  be  accomplished.  Lands  in  many  of  our 
eastern  states,  which  have  been  worn  out  by  improvident  culti- 
vation, and  unsaleable  at  $10  an  acre,  have,  by  this  means, 
while  steadily  remunerating  their  proprietors  for  all  the  outlay 
of  labor  and  expense  by  their  returning  crops,  been  brought 
up  in  value  to  $50. 

Plowing1. — The  time,  the  depth  and  the  manner  of  plow- 
ing must  depend  on  the  crops  to  be  raised,  the  fertility  and 
character  of  the  soil,  and  other  circumstances. 

Plowing  Clay  Lands. — Whenever  practicable,  these 
should  be  plowed  in  the  fall  for  planting  and  sowing  the  ensu- 
ing spring.  The  tenacity  of  the  soil  may  thus  be  temporarily 
broken  up  by  the  winter  frosts,  its  particles  more  thoroughly 
separated,  and  the  whole  mass  reduced  to  a finer  tilth  than 
can  possibly  be  effected  in  any  other  manner. 

The  furrows  of  clay  soils  should  be  turned  over  so  as  to 
lap  on  the  preceding  and  lie  at  an  angle  of  45  and  for  this 
purpose  the  depth  of  the  furrow  slice  should  be  about  two- 
thirds  its  width.  Thus  a furrow  six  inches  deep  should  be 
about  nine  inches  wide,  or,  if  eight  inches  deep,  it  should  be 
twelve  inches  wide.  This  will  allow  of  the  furrows  lying  regu- 
larly and  evenly,  and  in  the  proper  position  for  the  drainage  of 
the  soil,  the  free  circulation  of  air,  and  the  most  efficient  ac- 


THE  FARM. 


43 


tion  of  frosts  which  in  this  way  have  access  to  every  side  of 
them.  Land  thus  thrown  up  is  found  to  be  finely  pulverized 
after  the  frosts  leave  it,  and  it  is  comparatively  dry  and  ready 
for  use  some  time  earlier  than  such  as  is  not  plowed  till 
spring.  For  sowing,  land  plowed  in  this  manner  requires  no 
additional  plowing,  but  it  is  better  fitted  for  the  reception  of 
seed  than  it  can  be  by  any  further  operation,  unless  by  a slight 
harrowing  if  too  rough.  The  different  kinds-  of  grain  or  peas 
may  be  dibbled  in,  or  sown  directly  upon  the  surface  and 
covered  by  the  harrow  ; and,  if  sown  very  early,  the  grass  and 
clover  seeds  require  no  covering,  but  find  their  best  position 
in  the  slight  depressions  which  are  everywhere  made  by  the 
frosts,  and  which  the  subsequent  rains  and  winds  fill  up  and 
cover  sufficiently  to  secure  a certain  growth. 

Plowing  Sandy  or  Dry  Soils. — These  require  flat 
plowing,  which  may  be  done  when  they  are  either  quite  wet  or 
dry,  but  never  till  wanted  for  use.  To  insure  flat  plowing  on 
an  old  sward,  the  depth  of  the  furrow  should  be  about  one- 
half  its  width,  and  the  land  or  ridges  as  wide  as  can  conveni- 
ently be  made,  so  as  to  preserve  as  much  uniformity  of  sur- 
face over  the  whole  field  as  possible. 

Depth  of  Plowing. — For  general  tillage  crops,  the  depth 
of  soil  may  be  gradually  augmented  to  about  twelve  inches, 
with  decided  advantage.  Such  as  are  appropriated  to  gardens 
and  horticultural  purposes,  may  be  deepened  to  fifteen  and 
even  eighteen  inches  to  the  manifest  profit  of  their  occupants. 

Grasses. — Blue  grass  of  Kentucky  is  highly  esteemed  for 
hay  and  pasture.  The  seed  ripens  in  June  and  falls  upon  the 
ground,  where  the  succeeding  rains  give  it  vitality  and  it 
pushes  out  its  long,  rich  slender  leaves,  one  to  two  feet  in 
height,  which  in  autumn  fall  over  in  thick  windrows,  matting 
the  whole  surface  with  luscious  herbage.  Upon  these  fields, 
which  have  been  carefully  protected  till  the  other  forage  is  ex- 
hausted, the  cattle  are  turned  and  fattened  through  the  winter. 
It  maintains  its  freshness  and  nutritive  properties  in  spite  of 
frost,  and  the  cattle  easily  reach  it  through  the  light  snows 
which  fall  upon  it.  A warm,  dry,  calcareous  soil  seems  to  be 
its  natural  element,  and  it  flourishes  only  in  a rich  upland. 

The  sweet  scented  vernal  grass  is  an  early,  valuable  pasture 


44 


THE  FARM. 


grass,  which  exhales  that  delightful  perfume,  so  Characteristic 
of  much  of  the  eastern  meadow.  It  is  a late  as  well  as  early 
grass  and  luxuriates  in  a dry,  sandy  loam.  It  affords  two,  and 
sometimes  three,  crops  in  a single  season. 

Sowing  Grass  Seed. — Grass  seeds  do  best  when  sown 
early  in  the  spring,  on  a fine  tilth  or  mellow  soil.  If  this  is 
done  while  the  frost  is  leaving  the  ground,  no  harrowing  will 
be  necessary,  as  the  spring  rains  wash  the  seed  into  the  honey- 
comb left  by  the  frost,  and  secure  to  it  an  early  germination. 
They  are  also  successfully  sown  in  August  or  September,  when 
the  fall  rains  will  generally  give  them  sufficient  growth  to  with- 
stand the  effects  of  the  succeeding  winter,  if  the  land  be  free 
from  standing  or  surface  water.  It  has  recently  been  the  prac- 
tice of  many  judicious  farmers  to  renovate  their  old  worn  out 
meadows  by  giving  them  a coating  of  unfermented  manure, 
and  then  turn  the  sod  completely  over.  On  the  surface  thus 
plowed,  a dressing  of  well  rotted  manure  or  compost  with 
ashes,  is  spread  and  throughly  harrowed  lengthwise  of  the 
furrows.  The  seed  is  then  sown  and  slightly  harrowed  in,  and 
the  decomposing  manure  with  the  stubble  and  roots  of  the  sod 
give  an  immediate  and  luxuriant  growth.  Grain  may  occupy 
the  land  with  the  grass  seed,  but,  if  the  latter  be  sown  alone 
and  sufficiently  thick,  the  young  plants  will  exclude  the  weeds 
and  occupy  the  soil  as  profitably  as  can  be  done  with  the  grain. 
The  English  method  is  to  mix  together  and  sow  on  a single 
acre,  without  any  grain,  a bushel  or  more  of  various  seeds, 
which  are  best  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

Pasturing  Meadows. — There  is  no  objection  to  feeding 
off  meadows  in  early  autumn,  while  the  ground  is  dry  and  the 
sod  firm.  The  roots  of  the  grass  are  rather  benefited  than 
injured  by  the  browsing  and  the  land  is  improved  by  the  drop- 
pings from  the  cattle,  and  more  particularly  by  sheep.  But 
they  should  never  be  pastured  in  spring.  It-  is  economy  to 
purchase  hay  at  any  price  rather  than  to  spring  pasture 
meadows. 

Time  for  Cutting  Grass. — This  must  depend  on  the 
kind  of  grass.  We  have  seen  that  timothy  affords  nearly 
double  the  quantity  of  nutriment  in  seed  that  it  does  in  its 
early  flower,  and  it  is  then  much  more  relished  by  stock.  Tim 


THE  FARM. 


45 


othy,  therefore,  should  never  be  cut  except  when  the  seed  is 
formed.  The  proper  time  is  when  it  is  between  the  milk  and 
dough  state,  and  will  nearly  ripen  after  cutting.  Orchard  grass, 
on  the  other  hand,  although  it  possesses  two-sevenths  more 
n itritive  value  for  hay  in  the  seed,  yet  as  it  is  more  tender  and 
preferred  by  stock  when  cut  in  the  flower,  and  as  it  con- 
tinues to  grow  rapidly  afterwards,  should  be  always  cut  at 
that  time. 

Curing  Grass.  — Many  farmers  do  not  consider  the 
scorching  effects  of  July  suns,  and  the  consequence  is  that 
hay  is  too  much  dried.  Unless  the  crop  be  very  large,  grass 
will  generally  cure  sufficiently  when  exposed  in  the  swath  for 
two  days.  When  shook  or  stirred  out,  it  should  not  remain  in 
this  condition  beyond  the  first  day,  as  it  will  lose  much  of  its 
nutritive  juices  ; nor  should  dew  or  rain  be  permitted  to  fall 
upon  it  unless  in  cocks.  It  is  better,  after  partially  drying,  to 
expose  it  for  three  or  four  days  in  the  cock.  Hay  should  go 
into  the  barn  or  stack,  not  crisp  and  dry,  but  slightly  soft  and 
moist  in  its  own  juices,  and  as  soon  as  properly  cured  place  it 
under  cover. 

Clover. — Mode  of  Cultivation. — Clover  may  be  sown 
broadcast  either  in  August  or  September,  but  much  better  and 
surer  early  in  the  spring,  with  most  of  the  cereal  grains,  or  the 
cultivated  grasses  ; or  it  may  profitably  constitute  a crop  by 
itself.  On  well  prepared  loams,  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of  good 
seed  will  frequently  give  a full  covering  to  the  land,  while  on 
clay  twelve  to  sixteen  pounds  are  necessary  per  acre.  When 
sown  with  the  grasses,  four  to  six  pounds  on  the  first,  and 
eight  to  twelve  pounds  on  the  last,  soil  will  suffice.  An  addi- 
tional amount  of  seed,  as  with  the  grasses,  will  give  a finer 
quality  of  hay  in  consequence  of  multiplying  the  number  of 
stalks  ; and  for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  to  insure  it  on  every 
spot  of  the  field,  it  should  always  be  liberally  sown.  The 
covering,  like  that  of  grass  seeds,  should  be  of  the  slightest 
kind  ; and  when  sown  very  early  in  the  spring,  or  on  well 
pulverized  grounds,  and  followed  by  rains,  it  will  germinate 
freely  without  harrowing. 

Time  for  Cutting  and  Mode  of  Curing  Clover.— 


46 


THE  FARM. 


Clover  should  be  cut  after  having  fully  blossomed  and  assumed 
a brownish  hue.  By  close  cutting,  more  forage  is  secured,  and 
the  clover  afterward  springs  up  more  rapidly  and  evenly.  The 
swath,  unless  very  heavy,  ought  never  to  be  stirred  open,  but 
allowed  to  wilt  on  the  top.  It  may  then  be  carefully  turned 
over,  and,  when  thus  partially  cured,  placed  in  high,  slender 
cocks  and  remain  till  sufficiently  dry  to  remove  into  the  barn. 
The  clover  may  be  housed  in  a much  greener  state  by  spread- 
ing evenly  over  it  in  the  mow  from  ten  to  twenty  quarts  of  salt 
per  ton.  A mixture  of  alternate  layers  of  dry  grass  hay,  or 
straw  with  the  clover,  by  absorbing  its  juices,  answers  a better 
purpose,  while  it  materially  improves  the  flavor  of  the  straw 
for  fodder. 

Harvesting  clover  seed  may  be  done  generally  after  taking 
off  one  crop,  or  pasturing  the  field  till  June.  Early  mowing 
removes  the  first  weeds,  and  the  second  growth  of  the  clover  is 
so  rapid  as  to  smother  them  and  prevent  their  seeding,  and  the 
clover  is  thus  saved  comparatively  clean.  It  is  then  mown  and 
raked  into  very  small  cocks,  and  when  dried  at  the  top  they 
are  turned  completely  over  without  breaking,  and  as  soon  as 
throughly  dried  they  may  be  carried  to  the  threshing  floor 
and  the  seeds  beaten  ouc  with  sticks,  light  flails,  or,  much  bet- 
ter, with  a threshing  machine.  An  instrument,  with  closely  set 
teeth  and  drawn  by  a horse,  is  sometimes  used  for  collecting 
the  clover  heads  from  the  standing  stalks  from  which  the  seed 
is  afterwards  separated.  A fan  or  clover  machine  may  be  used 
for  cleaning  the  seed  for  market.  The  produce  is  from  three 
to  six  bushels  per  acre,  which  is  worth  to  the  farmer  from  $5 
to  $8  per  bushel  of  sixty  pounds. 

Pastures. — Every  pasture  should,  if  possible,  be  provided 
with  running  water  and  shade  trees,  or  other  ample  protection 
.against  a summer’s  sun.  The  last  can  at  all  times  be  secured 
by  a few  boards  supported  on  a light,  temporary  frame.  Ex- 
cessive heat  exhausts  and  sometimes  sickens  animals,  and  con- 
sequently it  materially  diminishes  the  effects  of  food  in  pro- 
moting their  secretion  of  milk,  the  growth  of  wool,  flesh,  etc. 
Pastures  ought  to  be  protected  against  poaching,  or  treading 
up  in  the  spring  or  late  in  the  autumn.  All  grounds,  immedi- 
ately after  long  and  late  rains  in  the  fall,  or  the  winter’s  frosts, 


THE  FARM. 


47 


are  liable  to  this  when  exposed  to  the  hoofs  of  cattle,  particu- 
larly clay  lands  and  such  as  have  been  recently  seeded. 

Wheat.  — Preparation  of  the  Land  for  Sowing. — 
Wheat  is  partial  to  a well  prepared  clay  or  heavy  loam,  and 
this  is  improved  when  it  contains  either  naturally  or  artificially 
a large  proportion  of  lime.  Lime  is  an  important  aid  to  the 
full  and  certain  growth  of  wheat,  checking  its  exuberance  of 
straw  and  its  liability  to  rust,  and  steadily  aiding  to  fill  out  the 
grain.  A rich  mellow  turf  or  clover  lay  is  a good  bed  for  it ; 
or  land  which  has  been  well  manured  and  cleanly  cultivated 
with  roots  or  corn  the  preceding  season.  Fresh  barn-yard 
manure  applied  directly  to  the  wheat  crop  is  objectionable 
not  only  from  its  containing  many  foreign  seeds,  but  from  its 
tendency  to  excite  a rapid  growth  of  weak  straw,  thus  causing 
the  grain  both  to  lodge  and  rust.  The  same  objection  lies 
against  sowing  it  on  rich  alluvial  or  vegetable  soils ; and  in 
each,  the  addition  of  lime  or  ashes,  or  both,  will  correct  these 
evils.  A dressing  of  charcoal  has  in  many  instances  been 
found  an  adequate  preventive ; and  so  beneficial  has  it  proved 
in  France  that  it  has  been  extensively  introduced  there  for  the 
wheat  crop* 

Quantity  of  Seed  and  Time  of  Sowing. — On  well 
pulverized,  ordinary  wheat  soils,  about  five  pecks  of  seed  is 
sown  to  the  acre,  while  rough  land,  clay  soils,  and  such  as  are 
very  fertile,  require  from  six  to  eight.  In  Maryland  but  three 
pecks  are  frequently  sown  to  the  acre,  and  some  of  the  best 
crops  have  been  raised  from  only  two  pecks  of  seed  on  a finely 
pulverized  soil.  It  takes  more  seed  when  full  and  plump  than 
when  shrunken,  as  there  may  be  two  of  the  latter  to  one  of  the 
former  in  the  same  measure.  A difference  is  to  be  observed 
according  to  the  kind  of  wheat,  some  needing  more  than 
others. 

After  Culture. — Harrowing  in  the  spring  by  loosening 
the  soil,  adds  to  the  growth  of  the  crop,  and  the  loss  of  the  few 
plants  is  much  more  than  compensated  by  the  rapid  tillering 
and  vigor  of  those  which  remain.  Sowing  in  drills  and  hoeing 
between  them  is  much  practiced  in  Europe.  The  additional 
amount  thus  frequently  raised  would  seem  to  justify  the  adop- 
tion of  this  mode  of  cultivation  in  this  country ; and  it  should 


48 


THE  FARM. 

at  least  be  done  so  far  as  to  give  it  a fair  trial.  On  light  soils 
rolling  the  wheat  both  in  fall  and  spring  is  highly  advantage- 
ous. When  the  growth  is  luxuriant,  decided  benefit  has  at- 
tended feeding  off  the  wheat  on  the  field  in  the  fall  or  spring, 
taking  care  to  permit  the  animals  to  go  on  only  when  the 
, ground  is  firm.  This,  however,  should  be  cautiously  done,  and 
then  only  by  light  animals,  as  calves,  or  sheep. 

Harvesting. — The  grain  should  be  cut  immediately  after 
the  lower  part  of  the  stalk  becomes  yellow,  while  the  grain  is 
yet  in  the  dough  state,  and  is  easily  compressible  between  the 
thumb  and  finger.  Repeated  experiments  have  demonstrated 
that  wheat  cut  then  will  yield  more  in  measure,  of  heavier 
weight,  and  a larger  quantity  of  sweet,  white  flour.  If  early 
cut,  a longer  time  is  required  for  curing  before  threshing  or 
storing. 

Mowing  or  Stacking. — When  stored  in  the  straw,  the 
grain  should  be  so  placed  as  to  prevent  heating  or  molding. 
This  can  only  be  avoided,  unless  very  dry  before  carrying  into 
the  barn,  by  laying  it  on  scaffolds  where  there  is  a free  circula- 
tion of  air  around  and  partially  through  it.  If  placed  in  a 
stack,  it  should  be  well  elevated  from  the  ground  ; and,  if  the 
stacks  are  large,  a chimney  of  lattice  or  open  work  should  be 
left  from  the  bottom,  running  through  the  center  to  the  top  ; 
or  a large  bundle  may  be  kept  at  the  surface  in  the  center,  and 
drawn  upwards  as  the  stack  rises,  thus  leaving  an  opening  from 
the  bottom  to  the  roof.  Additional  security  would  be  afforded 
by  similar  openings  horizontally,  at  suitable  intervals,  so  as  to 
admit  the  air  from  one  side  to  the  other. 

Rye. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  for  rye  is  similar  to  that 
for  wheat ; and  it  may  be  advantageously  sown  upon  a rich 
old  turf  or  clover  lay,  or  after  corn  or  roots  where  the  land 
has  been  well  manured  and  thoroughly  cleansed  from  weeds. 
There  is  not  an  equal  necessity  for  using  a brine-steep  for  rye 
as  for  wheat,  yet,  if  allowed  to  remain  a few  hours  in  a weak 
solution  of  saltpeter  or  some  of  the  other  salts,  it  promotes 
speedy  germination  and  subsequent  growth. 

Sowing. — There  is  but  one  species  of  rye,  but  to  this  culti- 
vation has  given  two  varieties,  the  spring  and  winter.  Like 


THE  FARM. 


49 


wheat,  they  are  easily  transformed  into  each  other  by  sowing 
the  winter  continually  later  through  successive  generations  to 
change  it  into  spring  again,  and  the  opposite  for  its  re-conver- 
sion into  winter  grain.  The  last  should  be  sown  from  the 
twentieth  of  August  to  the  twentieth  of  September,  the  earliest 
requiring  less  seed,  as  it  has  a longer  time  to  tiller  and  fill  up 
the  ground.  Five  pecks  is  the  usual  quantity  sown,  but  it 
varies  from  one  to  two  bushels,  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
soil,  the  richest  lands  demanding  most.  It  is  a practice  among 
many  farmers  to  sow  rye  among  their  standing  corn  on  light 
lands,  hoeing  or  cultivating  it  in  and  leaving  the  ground  as 
level  as  possible.  On  such  lands  this  is  attended  with  several 
advantages,  as  it  gives  the  grain  an  early  start,  and  a moist, 
sheltered  position,  at  a time  when  drought  and  a hot  sun 
would  check  or  prevent  vegetation.  As  soon  as  the  corn  is 
sufficiently  matured,  it  should  be  cut  up  by  the  roots  and 
placed  in  compact  shocks,  or  removed  to  one  side  of  the  field, 
when  the  rye  should  be  thoroughly  rolled.  When  sown  on  a 
fresh  plowed  field,  it  should  be  harrowed  in  before  rolling. 

Oats. — Cultivation. — Oats  are  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  to 
four  bushels  per  acre  during  all  the  spring  months,  and  some- 
times, though  rarely,  in  June.  The  earliest  sown  are  usually 
the  heaviest  and  most  productive.  They  may  occupy  a turf, 
or  follow  any  of  the  well  manured  hoed  crops,  as  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  grain.  Sowing  salt  broadcast  over  the  land, 
at  the  rate  of  two  to  six  bushels  per  acre,  has  been  found  of 
use  to  the  crop,  both  in  furnishing  it  with  a necessary  manure 
and  by  killing  insects.  The  seed  should  be  well  harrowed  in 
and  rolled,  and  no  after  attention  is  required  except  to  destroy 
the  prominent  weeds. 

Harvesting. — Oats  frequently  ripen  unevenly,  and,  if 
there  is  a large  proportion  of  such  as  are  backward,  the  proper 
time  for  cutting  will  be  as  soon  as  the  grain  in  the  latest  may 
be  rubbed  out  of  the  straw  by  hand.  The  oat  is  sufficiently 
matured  for  harvesting  after  it  has  passed  the  milk  state,  and 
is  easily  compressed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  The 
lower  part  of  the  stalk  will  then  have  assumed  a yellow  color, 
and  it  ceases  to  draw  nutriment  from  the  soil.  If  cut  at  this 
time,  the  straw  is  better  for  fodder  and  for  other  uses  ; the 
2 


50 


THE  FARM. 


grain  is  fuller  ; the  husk  lighter  ; and  the  loss  from  shelling, 
which  is  frequently  a great  item  when  left  too  late,  is  avoided. 

Indian  Corn. — The  soil  for  corn  must  be  dry,  rich  and  well 
pulverized.  Neither  strong  clay,  wet,  nor  poor  lands  will  yield 
good  crops  of  corn.  Land  can  scarcely  be  too  rich  for  it,  and 
the  fresher  and  less  fermented  the  manure  applied  to  it  is,  un- 
less on  light,  sandy  soils,  the  better  it  will^be  for  the  crop.  A 
great  error  is  committed  in  raising  corn  as  with  most  of  our 
tillage  crops,  from  not  having  the  soil  sufficiently  enriched  ; 
though  this  error  is  diminished  in  the  case  of  such  as  will  not 
bear  an  excess  of  manure. 

Preparation  of  Seed. — Repeated  experiments  have  de 
monstrated  the  great  utility  of  steeping  corn  for  twenty-four  to 
forty-eight  hours  before  planting,  in  a solution  of  saltpeter. 
This  accelerates  the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  is  a protectioi 
against  birds,  squirrels  and  mice,  and  for  a while  it  will  keep 
off  worms.  An  effectual  remedy  against  these  depredations  is 
to  add  half  a pint  of  boiling  tar  to  a peck  of  seed,  stirring  the 
corn  briskly  for  several  minutes  as  the  tar  is  added,  till  every 
kernel  is  thinly  coated  with  it.  This  supercedes  the  necessity 
of  the  worse  than  absurd  remedy  of  scarecrows. 

Planting. — Corn  may  be  planted  in  hills  from  three  to 
four  and  one-half  feet  asunder,,  and  with  from  three  to  five 
stalks  well  spread  in  each  hill,  according  to  the  kind  of  seed, 
quality  of  land,  etc.  Thick  planting  gives  fewer  ears  upon  a 
stalk,  and  those  of  a less  size.  The  time  of  planting  at  the 
North  is  usually  within  the  three  first  weeks  of  May,  depend- 
ing much  on  the  season. 

Harvesting. — If  there  be  no  danger  of  early  frost,  the 
corn  may  be  suffered  to  stand  .until  fully  ripe  ; though,  if  the 
stalks  are  designed  for  fodder,  they  are  better  to  be  cut  when 
the  grain  is  well  glazed,  and  this  should  be  done  in  all  cases 
where  frost  is  expected.  Scarcely  any  injury  occurs  either  to 
the  leaf  or  grain  if  the  corn  be  stooked,  when  both  would  be 
seriously  damaged  from  the  same  exposure  if  standing.  The 
stalks  of  corn  should  never  be  cut  above  the  ear,  but  always 
near  the  ground,  and  for  this  obvious  reason  : If  the  stalk  be 
cut  above  the  ear,  nourishment  is  at  an  end.  It  may  then  be- 
come firm  and  dry,  but  is  not  increased  in  quantity,  while,  if 


THE  FARM. 


51 


cut  near  the  root,  it  not  only  appropriates  the  sap  already  in 
the  plant,  but  it  also  absorbs  additional  matter  from  the  atmos- 
phere, which  contributes  to  its  weight  and  perfection.  It 
must  be  perfectly  dried  in  the  field,  and  after  this  husked  and 
carried  into  an  airy  loft  or  stored  in  latticed  or  open  barracks. 
The  stalks  may  be  housed  or  carefully  stacked  for  fodder. 

Buckwheat. — It  grows  freely  on  light  soils,  but  yields  a 
remunerating  crop  only  on  those  which  are  fertile.  Fresh 
manure  is  injurious  to  this  grain.  Sandy  loams  are  its  favorite 
soils,  especially  such  as  have  lain  long  in  pasture,  and  these 
should  be  well  plowed  and  harrowed.  It  may  be  sown  from 
the  first  of  May  to  the  tenth  of  August,  but  in  the  northern 
states  this  ought  to  be  done  as  early  as  June  or  July,  or  it  may 
be  injured  by  early  frosts,  which  are  fatal  to  it.  It  is  sown 
broadcast  at  the  rate  of  two  to  four  pecks  per  acre,  and 
harvested  when  the  earliest  seed  is  fully  ripe.  The  plant  often 
continues  flowering  after  this,  and,  when  the  early  seed  is 
blighted,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  plant  may  be  left  till  these 
last  have  matured.  As  it  is  liable  to  heat,  it  should  be  placed 
in  little  stooks,  of  the  size  of  a two-bushel  basket,  over  the 
field,  and  as  soon  as  dry,  taken  in  and  threshed  out.  If  not 
perfectly  dry,  the  straw  may  be  stacked  with  layers  of  other 
straw,  and,  when  well  cured,  it  will  be  a valuable  fodder  for 
cattle.  Sheep  and  young  horses  will  feed  and  thrive  as  well 
on  this  as  on  ordinary  hay. 

Fruit  Trees. — Planting. — The  tree  to  be  planted  should 
be  as  young  as  circumstances  will  allow.  The  season  is  just 
when  the  leaves  become  yellow,  or  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
spring.  The  ground  being  prepared,  and  the  tree  taken  up, 
prune  the  roots  with  a sharp  knife  so  as  to  leave  none  more 
than  about  a foot  long  ; and,  if  any  have  been  torn  off  near  to 
the  stem,  prune  the  part,  so  that  no  bruises  or  ragged  parts  re- 
main. Cut  off  all  the  fibers  close  to  the  roots  ; for  they  never 
live,  and  they  mould,  and  do  great  injury.  If  cut  off,  their 
place  is  supplied  by  other  fibers  more  quickly.  Dig  the 
hole  to  plant  in  three  times  as  wide,  and  six  inches  deeper, 
than  the  roots  actually  need  as  mere  room.  And  now,  besides 
the  fine  earth  generally,  have  some  good  mould  sifted.  Lay 
some  of  this  six  inches  deep  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole. 


& THE  FARM. 

Place  the  roots  upon  this  in  their  natural  order,  and  hold  the 
tree  perfectly  upright,  while  you  put  more  sifted  earth  on  the 
roots.  Sway  the  tree  backward  and  forward  a little,  and  give 
it  a gentle  lift  and  shake,  so  that  the  fine  earth  may  find  its 
way  amongst  the  roots  and  leave  not  the  smallest  cavity.  Every 
root  should  be  closely  touched  by  the  earth  in  every  part. 
When  you  have  covered  all  the  roots  with  the  sifted  earth,  and 
have  seen  that  your  tree  stands  just  as  high  with  regard  to  the 
level  of  the  ground  as  it  did  in  the  place  where  it  stood  before, 
allowing  about  three  inches  for  sinking,  fill  up  the  rest  of  the 
hole  with  the  common  earth  of  the  plat,  and  when  you  have 
about  half  filled  it,  tread  the  earth  that  you  put  in,  but  not 
very  hard.  Put  on  the  rest  of  the  earth,  and  leave  the  surface 
perfectly  smooth.  Do  not  water  by  any  means  Water, 
poured  on,  in  this  case,  sinks  rapidly  down,  and  makes  cavities 
amongst  the  roots,  lets  in  air,  mould  and  canker  follow  ; and 
great  injury  is  done. 

Cultivation. — In  the  first  place,  the  ground  is  always  to 
be  kept  clear  of  weeds  ; for,  whatever  they  take  is  just  so  much 
taken  from  the  fruit,  either  in  quantity,  or  in  quality,  or  in 
both.  It  is  true  that  very  fine  orchards  have  grass  covering 
all  the  ground  beneath  the  trees  ; but  those  orchards  would  be 
still  finer  if  the  ground  were  kept  clear  from  all  plants  what- 
ever except  the  trees.  Such  a piece  of  ground  is,  at  once,  an 
orchard  and  a pasture  ; what  is  lost  one  way  is,  probably, 
gained  the  other.  But,  if  we  come  to  fine  and  choice  fruits, 
there  can  be  nothing  that  can  grow  beneath  to  balance  against 
the  injury  done  to  the  trees. 

The  roots  of  trees  go  deep  ; but  the  principal  part  of  their 
nourishment  comes  from  the  top-soil.  The  ground  should  be 
loose  to  a good  depth,  which  is  the  certain  cause  of  constant 
moisture  ; but  trees  draw  downwards  as  well  as  upwards,  and 
draw  more  nourishment  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  direc- 
tion. 

If  crops  be  grown  under  trees  in  orchards,  they  should  be 
of  wheat,  rye,  winter  barley,  or  something  that  does  not  de- 
mand a plowing  of  the  ground  in  the  spring.  In  the  garden, 
dig  the  ground  well  and  clean,  with  a fork,  late  in  November, 
Go  close  to  the  stems  of  the  trees  ; but  do  not  bruise  the  large 


The  farm. 


53 


roots.  Clean  and  clear  all  well  close  round  the  stem.  Make 
the  ground  smooth  just  there.  Ascertain  whether  there  be  in- 
sects there  of  any  sort.  And,  if  there  be,  take  care  to  destroy 
them.  Pull,  or  scrape,  off  all  rough  bark  at  the  bottom  of  the 
stem.  If  you  even  peel  off  the  bark  a foot  or  two  up,  in  case 
there  be  insects,  it  will  be  the  better.  Wash  the  stems  with 
water,  in  which  tobacco  has  been  soaked  ; and  do  this  whether 
you  find  insects  or  not.  Put  the  tobacco  into  hot  water,  and 
let  it  soak  24  hours,  before  you  use  the  water.  This  will  de- 
stroy or  drive  away  all  insects. 

But,  though,  for  the  purpose  of  removing  all  harbor  for 
insects,  you  make  the  ground  smooth  just  around  the  stem  of 
the  tree,  let  the  rest  of  the  ground  lay  as  rough  as  you  can  ; 
for  the  rougher  it  lies  the  more  it  will  be  broken  by  the  frost, 
which  is  a great  enricher  of  all  land.  When  the  spring  comes, 
and  the  ground  is  dry  at  the  top,  give  the  whole  of  the  ground 
a good  deep  hoeing,  which  will  make  it  level  and  smooth 
enough.  Then  go  on  again  hoeing  throughout  the  summer, 
and  watching  well  all  attempts  of  insects  on  the  stems  and 
bark  of  the  trees. 

Apples. — Apples  are  usually  grafted  on  crab-stocks,  but, 
when  you  do  not  want  the  trees  to  grow  tall  and  large,  it  is 
better  to  raise  stocks  from  the  seed  of  some  apple  not  much 
given  to  produce  large  wood.  Perhaps  the , fall-pippin  seed 
may  be  as  good  as  any.  When  you  have  planted  the  tree,  and 
when  the  time  comes  for  shortening  the  head,  cut  it  off  so  as 
to  leave  only  five  or  six  joints  or  buds.  These  will  send  out 
shoots,  which  will  become  limbs.  The  tree  will  be  what  they 
call  a dwarf  standard.  The  sorts  of  apples  are  numerous, 
and  everybody  knows  pretty  well  which  are  the  best. 

Cherry. — Cherries  are  budded  or  grafted  upon  stocks 
raised  from  cherry-stones  of  any  sort.  If  you  want  the  tree 
tall  and  large,  the  stock  should  come  from  the  small  black 
cherry  tree  that  grows  wild  in  the  woods.  If  you  want  it 
dwarf,  sow  the  stones  of  a morello  or  a May-duke. 

Currant. — There  are  red,  white  and  black,  all  well  known. 
Some  persons  like  one  best  and  some  another.  The  propaga- 
tion and  cultivation  of  all  the  sorts  are  the  same.  The  currant 
tree  is  propagated  from  cuttings.  When  the  tree  has  stood 


54 


THE  FARM. 


two  years  in  the  nursery,  plant  it  where  it  is  to  stand  ; and 
take  care  that  it  has  only  one  stem.  Let  no  limbs  come  out 
to  grow  nearer  than  six  inches  of  the  ground.  Prune  the  tree 
every  year.  Keep  it  thin  of  wood.  Keep  the  middle  open 
and  the  limbs  extended  ; and,  when  these  get  to  about  three 
feet  in  length,  cut  off,  every  winter,  all  the  last  year’s  shoots. 
If  you  do  not  attend  to  this,  the  tree  will  be  nothing  but  a 
great  bunch  of  twigs,  and  you  will  have  very  little  fruit.  Culti- 
vate and  manure  the  ground  as  for  other  fruit  trees.  In  this 
country  the  currant  requires  shade  in  summer.  If  exposed  to 
the  full  sun,  the  fruit  is  apt  to  become  too  sour.  Plant  it, 
therefore,  in  the  south  border. 

Grapes. — In  Europe  “ grape-cures  ” are  established,  to 
which  all  sorts  of  debilitated,  blood-poisoned  people  go,  to  live 
— aside  from  a little  bread — entirely  upon  grapes,  sunlight, 
and  pure  air  for  weeks  at  a time.  It  is  one  of  the  “ regula- 
tions ” that  these  happy  invalids  must  pick  their  own  grapes, 
and,  as  their  appetites  rapidly  increase,  it  is  no  doubt  a fact 
that  they  owe,  in  part,  their  recoveries,  which  are  generally 
certain,  to  the  almost  constant  sunlight  and  the  invigorating 
mountain  air  in  which  they  pass  their  waking  hours. 

Grape-cures,  or  almost  any  kind  of  fruit-cures,  might  be 
established  in  our  own  gardens  and  on  our  own  hillsides.  The 
prescription  is  a very  simple  one ; enough  of  sound,  ripe  fruit 
(eaten  at  regular  intervals)  to  satisfy  hunger,  the  fruit  to  be 
picked  by  the  invalids  themselves,  thus  insuring  pure  air,  sun- 
light, and  mild  exercise.  The  grape  is  one  of  the  best  and 
purest  of  tonics,  and  eaten,  as  it  is  in  such  instances,  almost 
exclusively,  a cleansed  and  purified  system  is  the  result,  with 
all  its  happy  manifestations  in  brightened  eyes,  clear  and  ruddy 
complexions,  tranquil  nerves,  and  active  mental  and  physical 
powers. 

Cultivation. — The  grape-vine  is  raised  from  cuttings,  or 
from  layers.  As  to  the  first,  you  cut  off,  as  early  as  the  ground 
is  open  in  the  spring,  a piece  of  the  last  year’s  wood ; that  is 
to  say,  a piece  of  a shoot,  which  grew  during  the  last  summer. 
This  cutting  should,  if  convenient,  have  an  inch  or  two  of  the 
former  year’s  wood  at  the  bottom  of  it ; but  this  is  by  no 
means  absolutely  necessary.  The  cutting  should  have  four  or 


THE  FARM. 


55 


five  buds  or  joints.  Make  the  ground  rich,  move  it  deep,  and 
make  it  fine.  Then  put  in  the  cutting  with  a setting-stick, 
leaving  only  two  buds,  or  joints,  above  ground  ; keeping  it 
cool  and  moist.  Layers  from  grape-vines  are  obtained  with 
great  ease.  You  have  only  to  lay  a shoot,  or  limb,  however 
young  or  old,  upon  the  ground,  and  cover  any  part  of  it  with 
earth,  it  will  strike  roots  the  first  summer,  and  will  become 
a vine,  to  be  carried  and  planted  in  any  other  place.  But,  ob- 
serve, vines  do  not  transplant  well.  For  this  reason,  both  cut- 
tings and  layers,  if  intended  to  be  removed,  are  usually  set,  or 
layed,  in  flower  pots,  out  of  which  they  are  turned,  with  the 
ball  of  earth  along  with  them,  into  the  earth  where  they  are 
intended  to  grow  ?_.d  produce  their  fruit. 

Soil. — Any  gooo  l:  H,  well  drained,  artificially,  if  not  so  in 
its  own  formation,  and  in  a fair  exposure,  from  a stiff  clay  to 
almost  a drifting  sand,  will  produce  the  grape  of  approved 
varieties  (when  they  are  such  as  will  ripen  between  its  spring 
and  autumn  frosts,)  in  perfection.  In  culture  they  are  not 
difficult,  needing  only  to  be  kept  free  from  weeds  and  other 
herbage,  properly  trained  on  stakes,  or  trellises,  and  well 
pruned. 

Peach. — Soil. — A light,  warm,  sandy  or  gravelly  loam,  m a 
sunny  exposure,  protected  from  severe  bleak  winds.  Thus 
situated,  and  in  favorable  latitudes,  it  often  flourishes  in  luxu- 
riance, and  produces  the  most  luscious  fruit.  In  portions  of 
western  New  York,  and  on  the  southern  borders  of  Lake  Erie, 
and  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  south  of  latitude  42  o} 
the  peach  grows  more  vigorously,  and  lives  longer,  than  in  any 
other  sections  of  the  United  States,  frequently  lasting  twenty 
or  thirty  years,  and  bearing  constantly  and  in  abundance. 
Peaches  are  produced  in  immense  quantities  in  the  State  of 
New  Jersey  and  Delaware,  on  the  light  soils  near  the  Atlantic 
coast,  for  the  large  city  markets,  and  in  those  states  the  crop  of 
a single  proprietor  often  amounts  to  $5,000,  and  sometimes  ex- 
ceeds $20,000,  annually.  None  but  the  choicest  kinds  are 
cultivated,  and  these  are  inoculated  into  the  seedling  when  a 
year  old.  They  are  transplanted  at  two  and  three,  and  are 
worn  out,  cut  down  and  burned  at  the  age  of  from  six  to 
twelve  years.  The  proper  distance  at  which  they  should  be 


56 


THE  FARM. 


planted  is  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  apart,  according  to  situa- 
tion, soil  and  exposure.  Constant  cultivation  of  the  ground, 
without  cropping,  is  necessary  for  their  best  growth  and 
bearing. 

Diseases. — It  is  liable  to  many  diseases  and  to  the  depre- 
dations of  numerous  enemies.  The  yellows  is  the  most  fatal 
disease,  and  this  can  only  be  checked  by  the  immediate  removal 
of  the  diseased  tree  from  the  orchard.  Of  the  insects,  the 
grub  or  peach  worm  is  the  mcst  destructive.  It  punctures  the 
bark,  and  lays  its  egg  beneath  it  at  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  when  discovered  it  should  be  killed  with  a penknife  or 
pointed  wire.  A good  preventitive  is  to  form  a cone  of  earth 
a foot  high  around  the  trunk  about  the  first  of  June;  or  if  made 
of  leached  ashes  it  would  be  better.  Remove  this  heap  in 
October,  and  the  bark  will  harden  below  the  reach  of  the  fly 
the  following  year. 

Pear. — Pears  are  grafted  on  pear-stocks,  on  ‘quince-stocks, 
or  on  those  of  white-thorn.  The  last  is  best,  because  most 
durable,  and,  for  dwarf  trees,  much  the  best,  because  they  do 
not  throw  up  wood  so  big  and  so  lofty.  For  orchards,  pear- 
stock  are  best ; but  not  from  suckers  on  any  account.  They 
are  sure  to  fill  the  orchard  with  suckers.  The  pruning  for 
your  pear  trees  in  the  garden  should  be  that  of  the  peach. 
The  pears  will  grow  higher ; but  they  may  be  made  to  spread 
at  bottom,  and  that  will  keep  them  from  towering  too  much. 

Diseases. — The  pear  is  seldom  subject  to  more  than  one 
formidable  disease,  the  fire  blight,  and  to  this  some  localities 
are  more  subject  than  others.  The  disease  manifests  itself 
generally  in  midsummer,  in  the  sudden  withering  of  the  leaves 
on  one  or  more  branches.  The  only  effectual  remedy  is  to 
cut  off  and  burn  the  diseased  limb  immediately  on  its  dis- 
covery. The  causes  are  imperfectly  known,  but  it  has  been 
variously  ascribed  to  the  presence  of  minute  insects,  to  the 
abundant  flow  of  sap,  and  to  the  severity  of  winter,  yet  with 
an  entire  uncertainty  of  any  truth  in  the  supposition. 

Raspberry. — They  are  raised  from  suckers,  though  they 
may  be  raised  from  cuttings.  The  suckers  of  this  yeai  are 
planted  out  in  rows,  six  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  two  feet 
apart  in  rows.  This  is  done  in  the  fall,  or  early  in  the  spring. 


THE  FARM. 


57 


At  the  time  of  planting  they  should  be  cut  down  to  within 
a foot  of  the  ground.  They  will  bear  a little,  and  they  will 
send  out  several  suckers  which  will  bear  the  next  year. 
About  four  are  enough  to  leave,  and  those  of  the  strongest. 
These  should  be  cut  off  in  the  fall,  or  early  in  the  spring, 
to  within  four  feet  of  the  ground,  and  should  be  tied  to  a smali 
stake.  A straight  branch  of  locust  is  best,  and  then  the 
stake  lasts  a life-time-at  least,  let  the  life  be  as  long  as  it 
may.  The  next  year  more  suckers  come  up,  which  are 
treated  in  the  same  way.  Fifty  clumps  are  enough,  if  well 
managed.  There  are  white  and  red;  some  like  one  best  and 
some  the  other.  To  have  them  fine,  you  must  dig  in  manure 
in  the  autumn,  and  keep  the  ground  clean  during  the  summer 
by  hoeing. 

Strawberry. — They  are  propagated  from  young  plants  that 
grow  out  of  the  old  ones.  In  the  summer  the  plant  sends  forth 
runners.  Where  these  touch  the  ground,  at  a certain  distance 
from  the  plant,  come  roots,  and  from  these  roots  a plant 
springs  up.  This  plant  is  put  out  early  in  the  fall.  It  takes 
root  before  winter  ; and  the  next  year  it  will  bear  a little;  and 
send  out  runners  of  its  own.  To  make  a strawberry  bed,  plant 
three  rows  a foot  apart,  and  at  eight  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
Keep  the  ground  clean,  and  the  new  plants,  coming  from  run- 
ners, will  fill  up  the  whole  of  the  ground,  and  will  extend  the 
bed  on  the  sides.  Cut  off  the  runners  at  six  inches  distance 
from  the  sides,  and  then  you  have  a bed  three  feet  wide, 
covering  all  the  ground,  and  this  is  the  best  way,  for  the  fruit 
then  lodges  on  the  stems  and  leaves,  and  is  not  beaten  into 
the  dirt  by  heavy  rains,  which  it  is  if  the  plants  stand  in  clumps 
with  clear  ground  between  them. 

Cranberries. — They  are  generally  planted  on  low,  moist 
meadows,  which  are  prepared  by  thoroughly  taking  out  all 
aquatic  or  other  shrubs  or  trees,  filling  it  with  gravel  where 
needing  it,  and  plowing  and  harrowing.  They  are  then  set  in 
drills  by  slips  and  roots,  usually  in  the  spring,  but  sometimes 
in  autumn,  about  twenty  inches  apart,  and  at  distances  of  about 
three  inches.  They  require  to  have  the  weeds  kept  out  and  the 
ground  stirred  with  a light  cultivator  or  hoe,  and  they  will 
soon  overrun  and  occupy  the  whole  ground.  An  occasional 


58 


THE  FARM. 


top  dressing  of  swamp  muck  is  beneficial.  Cultivators  have 
in  this  way  produced  at  the  rate  of  three  hundred  bushels  per 
acre,  which  were  worth  in  the  market  from  two  to  four  dollars 
per  bushel. 

An  lee  House. — Select  or  make  a level  space  of  ground 
near  the  house,  where  least  exposed  to  the  summer  sun,  and 
cover  it  with  any  kind  of  cheap  boarding ; leave  spaces  be- 
tween the  boards  for  drainage.  Place  stout  posts  at  each  cor- 
ner, the  two  at  the  front  being  two  feet  higher  than  those  at 
the  back  to  support  the  slanting  roof.  Nail  rough  boards  all 
round  to  the  height  of  two  and  a half  feet,  and  then  nail  simi- 
lar ones  on  the  inside;  fill  up  this  space  on  all  sides  with  saw- 
dust or  tan-bark,  and  cover  the  floor  to  the  depth  of  ten  inches 
with  the  same.  Select  a freezing  day,  when  the  ice  is  in  its 
best  condition  for  storing  this  summer  luxury.  Have  the  ice 
cut  in  as  large  squares  as  can  be  handled,  and  pack  it  as 
closely  and  evenly  as  possible,  filling  up  all  gaps  with  pounded 
ice,  and  turning  water  over  each  layer.  Nail  on  more  boards 
when  the  space  is  filled,  and  put  in  more  layers  of  ice  until 
enough  is  stored  for  a summer’s  use,  then  cover  the  top  two 
feet  deep  with  the  tan  or  sawdust,  and  build  over  it  a 
roof  of  boards  covered  with  slabs.  When  ice  is  removed  from 
it,  care  must  be  taken  to  replace  the  covering  as  completely  as 
possible. 

Refrigerator. — A good  refrigerator  from  the  shops  costs 
anywhere  from  $18  to  $50,  according  to  the  size  and  finish. 
Every  house-keeper  may  not  be  able  to  possess  one,  and  so  it 
is  worth  while  to  see  what  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  a decent 
subsitute.  Secure  two  dry-goods  boxes,  the  more  substantial 
the  better,  one  of  them  to  be  three  or  four  inches  smaller  than 
the  other  on  all  sides,  and  fix  the  tops  to  open  on  hinges  of 
iron,  or  stout  leather.  The  larger  the  boxes,  of  course,  the 
more  convenience  and  comfort  is  afforded.  Place  an  inch  or 
two  of  sawdust  over  the  bottom  of  the  larger  box,  and  set  the 
smaller  one  into  it.  Bore  three-quarter  inch  holes  through 
both  boxes,  at  either  end,  near  the  top,  and  insert  a roll  of 
stiff  pasteboard  in  each  to  act  as  ventilators.  Then  fill  in  all 
the  space  between  the  boxes  with  sawdust.  Put  in  shelves  at 
either  end,  leaving  space  in  the  center  for  the  large  deep  pan 


THE  FARM. 


59 


or  pail  that  is  to  hold  the  ice.  There  can  also  be  two  or  three 
pegs  on  which  to  hang  pails  of  milk  or  fruit.  A large  tin 
pail,  with  a thin  round  board  at  the  bottom  to  prevent  its 
being  bruised,  would  be  the  most  convenient  thing  for  holding 
the  ice.  Such  a refrigerator,  placed  in  the  pantry,  or  some 
cool  room,  and  covered  in  the  hottest  days  with  a folded  blan- 
ket over  the  top,  which  is  not  protected  with  sawdust,  would 
keep  ice  for  twenty-four  hours  ; and,  in  half  a dozen  such 
days,  pay  for  its  slight  cost  many  times  over  in  the  amount 
of  food  it  would  help  to  preserve. 

A Water  Filter. — Serious  sickness  would  often  be  averted 
from  the  household  if,  among  other  sanitary  regulations,  none 
but  filtered  water  was  drank  by  its  members. 

A good  and  efficient  filter  can  be  made  in  this  way : Take 
a cask,  remove  one  end  and  set  it  upright,  the  open  end  at  the 
top.  At  one-third  of  the  distance  from  the  bottom  place  a 
round  partition,  pierced  with  small  holes.  On  this  arrange  a 
layer  of  clean,  small  pebbles,  and  over  them  a layer  of  char- 
coal and  another  of  sand,  topping  ft  over  with  more  pebbles. 
Over  this  put  another  partition  with  holes  in  it,  or  a layer  of 
good-sized  stones,  to  prevent  the  pebbles  from  being  disturbed 
when  water  is  poured  in.  A faucet  is  to  be  placed  in  the  bot- 
tom to  draw  off  the  water.  A pail  of  water  and  a lump  of  ice, 
placed  in  the  top  of  the  cask  and  closely  covered,  supplies  the 
perfection  of  drinking  water  for  twenty-four  hours. 

Grapes  and  Pears  for  the  Holidays. — Select  the  choicest 
and  soundest  specimens,  and  lay  them  on  shelves  in  a cool 
dark,  and  well  ventilated  closet,  or  darkened  upper  room, 
where  there  will  be  no  danger  of  freezing,  and  where  they 
can  have  plenty  of  space  so  as  not  to  touch  each  other. 
Clusters  of  grapes  should  have  the  ends  of  their  stems  dipped 
in  melted  wax,  and  will  keep  best  if  hung  up  on  slats,  to  pre- 
vent any  contact  with  the  wall.  Choice  fall  apples  and  pears, 
that  otherwise  might  not  appear  at  Christmas,  should  be  wiped 
and  placed  on  white  paper.  The  cooler  the  room  is,  without 
freezing,  the  better  the  fruit  will  keep;  and  good  ventilation  is 
strictly  necessary.  The  Concords,  Isabellas,  and  other  late- 
ripening  grapes,  are  excellent  for  such  storing,  and  when  frez- 


60 


THE  FARM. 


ing  weather  arrives  can  be  packed  in  sawdust,  and  kept  nearly 
all  winter. 

The  Garden. — The  ground  should  be  nearly  on  a level  as 
possible,  because,  if  the  slope  be  considerable,  the  heavy  rains 
do  great  injury  by  washing  away  the  soil.  However,  it  is  not 
always  in  our  power  to  choose  a level  spot;  but,  if  there  be  a 
slope  in  the  ground,  it  ought,  if  possible,  to  be  towards  the 
south.  For,  though  such  a direction  adds  to  the  heat  in  sum- 
mer, this  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  earliness  which 
it  causes  in  the  spring.  By  all  means  avoid  an  inclination  to- 
wards the  north,  or  west,  and  towards  any  of  the  points 
between  north  and  west. 

From  a kitchen  garden  all  large  trees  ought  to  be  kept  at  a 
distance  of  thirty  or  forty  yards.  For  the  shade  of  them  is 
injurious,  and  their  roots  a great  deal  more  injurious,  to  every 
plant  growing  within  the  influence  of  those  roots.  Grass, 
which  matts  the  ground  all  over  with  its  roots,  and  does  not 
demand  much  food  from  any  depth,  does  not  suffer  much 
from  the  roots  of  trees;  but  every  other  plant  does.  A kitchen 
garden  should,  therefore,  have  no  large  trees  near  it.  In  the 
Spring  and  fall  tall  trees  do  great 'harm  even  by  their  shade, 
which  robs  the  garden  of  the  early  and  the  parting  rays  of  the 
sun.  It  is,  therefore,  on  all  accounts,  desirable  to  keep  all  such 
trees  at  a distance. 

If  it  be  practicable,  make  a garden  near  to  running  water, 
and  especially  to  water  that  may  be  turned  into  the  garden, 
the  advantage  ought  to  be  profited  of  ; but,  as  to  watering  with 
a watering  pot,  it  is  seldom  of  much  use,  and  it  cannot  be 
practiced  upon  a large  scale.  It  is  better  to  trust  to  judicious 
tillage  and  to  the  dews  and  rains.  The  moisture  which  these 
do  not  supply  cannot  be  furnished,  to  any  extent,  by  the  water- 
ing pot.  A man  will  raise  more  moisture  with  a hoe  or  spade, 
in  a day,  than  he  can  pour  on  the  earth  out  of  a watering  pot 
in  a month. 

Soil. — The  plants,  which  grow  in  a garden,  prefer  the  best 
soil  that  is  to  be  found.  The  best  is  loam  of  several  feet  deep 
with  a bed  of  lime-stone,  sand-stone,  or  sand,  below.  But  we 
must  take  what  we  find,  or,  rather,  what  we  happen  to  have.  If 
we  have  a choice,  we  ought  to  take  that  which  comes  nearest  to 


THE  FARM. 


61 


perfection,  and,  if  we  possibly  can,  we  ought  to  reject  clay 
and  gravel,  not  only  as  a top  soil,  but  as  a bottom  soil,  how- 
ever great  their  distance  from  the  surface. 

Oak  trees  love  clay,  and  the  finest  and  heaviest  wheat 
grows  in  land  with  a bottom  of  clay  ; but  if  there  be  clay 
within  even  six  feet  of  the  surface,  there  will  be  a coldness  in 
the  land,  which  will,  in  spite  of  all  you  can  do,  keep  your 
spring  crops  a week  or  ten  days  behind  those  upon  land 
which  has  not  a bottom  of  clay. 

If  the  land,  where  you  like  to  have  a garden,  has  rocks, 
great  or  small,  they,  of  course,  are  to  be  carried  off ; but,  if  you 
have  a stony  soil,  that  is  to  say,  little  short  of  gravel  to  the 
very  surface,  and,  if  you  can  get  no  other  spot,  you  must  e’en 
hammer  your  tools  to  pieces  amongst  the  stones  ; for  it  has 
been  amply  proved  by  experience  that  to  carry  away  stones  of 
the  flint  or  gravel  kind  impoverishes  the  land. 

Having  fixed  upon  the  spot  for  the  garden,  the  next  thing 
is  to  prepare  the  ground.  This  may  be  done  by  ploughing  and 
harrowing,  until  the  ground  at  top  be  perfectly  clean  ; and 
then  by  double  ploughing  ; that  is  to  say,  by  going  with  a 
strong  plough  that  turns  a large  furrow  and  turns  it  cleanly, 
twice  in  the  same  place,  and  thus  moving  the  ground  to  the 
depth  of  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches,  for  the  advantage  of 
deeply  moving  the  ground  is  very  great  indeed.  When  this 
has  been  done  in  one  direction,  it  ought  to  be  done  across, 
and  then  the  ground  will  have  been  well  and  truly  moved. 
The  ploughing  ought  to  be  done  with  four  oxen,  and  the 
plough  ought  to  be  held  by  a strong  and  careful  ploughman. 

But  this  is  not  all  that  ought  to  be  done,  and  it  is  proper 
to  give  directions  for  the  [best  way  of  doing  this  and  every 
thing  else.  The  best  way  is  then  to  trench  the  ground, 
which  is  performed  in  this  manner  : At  one  end  of  the  piece 
of  ground,  intended  for  the  garden,  you  make  with  a spade  a 
trench  all  along,  two  feet  wide  and  two  feet  deep.  You  throw 
the  earth  out  on  the  side  away  from  the  garden  that  is  to  be. 
You  shovel  out  the  bottom  clean,  and  make  the  sides  of  the 
trench  as  nearly  perpendicular  as  possible.  Thus  "you  have  a 
clean,  open  trench,  running  all  along  one  end  of  your  garden 
ground.  You  then  take  another  piece  all  along,  two  feet  wide, 


62 


THE  FARM. 


and  put  the  earth  that  this  new  piece  contains  into  the  trench, 
taking  off  the  top  of  the  new  two  feet  wide,  and  turning  that 
top  down  into  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  and  then  taking  the 
remainder  of  the  earth  of  the  new  two  feet,  and  placing  it  on 
the  top  of  the  earth  just  turned  into  the  bottom  of  the  trench. 
Thus,  when  you  have  again  shoveled  out  the  bottom,  and  put 
it  on  the  top  of  the  whole  that  you  have  put  into  the  trench, 
you  have  another  clean  trench  two  feet  wide  and  two  feet  deep. 
You  thus  proceed  till  the  whole  of  the  garden  ground  be 
trenched  ; and  then  it  will  have  been  cleanly  turned  over  to 
the  depth  of  two  feet. 

As  to  the  expense  of  this"preparatory  operation,  a man  that 
knows  how  to  use  a spade  will  trench  four  rods  in  a day  very 
easily  in  the  month  of  October,  or  in  the  month  of  November 
if  the  ground  be  not  frozen.  Supposing  the  garden  to  contain 
an  acre,  and  the  laborer  to  earn  a dollar  a day,  the  cost  of 
this  operation  will,  of  course,  be  forty  dollars';  which,  perhaps, 
would  be  twenty  dollars  above  the  expense  of  the  various 
ploughings  and  harrowings  necessary  in  the  other  way  ; but 
the  difference  in  the  value  of  the  two  operations  is  beyond  all 
calculation.  There  is  no  point  of  greater  importance  than 
this.  Poor  ground  deeply  moved  is  preferable,  in  many  cases, 
to  rich  ground  with  shallow  tillage  ; and,  when  the  ground  has 
been  deeply  moved  once,  it  feels  the  benefit  for  ever  after.  A 
garden  is  made  to  last  for  ages  ; what,  then,  in  such  a case, 
is  the  amount  of  twenty  dollars  ? It  is  well  known,  to  all  who 
have  had  experience  on  the  subject,  that  of  two  plants  of 
almost  any  kind  that  stand  for  the  space  of  three  months  in 
top  soil  of  the  same  quality,  one  being  on  ground  deeply 
moved,  and  the  other  on  ground  moved  no  deeper  than  is 
usual,  the  former  will  exceed  the  latter  one-half  in  bulk.  And, 
as  to  trees  of  all  descriptions,  from  the  pear  tree  down  to  the 
currant  bush,  the  difference  is  so  great  that  there  is  no  room 
room  for  comparison.  It  is  a notion  with  some  persons  that 
it  is  of  no  use  to  move  the  ground  ^deeper  than  the  roots  of 
the  plant  penetrate.  But,  in  the  first  place,  the  roots  go  much 
deeper  than  we  generally  suppose.  When  we  pull  up  a cab- 
bage, for  instance,  we  see  no  roots  more  than  a foot  long  ; but, 
if  we  were  careful  to  pursue  the  roots  to  their  utmost  point, 


THE  FARM. 


63 


ewen  as  far  as  our  eye  would  assist  us,  we  should  find  the  roots 
a great  deal  longer,  and  the  extremities  of  the  roots  are  much 
too  fine  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  Upon  pulling  up  a com- 
mon turnip,  who  would  imagine  that  the  side,  or  horizontal 
roots,  extend  to  several  feet  ? 

It  is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  ground 
be  moved  to  a good  depth,  and  he  who  is  about  to  make  a 
garden  should  remember  that  he  is  about  to  do  that,  the  effects 
of  which  are  to  be  felt  for  ages.  There  is,  however,  one  ob- 
jection to  trenching  in  certain  cases.  The  soil  may  not  only 
not  be  good  to  the  depth  of  two  feet,  but  it  may  be  bad  long 
before  you  come  to  that  depth,  and,  in  this  case,  the  trenching, 
in  putting  the  good  soil  at  bottom,  might  bring  a hungry  sand, 
or  even  a gravel  or  clay,  to  the  top,  which  must  not  be  done  by 
any  means  ; for,  even  in  the  case  of  trees,  they  would  perish, 
or  become  stunted,  because  their  roots  would  not  find  their 
way  from  the  bad  soil  to  the  good. 

The  ground  being  trenched,  in  October,  ought  to  be  well 
manured  at  top  with  good,  well-rotted  dung,  or  with  soap- 
boilers’ ashes,  or  some  other  good  manure  ; and  this  might  be 
ploughed  or  dug  in  shallowly.  Before  the  frost  is  gone  in  the 
spring,  another  good  coat  of  manure  should  be  put  on  ; well- 
rotted  manure  from  the  yard  ; ashes,  or,  rather,  if  ready,  from 
a good  compost.  Then,  when  the  frost  is  gone,  the  ground 
will  be  instantly  fit  for  digging  and  planting  ; and  it  will  bear 
almost  any  thing  that  can  be  put  into  it. 

A Hot  Bed. — If  it  can  be  so  arranged,  it  should  be  built 
against  a shed  or  board  fence,  with  its  face  to  the  south-east 
or  to  the  south.  Horse  manure  is  the  best  to  use  for  this  pur- 
pose. Make  a frame  of  boards  or  plank  as  large  as  desired, 
and  a foot  and  a half  higher  at  the  back  than  in  front,  so  as  to 
furnish  a slanting  support  for  the  glass  to  rest  upon.  It  should 
be  two  feet  high  in  front.  Place  the  manure  in  the  bottom  to 
the  depth  of  a foot  and  a half.  It  should  be  well  fermented 
and  warm.  Over  it  spread  a few  inches  of  good  garden  soil, 
in  which  is  a fair  mixture  of  sand.  Cover  the  bed  with  the  win- 
dow sash  and  let  the  sun  blaze  in  upon  it  through  two  or  three 
bright  days,  having  taken  the  precaution  to  bank  the  bed  on  the 
outside  with  soil  and  manure.  Plant  the  seeds  in  rows  with 


64 


THE  FARM. 


labeled  sticks  between  each  kind.  Sprinkle  over  warm  water 
with  a rose-sprinkler,  and  adjust  the  sashes.  Give  the  bed 
fresh  air  at  noon  every  fair  day,  and  see  that  the  young  plants 
do  not  suffer  for  water. 

When  the  plants  come  up  tney  will  soon  tell  you  all  about 
air  ; for,  if  they  have  not  enough,  they  will  draw  up  long- 
legged,  and  will  have  small  seed  leaves,  and,  indeed,  if  too 
much  deprived  of  air,  will  droop  down  and  die.  Take  care 
in  time  to  prevent  this.  Let  them  grow  strong  rather  than 
tall.  Short  stems,  broad  seed  leaves,  very  green  ; these  are 
the  signs  of  good  plants  and  proper  management. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  water.  Take  off  a light  at  a time, 
and  water  with  a watering  pot  that  does  not  pour  out  heavily. 
Water  just  about  sun-set ; and  then  shut  down  the  lights  ; 
and  the  heat  will  then  rise,  and  make  the  plants  grow  pro- 
digiously. 

Saving  and  Preserving  Seed. — This  is  the  most  important 
branch  of  the  gardener’s  business. 

As  to  the  saving  of  seed,  the  truest  plants  should  be 
selected  ; that  is  to  say,  such  as  one  of  the  most  perfect  shape 
and  quality.  In  the  cabbage,  seek  small  stem,  well  formed 
loaf,  few  spare  or  loose  leaves  ; in  the  turnip,  large  bulk,  small 
neck,  slender  stalked  leaves,  solid  flesh  or  pulp  ; in  the  radish, 
high  color,  (if  red  or  scarlet,)  small  neck,  few  and  short  leaves 
and  long  top,  the  marks  of  perfection  are  well  known  and 
none  but  perfect  plants  should  be  saved  for  seed.  The  case  is 
somewhat  different  as  to  plants,  which  are  some  male  and 
others  female. 

Of  plants,  the  early  coming  of  which  is  a circumstance  ot 
importance,  the  very  earliest  should  be  chdsen  for  seed  ; for 
they  will  almost  always  be  found  to  include  the  highest  degree 
of  perfection  in  other  respects. 

They  should  stand  till  perfectly  ripe,  if  possible.  They 
should  be  cut,  or  pulled,  or  gathered,  when  it  is  dry  ; and  they 
should,  if  possible,  be  dry  as  dry  can  be  before  they  are 
threshed  out.  If,  when  threshed,  any  moisture  remains  about 
them,  they  should  be  placed  in  the  sun,  or  near  a fire  in  a dry 
room,  and  when  quite  dry  should  be  put  into  bags  and  hung 
up  against  a very  dry  wall,  or  boards,  where  they  will  by 


THE  FARM. 


65 


no  accident  get  damp.  The  best  place  is  some  room,  or  place, 
where  there  is  occasionally,  at  least,  a fire  kept  in  winter. 

Thus  preserved,  kept  from  open  air  and  from  damp,  the 
seeds  of  vegetables  will  keep  sound  and  good  for  sowing  for 
the  number  of  years  stated  in  the  following  list,  to  which  the 
reader  will  particularly  attend.  Some  of  the  seeds  in  this  list 
will  keep,  sometimes,  a year  longer,  if  very  well  saved  and  very 
well  preserved,  and  especially  if  closely  kept  from  exposure  to 
the  open  air.  But,  to  lose  a crop  from  unsoundness  of  seed  is 
a sad  thing,  and  it  is,  indeed,  negligence  wholly  inexcusable  to 
sow  seed  of  the  soundness  of  which  we  are  not  certain. 


Years. 

Asparagus 4 

Bean 1 

Bean  (Kidney) 1 

Beet 10 

Burnet 6 

Cabbage.. 4 

Years. 

Corn 3 

Corn  Salad 2 

Cress 2 

Cucumber ..  10 

Dandelion 10 

Dock 1 

Camomile 2 

Fennel  ...  5 

Capsicum 2 

Caraway 4 

Carrot 1 

Garlick 3 

Gourd 10 

Hop 2 

Cauliflower 4 

Celery 10 

Horse-Radish 4 

Hyssop 6 

Marigold 3 

Melon 10 

Mint 4 

Mustard 4 

Onion 2 

Parsley 6 

Parsnip :...  1 

Pea 1 

Pennyroyal 2 

Potato ....  3 

Pumpkin ...  10 

Purslane 2 

Radish 2 

Rape 4 

Rhubarb 1 

Jerusalem  Artichoke 3 

Lavender 2 

Leek 2 

Lettuce 3 

Mangle  Wurzel 10 

Ruta-Baga 4 

Savory 2 

Sorrel 7 

Spinach 4 

Squash. 10 

Tansey 3 

Thyme 2 

Tomatum 2 

Turnip 4 

Wormwood 2 

Rosemary 3 

Sowing*. — The  first  thing  relating  to  sowing  is  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  ground.  It  may  be  more  or  less  fine  according  to 
the  sort  of  seed  to  be  sown.  Peas  and  beans  do  not,  of  course, 
require  the  earth  so  fine  as  small  seeds  do.  But,  still  the  finer 
the  better  for  everything  ; for  it  is  best  if  the  seed  be  actually 
pressed  by  the  earth  in  every  part ; and  many  seeds,  if  not  all, 
are  best  situated  when  the  earth  is  trodden  down  upon  them. 

Never  sow  when  the  ground  is  wet ; nor,  indeed,  if  it  can 
be  avoided,  perform  any  other  act  with  or  on  the  ground  of  a 
garden.  It  is  even  desirable  that  wet  should  not  come  for 
some  days  after  ground  has  been’ moved  ; for,  if  the  wet  come 
before  the  ground  be  dry  at  the  top,  the  earth  will  run  to- 
3 


66 


THE  FARM. 

gether,  and  will  become  bound  at  top.  Sow,  therefore,  if  pos- 
sible, in  dry  weather,  but  in  freshly  moved  ground. 

The  season  for  sowing  differs,  of  course,  with  the  respec- 
tive plants. 

However,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that  some,  and  even 
many,  things,  which  are  usually  sown  in  the  spring,  would  be 
better  sown  in  the  fall ; and  especially  when  we  consider  how 
little  time  there  is  for  doing  all  things  in  the  spring.  Parsnips, 
carrots,  beets,  onions,  and  many  other  things,  may  be  safely 
sown  in  the  fall.  The  seed  will  not  perish  if  covered  by  the 
earth.  But,  then,  care  must  be  taken  to  sow  early  enough  in 
the  fall  for  the  plants  to  come  up  before  the  frost  sets  in.  The 
seed  of  all  plants  will  lie  safe  in  this  way  all  the  winter,  though 
the  frost  penetrate  to  the  distance  of  three  feet  beneath  them, 
except  the  seeds  of  such  plants  as  a slight  frost  will  cut  down. 
The  seed  of  kidney  beans,  for  instance,  will  rot,  if  the  ground 
be  not  warm  enough  to  bring  it  up.  So  will  the  seeds  of 
cucumbers,  melons,  and  Indian  corn,  unless  buried  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere. 

Transplanting. — The  weather  for  transplanting,  whether 
of  table  vegetables,  or  of  trees,  is  the  same  as  that  for  sowing. 
If  you  do  this  work  in  wet  weather,  or  when  the  ground  is  wet, 
the  work  cannot  be  well  done.  It  is  no  matter  what  the  plant 
is,  whether  it  be  a cucumber  plant,  or  an  oak  tree.  It  has 
been  observed,  as  to  seeds,  that  they  like  the  earth  to  touch 
them  in  every  part,  and  to  lie  close  about  them.  It  is  the  same 
with  roots.  One  half  of  the  bad  growth  that  we  see  in  orch- 
ards arises  from  negligence  in  planting  ; from  tumbling  the 
earth  carelessly  in  upon  the  roots.  The  earth  should  be  fine 
as  possible;  for,  if  it  be  not,  part  of  the  roots  will  remain  un- 
touched by  the  earth.  If  ground  be  wet,  it  cannot  be  fine. 

If  possible,  therefore,  transplant  when  the  ground  is  not 
wet;  but,  here  again,  as  in  the  case  of  sowing,  let  it  be  dug  or 
deeply  moved,  and  well  broken,  immediately  before  you  trans- 
plant into  it. 

If  you  transplant  in  hot  weather,  the  leaves  of  the  plants 
will  be  scorched;  but  the  hearts  will  live;  and  the  heat,  assist- 
ing the  fermentation,  will  produce  new  roots  in  twenty-tour 


THE  FARM.  6? 

hours,  and  new  leaves  in  a few  days.  Then  it  is  that  you  see 
fine  vegetation  come  on. 

Cultivation. — If  the  subject  be  from  seed,  the  first  thing 
is  to  see  that  the  plants  stand  at  a proper  distance  from  each 
other;  because,  if  left  too  close,  they  cannot  come  to  good. 
Let  them  also  be  thinned  early;  for,  even  while  in  seed  leaf, 
they  injure  each  other.  Carrots,  parsnips,  lettuces,  everything 
ought  to  be  thinned  in  the  seed  leaf. 

Hoe,  or  weed,  immediately  ; weeds  never  ought  to  be 
suffered  to  get  any  size,  either  in  field  or  garden,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  latter. 

But,  besides  the  act  of  killing  weeds,  cultivation  means 
moving  the  earth  between  the  plants  while  growing.  This 
assists  them  in  their  growth  ; it  feeds  them  ; it  raises  food  for 
their  roots  to  live  upon.  A mere  flat  hoeing  does  nothing  but 
keep  down  the  weeds.  The  hoeing,  when  the  plants  are  be- 
come stout,  should  be  deep.  Deep  hoeing  is  enough  in  some 
cases,  but  in  others,  digging  is  necessary  to  produce  a fine 
and  full  crop.  If  anybody  will  have  a piece  of  cabbages,  and 
will  dig  between  the  rows  of  one  half  of  them,  twice  during 
their  growth,  and  let  the  other  half  of  the  piece  have  nothing 
but  a flat  hoeing,  that  person  will  find  that  the  half  which  has 
been  digged  between,  will,  when  the  crop  is  ripe,  weigh  nearly, 
if  not  quite,  twice  as  much  as  the  other  half.  But,  why  need 
this  be  said  in  an  Indian  corn  country,  where  it  is  so  well 
known,  that  without  being  ploughed  between,  the  corn  will 
produce  next  to  nothing  ? 

It  may  appear  that  to  dig  thus  amongst  growing  plants  is 
to  cut  off,  or  tear  off,  their  roots,  of  which  the  ground  is  full. 
This  is  really  the  case,  and  this  does  great  good;  for  the  roots 
thus  cut  asunder  shoot  again  from  the  plant  side,  find  new 
food,  and  send  instantly  fresh  vigor  to  the  plant.  The  effect 
of  this  tillage  is  quite  surprising.  We  are  hardly  aware  of  its 
power  of  producing  vegetation;  and  we  are  still  less  aware  of 
the  distance  to  which  the  roots  of  plants  extend  in  every 
direction. 

INJURIOUS  INSECTS  AND  THE  REMEDIES  FOR  THEM. 

Colorado  Potato  Beetle— The  history  of  this  beetle,  that 


08 


THE  FARM. 


it  is  a native  of  Colorado,  where  it  was  discovered,  named 
and  described,  many  years  ago,  is  well  known. 

It  comes  forth  out  of  the  earth  as  a beetle  just  as  the  potato 
vines  are  peering  from  the  ground.  With  the  coming  of  warm 
days  the  female  lays  her  cluster  of  orange  eggs,  sometimes  to 
the  number  of  a thousand,  either  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves  of  the  potato  vines,  or  on  the  blades  of  grass  or  other 
vegetables  near  by. 

These  soon  hatch,  when  the  young,  or  larvae,  are  found  to 
eat  quite  as  voraciously  as  the  mature  beetle.  In  about  fifteen 
days  the  young  become  fully  developed,  when  they  pass  into 
the  ground  to  pupate.  After  about  ten  days  of  such  quiet  they 
come  forth  in  the  beetle  state. 

These  beetles,  with  their  bright  bands  of  yellow  and  black, 
mate,,  deposit  eggs,  and  soon  die,  behaving  in  all  respects  as 
before.  So  to,  the  larvae  and  pupae.  These  again  are  followed 
by  a third  brood,  which  completes  the  ruinous  work  of  the 
season. 

Remedies. — Inasmuch  as  Paris  green  is  so  practical,  so 
efficient,  and  so  cheap  a remedy  for  this  pest,  every  farmer 
better  ignore  all  other  means,  such  as  hand  picking,  ma- 
chinery, etc.,  as  too  expensive,  and  not  sufficiently  thorough. 
With  a little  care,  Paris  green,  the  genuine  article,  of  course 
is  entirely  safe. 

The  two  methods  which  have  been  tried  with  the  best  suc- 
cess as  to  economy  are,  either  to  mix  the  green  with  water,  a 
heaping  tablespoonful  to  ten  quarts  of  the  fluid,  and  sprinkle 
on  with  a common  sprinkler,  or  an  old  broom;  or  to  mix  the 
green  with  flour  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  green  to  six 
of  flour,  sifted  on  when  there  is  no  dew  on  the  vines,  either 
through  a muslin  bag  suspended  to  a convenient  handle,  that  it 
may  be  carried  and  shaken  over  the  vines,  the  person  making 
the  application  walking  upright,  or  with  a pail,  the  bottom  be- 
ing of  fine  wire  gauze,  or  finely  perforated  tin.  Where  these 
methods  are  used,  the  whole  expense  per  acre,  for  both  ma- 
terial and  cost  of  application,  will  not  exceed  five  dollars  for 
the  season. 

, The  advantages  of  the  water  mixture  are  ease,  safety,  even 
with  the  careless,  and  rapidity  of  application,  and  that,  too, 
even  if  the  day  is  windy.  Its  disadvantages  are  waste  of  ma- 
terial, as  nearly  one-third  of  the  water  does  not  touch  the  vines, 
and,  of  course,  are  lost;  danger  of  not  stirring  the  mixture  suf- 
ficiently often,  when  the  green  being  only  held  in  suspension, 
not  dissolved,  settles  to  the  bottom,  and  the  preparation  be- 
comes too  dilute ; ease  with  which  the  green  when  thus 
applied  is  washed  off  by  heavy  rains;  and  the  danger  of  not 
applying  evenly, as  the  powder  suspended  in  the  water  is  amassed 


THE  FARM. 


6$ 

wherever  the  drops  of  water  settle.  Yet,  from  its  convenience 
and  the  ease  with  which  the  application  may  be  made,  this  will 
quite  likely  be  the  favorite  method. 

The  flour  mixture  is  preferable  to  all  other  preparations. 
The  flour  makes  the  green  adhere  to  the  vines  so  that  the 
heaviest  rain  is  powerless  to  remove  it.  No  second  application 
is  needed  till  enlarged  growth  of  vines  demands  it.  Make  the 
mixture  strong,  one  of  powder  to  six  of  flour.  The  danger  of 
using  the  flour  mixture  consists  in  the  fact  that  unless  used 
sparingly,  the  paste  will  destroy  the  vines.  But  it  is  perfectly 
easy  and  entirely  safe  to  use  it  if  the  least  possible  amount  be 
used.  Add  only  enough  that  it  may  be  seen. 

Some  prefer  to  use  pla'ster  instead  of  flour,  using  forty  or 
fifty  parts  of  plaster  by  measure  to  one  of  the  green.  This 
does  not  form  a paste,  and  can  be  added  in  quantity  without 
danger  to  the  vines — indeed  the  plaster  may  be  useful — but 
the  first  heavy  rain  will  wash  it  off. 

Cut- Worms. — Little,  if  any,  inferior  to  the  potato  beetle 
in  its  destruction  to  our  field  crops,  is  the  cut-worm.  The 
cut-worms  (for  there  are  several  species  which  claim  tribute 
from  the  grain  grower,)  are  not  confined  in  their  operations  to 
a single  staple,  for  nearly  all  our  cereals,  grasses,  and 
especially  our  corn  crops,  are  made  to  contribute  to  their 
support. 

The  cut-worms  are  so  named  from  their  prodigal  habits  of 
cutting  off  plants;  not  taking  their  fill  on  a single  plant,  leav- 
ing all  uneaten  undisturbed;  but,  as  if  totally  depraved,  they 
simply  cut  the  plants  asunder,  thus  ruining  every  plant  that 
they  attack. 

The  young  cut-worms,  perhaps  from  their  small  size  and 
abundant  food,  seem  to  attract  little  attention  because  of  their 
injuries  till  the  succeeding  May,  when  the  full  grown  larvae, 
not  over  an  inch  in  length,  greasy,  and  in  sober  garb  of  gray, 
brown,  or  striped  with  light  and  dark,  depending  on  the  species, 
come  forth  to  nip  our  crops  and  blast  our  hopes. 

Remedies. — There  is  no  more  sure  way  to  ward  off  cut- 
worm injuries  than  to  enter  into  partnership  with  the  birds,  in 
which  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  party  of  the  first  part  to  plow 
the  land  early  in  the  fall,  so  that  bluebird,  robin,  and  grakle 
may  have  a cut-worm  feast  before  leaving  for  more  genial 
climes.  Deep  harrowing  will  aid  the  party  of  the  second  part, 
while  a repetition  of  the  same,  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 
season  will  permit,  will  insure  a thanksgiving  repast  of  the 
same  nature. 

Early  spring  birds  are  much  put  to  it  to  gain  sufficient  food 


70 


THE  FARM. 


for  themselves  and  brood,  and  with  the  opportunity  will  be- 
come chief  abettors  in  cut-worm  destruction. 

The  only  method  to  supplement  the  above  measures  when 
they  are  not  adequate  to  remove  the  evil,  with  our  field  crops, 
is  digging  out  by  hand  and  destroying.  This  is  by  no  means 
so  tedious  a procedure  as  would  be  thought  at  first,  as,  by  pass- 
ing along  the  cornfield  early  in  the  morning,  the  cut  stock  will 
reveal  the  whereabouts  of  the  night-marauder,  which,  by  dig- 
ging around  the  stub,  may  soon  be  found  and  crushed. 

The  May  Beetle. — Few  farmers  will  need  a description  of 
that  sleek  old  culprit,  the  white  grub — still  less  to  be  assured 
of  its  destructive  powers,  as  the  damage  to  our  meadows  and 
other  products  are  becoming  yearly  more  alarming. 

In  May  and  June  the  beetles,  all  brown  and  plump,  come 
forth  from  the  ground,  and  at  early  twilight,  and  on  into  the 
night,  fly  forth  in  such  numbers  as  to  sound  like  the  swarming 
of  bees,  often  annoying  us  by  thumping  at  windows  or  lumber- 
ing into  our  rooms,  to  be  felled  by  bumping  the  walls  ; hence 
the  name  dor-beetle,  and  the  expressions  “ beetle-headed  ” and 
“blind  as  a beetle.”  These  beetles  often  do  no  inconsiderable 
damage  by  eating  the  foilage  from  fruit  trees.  Would  that 
they  might  rest  content  with  the  completion  of  such  mischief! 
After  pairing,  the  females  lay  their  eggs,  fifty  or  more,  probably 
in  the  ground,  near  the  roots'  of  grass  or  other  plants. 

The  grub,  white,  wrinkled,  with  a brown  head,  feeds  on  the 
roots  of  grass,  wheat,  corn,  and  other  plants,  for  three  years, 
when  it  becomes  full-grown,  having  attained  nearly  one  and 
one-half  inches  in  length.  In  the  third  autumn  it  forms  a 
cocoon  of  earth,  in  which  it  pupates.  The  next  May  or  June 
the  beetles  come  forth  to  enjoy  a brief  riot,  and  prepare  for 
another  round  of  mischief  under  ground. 

Remedies. — As  the  number  of  these  beetles  and  grubs  are 
frequently  so  alarmingly  great,  and  their  mischief  so  wide 
spread  and  extensive,  we  can  only  hope  to  ward  off  the  ravages 
in  our  pastures  and  meadows  by  wholesale  remedies.  So  soon 
as  the  meadow  turns  sear,  and  we  have  the  further  evidence 
that  the  white  grub  is  the  culprit  in  the  grass,  now  rootless, 
freely  yielding  to  the  hand  or  rake  ; or,  still  better,  finding  the 
sleek  old  gormand  beneath  by  a little  digging ; if  this  state  of 
things  is  so  extensive  as  to  create  uneasiness,  the  field  better 
be  given  over  at  once  to  the  swine,  and  the  more  swine  the 
better.  It  may  be  as  profitable  to  turn  the  grass  into  pork, 
indirectly  through  the  aid  of  the  white  grub,  as  to  change  it 
directly  into  beef  or  mutton  ; besides,  we  then  are  sure  to 
destroy  a grievous  pest.  If  the  meadow  is  the  seat  of  the  evil, 
it  may  pay  best  to  cut  the  hay  first.  Early  fall  plowing  will 


THE  FARM. 


71 


enable  the  birds  to  aid  the  swine,  and  possibly  kill  the  grubs 
by  destroying  their  food.  Frequent  harrowing  will  give  the 
birds  a still  better  chance. 

In  protecting  wheat  and  corn,  the  same  remedies  would 
apply  as  those  recommended  to  destroy  the  cut-worm. 

Wire- Worm. — Within  a few  years  these  insects  have  be- 
come quite  destructive. 

Wire-worms,  larvae  of  elater,  or  spring  beetles,  usually  feed 
on  rotten  wood,  so  that  we  can  hardly  raise  a piece  of  bark  on 
a decaying  log,  or  turn  over  a rotten  log,  without  finding  them. 
Would  that  all  were  content  with  such  a diet  ! but  not  so,  for, 
as  too  many  know  by  disheartening  experience,  some  of  them 
attack  the  newly  planted  potatoes  in  a perfectly  ruinous  man- 
ner, so  that  to  have  a crop  demands  a second  planting.  Nor 
do  they  behave  better  toward  the  fresh  corn  plants.  These 
wire-worms  are  well  named,  as  they  much  resemble  in  form 
both  a worm  and  a wire.  They  have  the  six  usual  jointed 
legs,  and  thus  may  be  easily  told  from  the  myriapods,  which 
they  somewhat  resemble,  but  which  have  many  legs.  They 
work  for  several  years  and  pupate  in  an  earthen  cocoon.  The 
beetles  which  come  from  these  grubs  are  the  well  known  ela- 
ters,  or  spring  beetles,  which  possess  such  a power  of  springing 
up,  if  perchance  they  fall  on  their  back.  This  habit,  less  than 
their  peculiar  form,  will  serve  to  distinguish  them  wherever 
seen. 

Remedies. — The  same  course  as  that  recommended  for  cut- 
worms and  the  white  grub — fall  plowing  and  frequent  harrow- 
ing, to  give  the  fall  and  spring  birds  a good  chance — will  also 
serve  here.  In  England,  where  they  are  greatly  troubled  with 
these  same  or  similar  insects,  it  is  common  to  bury  potatoes 
with  a long  stick  stuck  through  them  to  mark  their  where- 
abouts. This  is  done  early — some  time  before  planting.  The 
grubs  collect  on  these  to  feed,  when  they  are  gathered  and 
destroyed.  Gas-lime  and  salt  are  also  highly  recommended  by 
experienced  gardeners  in  Europe.  These  are  placed  with  the 
seed  in  planting. 

Pea  Weevil. — This  little  insect,  though  doing  little  damage 
to  garden  peas,  for  in  green  peas  it  is  not  only  too  small  to 
essentially  change  the  flavor,  but  even  to  attract  the  eye,  but 
in  field  crops,  where  peas  are  raised  to  feed  after  they  are  fully 
matured,  there  is  very  serious  injury,  for  this  little  weevil,  so 
generally  distributed,  and  so  persistent  in  its  yearly  attacks, 
consumes,  while  yet  a larvae,  all  the  nutritious  material  of  the 
pea,  leaving  only  the  germ  and  a mere  shell  outside.  Hence, 
affected  peas  will  grow,  but,  of  course,  with  bated  vigor  ; as 
the  needed  starch  pabulum  is  wanting  in  those  early  days,  the 


72 


THE  FARM. 


precarious  time  with  all  life ) but  to  feed  they  are  almost  en- 
tirely useless. 

Remedies. — As  these  insects  are  in  the  peas  in  the  winter 
and  in  the  spring,  if  the  same  be  kept  over  one  year,  in  per- 
fectly close  barrels,  bags,  cans,  or  bottles,  of  course,  the  insects 
thus  confined  will  all  die.  Hence,  if  these  pea  weevils  are 
sufficiently  annoying  to  cause  disturbance,  there  can  be  a 
most  effectual  estoppel  put  upon  their  mischief  by  thus  put- 
ting all  our  peas  in  close  vessels,  any  time  in  the  winter, 
and  keeping  them  close  for  one  season. 

The  Squash  Bug. — This  old-time  enemy  is  so  well  known 
that  the  name  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  bring  his  image  and  evil 
doings  to  mind. 

Remedies. — The  habit  that  these  squash  bugs  have  of  con- 
cealment suggests  i very  practical  means  to  capture  them.  It  is 
similar  to  the  Ransom  process  for  capturing  the  plum  curculio, 
and  consists  simply  in  placing  small  pieces,  boards,  chips,  or 
even  green  leaves,  on  the  ground,  close  around  the  vines. 
We  may  then  go  around  each  morning,  early  in  the  season, 
before  the  eggs  are  laid,  and  gather  and  destroy  the  bugs 
thus  concealed,  and  soon  extirpate  the  cause  of  the  evil. 
These  morning  visits  must  be  so  early  that  the  insects  will 
not  have  yet  left  their  hiding  places.  If  the  eggs  are 
laid  before  we  capture  the  bugs,  we  should  either  gather  the 
eggs  from  beneath  the  leaves  or  continue  the  same  process 
narrated  above  to  get  rid  of ‘the  young. 

Tomato  Worm. — All  who  grow  that  beautiful  and  savory 
vegetable,  the  tomato,  are  acquainted  with  the  formidable 
pest  which,  unless  prevented,  too  often  brings  all  hopes  of 
satisfied  tomato  appetites  to  naught. 

Remedies. — Hand-picking  is  a quick,  easy  and  sure  pre- 
ventive. The  only  objection  to  this  is  that  it  is  disagree- 
able and  sometimes  prevented  by  timidity.  Yet  a good  pair 
of  gloves  will  insure  the  temerity  necessary  to  its  successful 
practice.  As  before  intimated,  the  fear  is  entirely  ground- 
less, for  there  are  no  more  harmless  creatures  in  existence. 
To  be  sure,  they  can  give  quite  a pinch  with  their  strong 
jaws,  which  they  will  attempt  to  do  if  held,  but  this  is  al- 
most painless  and  entirely  harmless.  They  never  use  their 
caudal  horn,  the  supposed  weapon  of  immemorial  dread.  So 
hand-picking,  with  or  without  gloves,  is  entirely  safe,  and  as 
effectual  as  safe.  Of  course,  the  disfigured  leaves  will  guide 
us  in  our  search. 

Skunks  are  powerful  aids  in  this  fight,  as  they  feed  ex- 
tensively on  the  pupae. 


THE  FARM. 


73 


Cabbage  Cut- Worms. — The  larvae  generally  lie  concealed 
by  day  just  beneath  the  soil,  and  come  forth,  cloaked  in 
darkness,  to  do  their  evil  work.  This  is  not  strictly  true, 
as  frequently  on  cloudy  days  their  eager  appetites,  or  else 
an  innate  longing  for  destruction  (for  these  cut-worms  do 
seem  the  most  totally  depraved  of  all  insects),  impel  them 
forth  to  work  havoc. 

Sandy  gardens,  and  those  near  meadows,  pastures  or  lawns, 
where  the  insects  have  commenced,  and  nearly  completed, 
their  growth  by  feeding  on  the  grass,  or  its  roots,  are  by 
far  the  most  liable  to  attack. 

Remedies. — After  the  ground  is  well  fitted  for  the  plants, 
great  advantage  will  result  from  placing  newly  mown  grass, 
fresh  cornstalks,  etc.,  in  heaps  about  the  plat.  Coming  to 
these  by  night,  the  larvae  will  feed  and  crawl  beneath,  and 
may  be  captured  and  'destroyed  every  morning. 

Sized  paper,  such  as  we  usually  write  on,  wound  closely 
about  the  plants,  and  held  in  place  by  banking  slightly  about 
the  base  with  earth,  is  a sure  preventive,  as  the  larvae  can- 
not pass  up  its  smooth  surface.  Care  is  only  necessary  that 
the  paper  may  closely  encircle  the  plant,  and  that  the  bank- 
ing be  so  efficient  as  to  surely  hold  it  in  place. 

The  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle. — This  beautiful  little  beetle, 
yellow  with  black  stripes,  which  seems  suddenly  to  fairly 
swarm  on  the  cucumber  and  melon  vines,  is  often  the  cause 
of  great  vexation  to  the  gardener. 

Remedies. — Boxes  covered  with  glass,  or  millinet,  and 
placed  over  the  vines,  are  sure  protection,  providing  the 
beetles  do  not  get  inside.  If  glass  is  used,  care  must  be  taken 
to  shade  from  the  hot  sunshine,  or  the  plants  may  be  ruined. 
These  will  form  miniature  hot-beds,  and  will  hasten  growth  if 
rightly  managed. 

Paris  green  is  a certain  preventive,  and,  in  careful  hands,  is 
harmless  to  the  vines.  Put  one  part  green  to  six  parts  flour, 
apply  when  the  vines  are  dry,  and  add  just  as  little  as  possible 
and  see  it  on  the  vines.  Add  a little  too  much,  and  the  vines 
are  sure  to  be  killed. 

The  Codling'  Moth. — All  will  concede  that  this  insect  holds 
first  rank  among  our  insect  pests. 

The  little  gray  moths  come  forth  in  May  and  June,  are 
wholly  nocturnal,  and,  therefore,  seldom  seen.  As  soon  as  the 
fruit  forms,  a single  egg  is  laid  on  the  blossom  end  of  the  fruit, 
and  as  soon  as  the  egg  hatches  the  larvae  enters  the  apple.  All 
know  the  subsequent  history  of  the  larvae  in  the  fruit,  for  who 
has  not  seen  the  tiny  white  caterpillar,  with  its  black  head, 
mining  away  at  the  rich  pulp,  which  it  replaces  with  filth  ? 


74 


THE  FARM. 


Remedies. — Place  around  the  trunk  of  every  bearing  tree, 
midway  between  the  ground  and  branches,  a woolen  cloth 
about  five  inches  wide  and  sufficiently  long  to  pass  around  and 
lap  enough  to  tack.  This  may  be  fastened  with  one  or  two 
tacks.  Usually  one  placed  in  the  middle  is  quite  sufficient. 
The  tack  should  not  be  driven  quite  up  to  the  head.  Before 
the  cloth  band  is  adjusted  the  loose  bark  should  be  scraped 
| off.  This  may  be  done  early  in  the  season,  when  time  will 
first  permit.  The  band  should  be  adjusted  by  June  20.  Under 
< the  bands  the  “ worm  ” will  secrete  themselves.  By  July  7 the 
bands  around  the  earliest  apple  trees  should  be  unwound  and 
examined  and  the  larvae  destroyed.  This  can  be  done  by 
passing  the  bands  through  a wringer,  or  by  unwinding  and 
crushing  with  the  thumb.  Every  ten  days  after  the  first  round 
— every  nine  days  if  the  weather  is  dry  and  warm — this  work 
should  be  repeated,  till  the  last  week  of  August,  and  again  at 
the  close  of  the  season  after  the  fruit  is  gathered.  A common 
carpet-tack  hammer,  with  a good  claw,  suspended  around  the 
neck  by  a cord,  will  be  found  an  advantage. 

Many  apples  will  be  carried  to  the  cellar  with  the  larvae 
still  in  them.  These  larvae,  unless  destroyed,  will  go  through 
their  changes.  Hence  all  barrels,  bins  and  boxes  in  the  cellar 
should  be  examined.  Fires  and  jars  of  sweetened  water  will 
have  no  effect  in  destroying  these  moths.  Hogs  turned  into 
the  orchard  are  but  a partial  remedy,  as  at  least  half  of  the 
larvae  never  go  the  ground  at  all. 

Old  Apple  Tree  Borer. — This  pest,  which  has  been  so  long 
in  our  country,  is  widely  distributed.  Very  few,  if  any,  or- 
chards are  exempt  from  its  attacks.  Not  that  it  always  or 
generally,  totally  destroys  the  trees  ; still,  those  suffering  from 
its  attacks  are  always  lessened  in  vitality,  and  it  not  unfre- 
quently  happens  that  the  trunks  become  so  riddled  with  their 
tunnels  that  the  tree  becomes  a prey  to  the  hard  winds  which 
are  sure  to  come  with  each  returning  year. 

Remedies. — Soapy  mixtures  are  found  to  be  obnoxious  to 
these  beetles,  so  that  in  their  egg-laying  they  are  found  to  avoid 
trees  to  which  such  an  application  has  been  made.  Thus  we 
may  hope  to  escape  all  danger  by  washing  the  smooth  trunks 
of  our  trees  early  in  June,  and  again  early  in  July,  with  soR 
soap  or  a very  strong  solution  of  the  same. 

We  should  always  examine  the  trees  carefully  in  Septem- 
ber, and,  whenever  we  find  this  pernicious  grub’s  sawdust  shingle 
out,  we  should  give  him  a call.  Perhaps  we  may  reach  him 
with  a wire  thrust  into  the  hole,  and,  by  a vigorous  ramming, 
crush  the  culprit.  If  we  have  doubts  as  to  the  crushing,  we 
should  follow  him  with  a knife  ; but,  in  cutting  out  the  borers, 
too  great  care  cannot  be  taken  to  wound  the  tree  just  as  little 


THE  FARM. 


75 


as  possible.  This  heroic  method  is  sure,  and  requires  very- 
little  time,  and  no  person  who  takes  pride  in  his  orchard,  or 
looks  to  it  as  a source  of  profit,  can  afford  to  neglect  the  Sep- 
tember examination,  nor  the  previous  application  of  soap  to 
which  it  is  supplementary. 

Canker  Worm. — Remedies. — The  old  method  so  long  prac- 
ticed in  New  England  is  to  closely  surround  the  tree  with  pa- 
per bands,  say  eight  inches  wide,  and  besmear  the  bands  with 
tar  or  printer’s  ink.  This  gives  the  trees  a forbidding  appear- 
ance, and  necessitates  renewed  application  of  the  adhesive  sub- 
stances so  frequently  as  to  be  sure  that  we  entrap  the  moth  as 
she  attempts  to  pass  up  the  tree.  Dr.  Le  Baron  suggests  a 
neater  and,  he  says,  an  effectual  remedy.  He  would  place  an 
inch  rope  closely  around  the  tree,  letting  it  lap  a little  so  as  to 
be  sure  to  entirely  surround  the  tree.  Then  tack  the  rope  to 
the  tree  at  each  end.  Now  take  a strip  of  tin,  say  five  inches 
wide,  place  it  around  over  the  rope  so  that  the  rope  shall  be 
just  in  the  middle  of  the  tin  ; lap  this  a little  and  tack  to  the 
rope.  It  is  said  that  the  female  moths,  coming  up  to  the  rope, 
and  being  unable  to  crawl  through  under  the  tin,  will  crawl 
around  and  get  on  to  the  tin,  but  that  they  will  never  get  from 
the  tin  to  the  tree  again.  Upon  reaching  the  top  of  the  tin 
they  pass  round  and  round,  not  knowing  that  they  can  pass 
down  and  thus  gain  the  desired  end.  Like  turkeys  entrapped 
in  a pen,  whose  exit  is  only  through  a hole  beneath  the  earth’s 
level,  they  are  balked  through  sheer  stupidity.  In  this  case  the 
moths  will  doubtless  lay  eggs  around  and  below  the  tins. 
These  can  be  destroyed  by  using  kerosene  oil.  This  turned 
upon  the  eggs  destroys  them.  Eggs  laid  in  close  proximity  to 
the  trees,  or  wherever  seen,  can  be  destroyed  in  the  same  way. 

If  the  moths  once  gain  access  to  the  tree,  and  the  larvae 
commence  their  work  of  despoliation,  we  can  take  advantage 
of  their  dropping  propensity  and  destroy  them.  Place  a little 
straw  under  the  tree,  not  sufficient  to  injure  it  when  burned. 
Then  jar  the  tree,  and,  as  the  larvae  swing  down  by  their 
threads,  bring  them  upon  the  straw  by  sweeping  the  threads 
with  a pole,  then  set  fire  to  the  straw,  and  we  are  rid  of  the 
pests.  The  only  trouble  will  be  to  be  sure  to  make  them 
drop.  To  be  complete,  this  will  need  cautious  pains.  During 
the  past  year  syringing  the  tree  with  a mixture  of  Paris  green 
and  water  was  tried  with  marked  success  in  Illinois,  and  is 
highly  recommended  by  those  who  used  it. 

Though  the  neighbors  of  people  with  affected  orchards 
may  take  satisfaction  in  the  prospect  of  a speedy  leave-taking 
of  this  terrible  scourge,  still  those  who  have  orchards  attacked 
will  find  that  persistent  effort  in  the  line  marked  out  above  will 
be  the  price  of  their  orchards,  as  two  or  three  years  at  most 
will  utterly  ruin  the  trees. 


76 


THE  FARM. 


Plum  Curculio. — This  little  beetle,  though  so  small,  cer- 
tainly ranks  very  high  as  an  orchard  pest.  It  is  he  that  ruins 
our  cherries,  often  by  wholesale.  It  is  he  that  has  a tooth  for 
luscious  peach  ; and,  unless  prevented,  materially  lessens  the 
profits.  And  even  our  king  of  fruits,  the  apple,  is  frequently 
made  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  little  Turk. 

, Remedies. — Of  late  the  Ransom  process  has  been  largely 

practiced,  and  has  given  great  satisfaction.  It  takes  advantage 
of  the  habit  of  the  insect,  early  in  the  season  to  hide  by  day, 
and  consists  in  keeping  the  ground  beneath  and  around  the 
trees  perfectly  clean,  and  so  thoroughly  cultivated  that  it  will 
be  perfectly  smooth,  and  placing  chips  or  boards  on  the  ground 
close  about  the  tree.  Mr.  Ransom  preferred  oak  bark  ; pieces 
of  shingles  would  do.  If  bark  is  used,  the  outside  should  be 
placed  up,  and,  whatever  is  used,  the  lower  side  should  be 
entirely  smooth.  Three  pieces,  each  the  size  of  the  hand,  will 
be  quite  sufficient  for  each  tree,  and  may  be  placed  equally 
distant  from  each  other,  close  about  the  base  of  the  trunk. 
Early  in  May  the  bettles  will  commence  to  hide  under  these 
pieces.  So  soon  as  they  are  found  to  collect  they  should  be 
gathered  daily,  and  thence  on  so  long  as  they  are  found,  even 
to  July. 

Later  in  the  season,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  insects  do 
not  go  down  to  hide.  Yet  Mr.  Ransom  claims  that  the  chip 
trap  can  still  be  made  effectual,  and  cheaper  than  any  other 
plan,  by  the  following  additional  labor  : Early  in  the  day,  pass 
through  the  orchard  with  a mallet,  and  give  each  bearing  tree  a 
smart  blow.  This  will  cause  the  insects  to  drop  to  the  ground, 
when  they  will  hide  as  before,  and  can  be  gathered  into  the 
bottles  as  before.  The  taking  the  insects  from  under  the  chips 
should  not  be  delayed  too  long. 

Pear  or  Cherry  Tree  Slags. — The  destructive  proclivities 
of  these  slimy  “worms”  are  far  too  well  known.  Few  insects 
are  so  easily  overcome  ; so,  with  knowledge,  vigilance,  and 
promptness,  we  may  expect  to  soon  be  rid  of  a grievous  pest. 

Remedies. — The  slime  of  these  insects  makes  them  peculi- 
arly susceptible  to  any  application  like  ashes,  road-dust  (some 
deny  that  road-dust  is  effectual),  or  lime.  Hence,  throwing 
any  of  the  above  substances  into  the  tree  where  these  insects 
are  at  work  is  sure  to  check  their  ravages.  Such  treatment 
goes  to  the  root  of  the  matter  by  destroying  the  source  of  the 
evil. 

Plant  Lice. — All  fruit  men  are  familiar  with  plant  lice,  as 
hardly  a plant  but  suffers  from  the  attack  of  some  species. 
Yet,  doubtless  owing  to  the  many  natural  enemies,  and  not- 
withstanding their  wonderfully  prolific  tendencies,  they  are 


THE  FARM. 


77 


rarely  very  destructive.  Sometimes  they  will  attack  a tree  and 
seem  to  draw  heavily  upon  its  vitality,  and  the  very  next  year 
not  a single  louse  will  be  found  on  the  tree. 

Remedies. — Syringing  the  plants  with  tobacco  water  is  sure 
destruction  to  these  insects.  If  limbs  of  small  trees  are  alone 
attacked,  they  may  be  dipped  in  the  fluid.  Whale  oil  soap 
solution,  and  even  common  soap-suds,  are  beneficial,  while 
many  gardeners  think  that  frequent  syringing  with  pure  water 
is  not  without  benefit. 

It  has  been  recommended  to  brush  the  eggs  off  of  young 
trees  and  small  plants  in  the  spring  with  a hand-brush, — advice 
of  doubtful  practicability. 

Bee-Keeping — Swarm. — Every  prosperous  swarm  of  bees 
must  contain  one  queen,  several  thousand  workers,  and  a 
portion  of  the  year  a few  hundred,  or  even  thousand,  drones. 

The  Queen. — The  queen  is  the  only  perfect  female  bee  in 
the  colony,  and  hence  the  name  of  queen  or  mother  bee.  In 
form  she  is  longer  than  either  of  the  other  species.  She  is 
usually  of  a dark  color,  except  the  under  side  of  the  abdo- 
men, which  bears  somewhat  on  the  golden  shade.  All  her 
colors  are  bright  and  glossy,  and  she  has  but  little  of  the  down 
or  hair  seen  on  the  drones  or  workers.  Her  wings  are  short, 
reaching  a little  more  than  half  way  back.  Her  posterior  is 
more  pointed  and  has  the  appearance  of  curving  under  more 
than  that  of  the  workers.  She  has  a sting,  but  never  uses  it, 
except  in  combat  with  a rival  queen. 

The  average  age  of  the  queen  is  about  three  ybars.  None 
should  be  allowed  to  become  older  than  that,  as  after  that  age 
they  often  become  barren,  or  deposit  eggs  which  produce  only 
drones,  and  the  colony  soon  wastes  away  without  being  replen- 
ished with  worker  broods. 

Like  the  drone,  the  queen  never  goes  to  gather  honey,  her 
only  duty  being  to  deposit  the  eggs,  both  male  and  female. 
She  is  as  dependent  on  the  workers  as  they  are  upon  her,  and 
both  are  dependent  upon  the  drones,  notwithstanding  they  are 
the  acknowledged  idlers  of  the  colony. 

The  Egg. — In  all  well  populated  hives  young  broods  may 
be  found  in  different  stages  of  development,  every  month  in 
the  year,  with  few  exceptions.  The  queen  carefully  examines 
each  cell  by  thrusting  her  head  in,  before  depositing  the  egg, 
to  see  if  it  contains  bee  bread  or  honey,  as  she  never  uses  a 
cell  partly  filled.  If  she  finds  the  cell  clear,  she  immediately 
curves  her  abdomen  and  inserts  it.  She  remains  but  a second 
or  two  and  then  leaves  the  cell,  when  an  egg  about  a sixteenth 
of  an  inch  long  may  be  seen  attached  to  the  base  of  the  cell, 
usually  a little  to  one  side. 


78 


THE  FARM. 


Hatching. — The  eggs  remain  unchanged  for  three  or  fou, 
days.  They  are  then  hatched,  the  bottom  of  each  cell  con- 
taining a small  white  worm,  which  floats  in  a whitish  transparent 
fluid,  which  is  deposited  by  the  nursing  bees,  and  by  which  it 
is  probably  nourished.  It  gradually  enlarges  until  its  two  ex- 
tremities touch,  which  forms  a ring.  It  continues  to  increase 
during  five  or  six  days,  until  it  occupies  the  whole  breadth  and 
nearly  the  length  of  the  cell.  The  nursing  bees  now  seal  over 
the  cell  with  a light  brown  cover.  As  soon  as  the  larvae  is  per- 
fectly enclosed,  it  begins  to  line  the  cell  by  spinning  around 
itself  a silky  cocoon.  When  this  is  finished  it  undergoes  a 
great  change,  from  the  grub  to  the  nymph  or  pupa  state,  and 
does  not  bear  a vestige  of  its  previous  form.  It  has  now  at- 
tained its  full  growth,  and  the  large  amount  of  nutriment  taken 
serves  as  a store  for  developing  the  perfect  insect.  The  time 
required  to  raise  a queen  is  three  days  in  the  egg,  and  five  days 
as  a worm,  and  on  the  sixteenth  day  she  has  attained  the  per- 
fect state  of  a queen  bee.  The  working  bee  comes  forth  per- 
fected in  twenty-one  days  from  the  time  the  egg  is  deposited. 
The  drone  takes  twenty-four  or  twenty-five  days. 

Worker  Bee. — They  constitute  the  mass  of  the  colony,  and 
upon  them  devolve  all  the  labors  of  the  hive.  They  gather 
the  honey  and  pollen — the  food  for  the  young.  They 
nurse  and  feed  the  young  brood,  and  defend  their  house 
against  invasion  of  enemies.  The  care  which  the  workers  be- 
stow upon  their  nurslings  is  wonderful,  and  they  manifest  the 
most  tender  attachment  for  them.  The  slightest  movement  of 
these  nurses  approaching  to  administer  to  the  young  brood  is 
sufficient  to  attract  them  to  their  food,  which  they  devour  vora- 
ciously, and  it  is  unsparingly  administered.  After  the  cells 
have  been  sealed  up  they  seem  to  cease  from  anything  like  at- 
tention, although,  if  the  brood  comb  is  meddled  with,  their 
utmost  ire  is  kindled.  Bees  reared  in  the  spring  and  early 
summer  are  shorter  lived  than  those  reared  later  in  the  season. 
Each  worker  is  armed  with  a formidable  sting,  and,  when  dis- 
turbed, does  not  hesitate  to  use  it.  The  extremity  being  barbed, 
the  bee  can  rarely  withdraw  it,  and  in  losing  her  sting  she 
loses  her  life  and  dies  in  defending  her  home  and  sacred 
treasures. 

Drones. — They  differ  from  the  queen  and  worker  in  form 
and  structure,  and  are  of  a darker  color  and  less  active.  They 
have  no  proboscis  for  gathering  honey  ; no  basket  for  pollen  ; 
no  sack  for  wax  ; and  no  sting  to  defend  themselves  with. 
Yet  without  them  the  brood  would  soon  become  extinct.  They 
are  the  males  of  the  bee  family,  and,  in  the  performance  of  the 
functions  appointed  to  them,  they  invariably  yield  up  their 
life.  The  duties  devolving  upon  them  are  to  accompany 


THE  FARM. 


the  young  queens  upon  their  bridal  tour.  In  the  performance 
of  the  same  their  life  becomes  the  sacrifice. 

The  Italian  Bees. — These  are  conceded  by  all  to  be  far 
superior  to  the  black  bee  above  described,  although  they  do 
not  differ  essentially  in  conformation  ; yet  for  profit  and  amia- 
bility are  a great  improvement.  In  color,  they  are  a beautiful 
golden  hue.  The  worker,  when  pure,  has  three  distinct  bands 
about  the  body  ; the  color  and  bands  being  the  test  of  purity. 
The  queens  are  more  fertile  and  prolific,  depositing  their  eggs 
earlier  in  the  season  ; swarm  oftener  and  earlier  when  not  in- 
terfered with  ; protect  themselves  from  robber  bees  and  moths 
more  effectually ; carry  in  more  honey,  gathering  from  the 
small  variety  of  red  clover  and  some  other  plants  whose  cells 
are  so  deep  that  the  common  bee  cannot  reach  the  nectar  dis- 
tilled in  the  bottom  of  the  flower  cups  ; will  not  sting  upon  as 
slight  provocation,  and  can  be  handled  more  easily.  They 
are  stronger  and  more  hardy,  and  live  longer,  although  perform- 
ing more  labor.  They  are  also  more  industrious,  often  going 
to  the  fields  in  very  unfavorable  weather. 

The  Hive. — A good  hive  should  possess  the  following 
points,  viz : cheapness  ; simplicity  ; durability ; as  good  for 
winter  as  summer  ; that  the  combs  may  be  removed  without 
injuring  or  irritating  the  bees  ; that  the  bees  may  have  free  ac- 
cess to  the  surplus  honey  arrangement ; that  the  surplus  honey 
may  be  removed  without  injuring  or  irritating  the  bees  and  be 
in  a*  marketable  condition  ; that  the  bees  may  be  able  to  store 
every  ounce  of  honey  they  can  collect ; completely  ventilated 
that  the  bees  may  not  suffocate,  and  thousands  of  them  hang 
on  the  outside  of  the  hive  for  air  in  a hot  day  ; that  all  the 
heat  from  the  hive  may  enter  the  surplus  honey  boxes  or 
chamber,  to  enable  the  bees  to  elaborate  wax  and  make  comb; 
that,  in  case  the  bees  are  carrying  in  honey  very  rapidly,  one 
set  of  boxes  may  be  raised  and  another  set  placed  under  them; 
that  there  be  no  place  in  the  hive  where  the  miller  moth  can 
conceal  itself  ; that  there  be  no  space  between  the  top  of  the 
combs  and  bottom  of  the  honey  boxes,  except  a single  quarter 
of  an  inch  ; that  the  bees  may  enter  the  surplus  honey  boxes 
from  any  part  of  the  hive  without  creeping  through  a hole  in 
the  honey  board  ; that  all  openings  of  the  hive  be  guarded 
with  a slide  or  button ; that  the  boxes  be  covered  with  a light 
cap  to  exclude  the  chilly  air  at  night  as  well  as  the  excessive 
heat  of  the  noonday  sun,  with  a ventilation  at  each  end  to  be 
opened  on  hot  days  and  allow  a current  of  air  to  pass  over  the 
honey  boxes,  permitting  the  excessive  heat  of  the  hive  to  es- 
cape in  summer,  and  in  winter  to  carry  off  the  moisture  gen- 
erated by  the  bees. 


80 


THE  FARM. 


The  Apiary. — The  next  thing  in  importance  is  the  location 
of  the  apiary.  Select,  if  possible,  a sheltered  place,  shaded 
somewhat  by  trees,  with  an  eastern  or  southern  aspect,  where 
they  can  be  easily  seen  or  heard  from  the  house  during  swarm- 
ing season.  As  regards  the  distance  between  the  stands,  it 
should  be  as  great  as  circumstances  will  admit — two  feet  being 
the  nearest  they  should  be  placed. 

Stands  for  Hives — Is  a subject  to  which  too  much  attention 
cannot  be  given.  Placing  them  several  feet  atove  the  ground 
makes  an  unnecessary  labor  for  the  bees  returning  weary  and 
heavy  laden,  with  barely  strength  to  reach  the  hive,  they  alight 
upon  the  ground,  and,  if  toward  evening  when  cool  and  damp, 
often  perish.  Others  have  no  projection  from  the  entrance 
upon  which  to  alight,  but  expect  them  to  fly  direct  from  the 
field  into  the  hive  without  making  a pause. 

Swarming. — The  swarming  season  in  this  latitude  some- 
times commences  as  early  as  the  15th  of  May,  and  at  other 
times  as  late  as  the  1st  of  July.  It  usually  commences  about 
ten  or  twenty  days  after  white  clover  comes  into  bloom.  As  a 
general  rule,  bees  swarm  for  lack  of  room  or  want  of  thorough 
ventilation  inside  the  hive. 

Hiving  Bees. — It  makes  but  little  difference  how  they  are 
put  into  the  hives,  provided  they  are  all  made  to  enter.  One 
essential  thing  is  to  have  your  hive  in  readiness.  The  hives 
should  be  stored  in  a cool  place,  as  bees  will  enter  a cool. hive 
much  quicker  than  one  that  has  stood  in  the  hot  sun  all  day. 
Place  upon  the  ground,  under  the  swarm  cluster,  the  hive,  wiih 
a large  piece  of  board  just  in  front  of  it,  upon  which  the  bees 
can  be  poured.  If  they  are  to  be  hived  in  a box  hive,  one  side 
should  be  raised  one  inch  by  placing  under  the  front  corner 
two  sticks  or  blocks  to  hold  it  up  from  the  bottom  board.  If 
in  a movable  comb  hive,  raise  the  front,  if  on  a movable 
bottom  board  ; if  not,  raise  the  entrance  as  wide  as  possible. 
If  the  swarm  has  clustered  on  a small  branch  or  limb,  it  may 
be  cut  off,  if  not  detrimental  to  the  tree,  and  brought  down 
and  the  bees  shaken  off  in  front  of  the  hive.  A knowledge 
that  a new  home  is  found  is  at  once  apparent.  If  any  large’ 
number  linger  around  the  entrance,  nearly  closing  it,  you  can 
expedite  their  progress  by  gently  disturbing  them  with  a small 
twig,  if  gentle  means  do  not  incuce  them  to  enter  in  a rea- 
sonable time,  and  they  seem  obstinate,  a little  water  sprinkled 
on  them  will  facilitate  operations.  Too  much  water  must  not 
be  used,  or  they  will  become  so  wet  that  they  will  not  move  at 
all.  If  you  do  not  wish  to  cut  the  limb  they  cluster  on,  they 
may  be  shaken  into  a basket.  In  this  event  it  is  well  to  sprinkle 
the  cluster  with  a pailful  of  cold  water  (ice  water  not  objec- 


THE  FARM. 


31 


tionable),  which  will  cause  them  to  cluster  closer,  and  hardly 
one  will  leave  the  basket.  If  you  get  nearly  all  the  bees  the 
first  effort,  shaking  the  limb  will  prevent  the  remainder  from 
alighting,  and  will  turn  their  attention  to  those  who  have  found 
a home,  and  are  loudly  calling  them  to  come. 

Loss  of  Queen. — Every  bee-keeper  should  understand 
how  to  detect  the  loss  of  the  queen.  The  following 
morning  after  a loss  of  this  kind  has  occurred,  and  occasion- 
ally in  the  evening,  the  bees  may  be  seen  running  to  and  fro 
in  wild  consternation.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  day  the 
confusion  will  be  less  marked,  but  the  next  morning  will  be 
again  enacted,  and,  after  the  third  or  fourth  day,  will  cease 
entirely,  and  -apparently  they  become  reconciled  to  their  fate. 
They  continue  their  labors,  although  they  do  not  manifest  the 
energy  or  agility  seen  in  a prosperous  colony. 

Wintering  Bees. — More  bees  are  lost  by  wintering  than  by 
all  other  troubles  combined.  To  winter  them  successfully,  each 
stock  should  contain  a sufficient  amount  of  honey,  bee-bread, 
and  bees.  For  out-door  wintering,  each  hive  should  contain 
from  30  to  35  lbs.  of  honey  ; in-door,  5 to  10  lbs.  less.  Each 
hive  should  have  an  upward  ventilation — it  is  absolutely 
necessary. 

Diseases  of  Bees. — Bees  are  subject  to  but  few  diseases 
which  deserve  especial  notice.  There  appear  to  be  but  two 
distinct  types  to  which  they  are  subject  in  this  country,  viz.: 
Dysentery  and  Foul  Brood.  The  former  of  these  generally 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  spring,  and  may  be  known  by  the 
bees  discharging  their  excrements  over  the  comb,  the  interior 
of  the  hive,  and  especially  around  the  entrance  ; the  color, 
instead  of  being  yellow,  is  of  a dark  muddy  appearance,  and 
has  a sickening,  offensive  odor,  which  becomes  intolerable. 
The  cause  may  be  ascribed  to  the  moisture  in  the  hive  condens- 
ing and  mixing  with  the  honey  in  the  cells.  Colonies  affected 
by  dysentery  are  usually  lost,  unless  warm  weather  timely  in- 
tervenes or  they  are  removed  to  a warm  room,  so  that  the 
water  in  the  honey  may  be  evaporated,  which  will  generally 
terminate  the  trouble. 

F oul  Brood. — In  the  destruction  of  the  nymph  or  pupae  from 
some  derangement  which  causes  it  to  undergo  decomposition 
in  the  cell,  arises  a disease  known  as  Foul  Brood.  Some  say  it 
is  caused  by  the  brood  being  chilled  in  the  cell ; others,  that  it 
is  caused  by  the  fermentation  of  bee-bread  and  honey.  Some 
recommend  that  it  be  summarily  dealt  with,  and  the  way  to 
exterminate  it  entirely  is  to  bury  it,  hive,  bees  and  all,  beyond 
* any  possibility  of  resurrection. 

4 


THE  FARM. 


81 


Feeding  Bees. — Few  things  in  bee-keeping  are  more  im  - 
portant, and  require  a more  thorough  knowledge,  than  the  feed- 
ing of  bees.  In  attempting  to  winter  too  small  colonies,  thou- 
sands often  perish  in  winter  and  early  spring.  Colonies  in  the 
common  box  hive,  containing  few  combs  and  but  little  honey, 
should  be  fed  in  the  latter  part  of  September,  or  in  October,  a 
sufficient  amount  to  carry  them  safely  through  the  winter.  If 
feeding  is  neglected  until  winter,  it  may  then  be  done  by  placing 
the  hive  in  a cellar  or  moderately  warm  room. 

In  the  spring  the  prudent  bee-keeper  will  no  more  neglect 
to  feed  his  destitute  colonies  than  to  provide  for  his  own  table. 
There  is  one  point  certain  in  bee-keeping  : that,  if  a colony  is 
stimulated  carefully  in  the  spring,  they  and  their  first  swarm 
will  have  honey  sufficient  in  the  fall  to  winter  them  through, 
unless  a very  unfavorable  season  occurs.  Water  is  indispensa- 
ble to  bees  when  building  comb  or  raising  brood.  Every  pru- 
dent bee-keeper  will  see  that  his  bees  are  supplied  with  water 
by  placing  shallow  wooden  troughs  filled  with  straws  or  floats 
that  they  may  drink  without  danger  of  drowning.  A location 
near  small  bodies  of  water  will  be  sufficient  for  a supply,  but 
locations  near  large  bodies  are  injurious. 

Transferring. — Transferring  is  changing  ..  colony  of  bees 
and  all  the  contents  of  a hive  from  one  to  another.  It  should 
be  done  in  the  spring  or  summer,  to  be  successful.  Transfer- 
ring may  be  done  at  any  time  of  the  day,  if  pleasant.  The 
best  place  to  make  the  transfer  is  in  some  shaded  locality  or 
clean  building.  It  will  be  necessary  to  have  a few  things  in 
readiness,  such  as  a box  the  size  of  the  hive  and  a foot  deep, 
for  a driving-box  ; an  axe,  a saw,  a large  knife,  some  goose- 
quills,  some  twine,  a dish  of  water  to  wash  the  honey  from 
your  hands,  and  a few  dishes  to  put  the  honey  and  pieces 
of  comb  in  ; also  some  kind  of  bench  should  be  arranged 
to  lay  the  comb  on. 

The  swarm  to  be  treated  should  have  tobacco  smoke  blown 
in  among  them  to  drive  the  bees  among  the  comb,  and  also  to 
subdue  them.  The  hives  should  be  removed  to  the  place 
of  transfer,  placing  another  as  near  like  it  as  possible  on  the 
old  stand,  that  the  returning  bees  may  not  join  other  hives  and 
be  killed.  Invert  the  hive,  and  place  over  it  the  driving-box. 
Wrap  a piece  of  cloth  around  where  the  two  join,  to  prevent 
escape.  Get  two  round  sticks,  fifteen  inches  long  and  one  inch 
in  diameter,  and  commence  beating  the  hive  a few  minutes, 
then  stop  about  five  minutes  to  allow  the  bees  to  fill  themselves 
with  honey,  then  beat  again  for  ten  minutes,  by  which  time 
nearly  all  will  have  left  and  clustered  in  the  box.  The  sheet 
or  cloth  is  then  taken  off,  spread  upon  the  ground,  and  the 
driving-box  placed  upon  it,  the  same  side  up  as  before,  and  a 


THE  FARM. 


83 


small  stick  placed  under  one  side  to  allow  the  air  to  enter 
Loosen  the  comb  from  two  sides  of  the  hive,  and  with  an  axe 
split  the  sides  off,  that  the  comb  may  be  taken  out  whole.  Lay 
tho  comb  upon  the  table,  and  place  over  it  the  frame.  Cut  the 
comb  a trifle  larger  than  the  frame,  so  it  will  fit  closely,  having 
it  the  same  side  up  in  the  new  hive  that  it  was  in  the  old. 
After  the  comb  is  fitted  in  it  may  be  secured  in  its  place 
by  tying  around  the  frame  a piece  of  cotton  twine.  The  bees 
will  fasten  it  with  wax  in  a day  or  two.  Now  hang  the  frame 
in  the  new  hive.  Do  in  the  same  manner  until  all  good  worker 
comb  is  secured,  leaving  out  all  drone  comb.  Now  put  in  the 
bees,  the  same  as  hiving  a natural  swarm.  Place  upon  the  old 
stand,  with  the  entrance  contracted,  and  the  ventilator  left  open 
during  the  heat  of  the  day.  In  about  two  days  the  bees 
will  have  the  comb  fastened,  when  the  strings  can  be  cut  and 
drawn  out,  and  the  boxes  put  on. 


THE  HORSE. 


POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  above  diagram  represents  the  different  points  of  .the 
body  of  a horse,  about  some  of  which  frequent  errors _are 
made. 


1.  Lips. 

2.  Muzzle. 

3 Nose. 

4 Foroliead. 

5.  IIollow  over  eye. 

8.  Forelock. 

7.  Ears. 

8.  Branches  of  lower  jaw. 
0.  Check. 

10.  Nostrils 

11.  Poll. 

12.  Parotid  •'land. 

13.  I,arynx  or  Voice-box. 

14.  Left  jugular  vein. 

15.  Side  of  neck. 

18  Mane. 

17.  Breast. 

18.  Shoulder. 

J8.  Shoulder-point. 


10  Withers. 

20.  Back. 

21.  Loins. 

22.  Side  of  chest. 

23.  Croup. 

24.  A luiomcn  or  holly. 

25.  Flank. 

26.  Hipbone. 

27.  Tail. 

28.  Thigh. 

2!».  Buttock. 

80.  Strlle  joint.' 

31.  Sheath. 

31.  Scrotum  or  pnrse. 

32  Lower  thigh  (gassin.) 

33.  Hock. 

34.  Hind  cannon  hone 
and  back  tendons. 


35.  Hind  fetlock  jolnfc. 

36.  Pastern. 

37.  Coronet 

38.  Hoof. 

39.  Hind  chestnut. 

40.  Arm. 

40.  Elbow. 

41.  Fore- arm 

42.  Knee. 

43.  Fore  chestnut. 

41.  Fore  cannon  bone  and 
back  tendons. 

45.  Fore  fetlock  joint. 

40.  Fore  pastern. 

47.  Fore  coronet. 

18.  Fore  hoof. 

19.  Fetlock,  fore  and  hind. 
50.  Dock,  covering  anus. 


86 


THE  HORSE. 


In  judging  of  the  merits  of  a horse  for  the  plow,  the  car- 
riage, or  the  saddle,  the  characteristic  indications  of  the  head 
and  adjacent  parts  are  very  important.  There  are,  • f course, 
numerous  differences  of  conformation  characteristic  of  differ- 
ent breeds  rather  than  of  merits  or  defects,  but  there  are  also 
certain  beauties  which  should  be  sought  for  in  all  breeds.  Of 
these,  smallness  of  the  head  is  one,  for  a small  head  is  always 
preferable  to  a large  one  in  the  same  breed.  The  eyes,  too, 
should  be  large  and  wide  open,  indicative  of  good  sight.  A 
large  forehead  is  a desirable  beauty,  and  large,  well  opened 
nostrils  show  the  nasal  and  respiratory  organs  are  in  good  con- 
dition. The  lips  should  be  firm,  not  flabby,  and  the  lower  jaw 
should  be  set  easily  in  the  larynx  to  permit  the  head  to  move 
freely  from  the  neck.  The  accompanying  diagrams  will  illus- 
trate various  points  in  this  connection. 

The  head  is  well  set  in  a draft  horse  when  it  makes  an  angle 
of  about  45  degrees  with  the  horizon,  as  in  Fig.  ),  while  for  a 
saddle  horse  it  should  be  more  vertical,  as  in  Fig.  2.  When 
the  head  ..approaches  the  shoulders  too  closely,  the  defect  is 
known  by  the  name  of  rain-bow  neck,  as  in  Fig.  3.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  head  is  carried  more  horizonally,  as  in 
Fig.  4,  the  defect  is  greater,  as  the  rider  has  less  control  of  his 
horse,  for  the  bit  rests  on  his  teeth,  and  there  is  danger  of  his 
“ taking  it  between  th>m.”  Fig.  5 illustrates  a sheep-faced  head, 
whose  curved  and  prominent  outline  is  found  very  frequently 
in  pictures  and  sculptures  of  former  days.  The  opposite  of 
this  is  the  flat-nosed  head  shown  at  Fig.  6,  in  which,  instead  of 
a concave  curve  between  the  nose  and  the  brow,  there  is  a de- 
pression. When  the  depression  is  in  the  middle  of  the  nose, 
where  the  nose-band  rests,  the  conformation  is  known  as  a 
rhinoceros  head.  Small  ears  set  straight  on  the  head  and  par- 
allel to  each  other,  are  a beauty,  while  long,  divergent  ears, 
which  hang  more  or  less  flabbily,  are  a defect,  showing  un- 
soundness and  exhaustion.  These,  as  shown  at  Fig.  8,  are 
called  pig’s  ears,  and  the  bearer  of  them  is  lop-eared. 


THE  HORSE. 


87 


DRAFT  HORSE’S  HEAD,  WELL  SET.  FIG.  1. 


88 


THE  HORSE. 


The  color  is  not  material,  provided  it  be  not  pied  or  mealy. 
No  better  color  for  horses  can  be  found  than  the  dark  bay  or 
brown,  with  black  mane,  tail  and  legs.  Chestnut  is  also  an 
admirable  color.  But  most  of  the  other  colors  are  frequently 
with  the  best  horses.  Hard-mouthed  horses,  when  accom- 
panied with  great  spirits,  are  objecfionable,  as  they  require 
peculiar  bitting  and  the  utmost  vigilance.  The  paces  and 
action  of  a horse  are  important,  for,  if  good,  they  give  a much 
greater  capacity  for  performance.  Some  of  these  depend  on 
form  and  structure,  and  are  unchangeable ; others  are  the 
result  of  breaking.  All  horses  should  be  taught  to  walk  fast, 
as  it  is  their  easiest  and  most  economical  pace,  and  it  will  help 
them  over  a great  deal  of  ground  in  a.  day,  even  with  a heavy 
load,  and  with  comparatively  little  effort.  A horse  that  steps 
short,  and  digs  his  toes  into  the  ground,  is  worthless  as  a trav- 
eler, and  suited  only  to  a ferry-boat  or  bark-mill.  It  is  import- 
ant that  a horse  be  good  tempered.  If  inclined  to  viciousness 
he  should  be  gently  yet  firmly  managed  when  it  is  first  appar- 
ent. A resort  to  great  severity  will  be  justified  if  necessary  to 
eonquer  him  ; for,  if  once  allowed  to  become  a habit,  it  will 
be  difficult  to  cure  him.  Grooms  and  mischievous  stable  boys 
frequently  do  much  injury  by  their  idle  tricks  with  horses,  and, 
when  detected,  they  should  be  discharged  at  once.  Some 
horses  are  nervous,  easily  excited,  and  start  at  every  unusual 
noise  or  object.  Others  are  restive  and  fretful,  and  ever 
anxious  to  be  on  the  move.  Kindness,  and  firm,  yet  mild, 
treatment,  by  which  their  motions  and  will  are  at  all  times 
controlled,  and  their  confidence  secured,  are  the  only  remedies. 
Others  are  inclined  to  sluggishness.  These  should  have  stimu- 
lating food,  and  never  be  overloaded  or  overworked,  and  then 
kept  well  to  their  paces.  Whatever  they  are  capable  of  per- 
forming can  in  this  way  only  be  got  out  of  them.  Habit  has 
great  influence  with  animals,  as  with  man  ; and,  when  within 
the  compass  of  his  ability,  he  may  be  habituated  to  any 
reasonable  physical  exertion.  More  horses  are  ruined  by 
.inskillful  breaking  and  overwork  when  under  six  years  old, 
than  in  any  other  way.  A horse  ought  never  to  be  put  to  full 
work  before  seven  years  old. 


THE  HORSE. 


89 


Breeding.— Agreeably  to  the  general  principles  well  under- 
stood, such  animals  should  be  selected  as  most  eminently 
possess  those  points  which  it  is  desired  to  propagate,  and  these 
they  should  not  only  exhibit  in  themselves,  but  should  inherit 
as  far  as  possible  from  a long  line  of  ancestry.  For  the 
perpetuation  of  particular  points  in  progeny,  it  would  be  safer 
to  rely  on  the  latter  quality  than  the  former.  The  selection  of 
a mare,  relatively  larger  than  the  horse,  is  an  important  rule  in 
breeding,  and  it  is  believed  that  much  of  the  success  of  Arabian 
and  other  Eastern  horses  as  stock-getters,  has  resulted  from 
the  application  of  this  principle.  They  possess  valuable  traits, 
but  condensed  within  too  small  a compass.  When  such  an 
animal  is  put  to  a well-bred,  larger  mare,  the  foetus  has  abun- 
dance oi  room  and  nourishment  to  develop  and  peifect  the  cir- 
cumscribed outlines  of  the  male  parent,  and  acquire  for  itself 
increased  volume  and  character.  The  horse  ought  not  to  be 
less  than  four  or  five,  and  the  mare  one  year  older,  before  being 
] ut  to  breeding'  It  would  be  still  better  to  defer  it  for  two 
or  three  years,  or  till  the  frame  is  fully  matured.  A mare 
intended  for  breeding  should  never  be  highly  fed  on  grain,  nor 
overworked  ; or,  if  they  have  been  so,  a previous  run  of  some 
months  on  grass,  or  hay  without  grain,  should  be  allowed 
to  put  them  into  natural  condition. 

The  gestation  of  the  mare  sometimes  varies  from  forty-four 
to  fifty-six  weeks,  but  she  usually  goes  with  young  from  forty- 
seven  to  fifty  ; and  it  is  advisable  she  should  take  the  horse  at 
a time  which  will  ensure  the  foaling  when  the  weather  is  settled, 
and  there  is  a fresh  growth  of  grass.  She  will  be  the  better  for 
light  working  till  near  the  time  of  foaling,  if  well,  but  not  too 
abundantly  fed.  In  a few  days  after  this  she  may  resume 
moderate  labor  ; and,  if  not  in  the  way  or  troublesome,  the  foal 
may  run  with  her  ; but,  if  she  is  exposed  to  heating,  it  should 
be  confined  till  she  cools,  as  suckling  then  is  decidedly 
injurious  to  it.  The  mare  is  in  danger  of  slinking  her  foal  from 
blows  and  over  exertion,  the  use  of  smutty  grain,  foul  hay,  or 
offensive  objects  of  smell  ; and,  when  this  has  once  occurred, 
which  happens  usually  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  month,  she  should 
afterwards  be  generously  fed  at  that  period,  and  only  moder- 
ately worked.  When  liable  to  slinking,  the  mare  should  be 


90 


THE  HORSE. 


removed  from  others  in  foal,  lest  a peculiar  sympathy  should 
excite  an  epidemic.  The  mare  comes  in  heat  from  nine  to 
eleven  days  after  foaling,  when  she  should  be  put  to  the  horse, 
if  it  be  desirable  to  have  a colt  the  following  season.  She 
comes  round  at  intervals  of  about  nine  days  each. 

The  Colt. — The  colt  may  be  weaned  when  five  to  Seven 
months  old,  and  preparatory  to  this,  while  with  the  mare,  may 
be  taught  to  feed  on  fine  hay,  meal  or  oats.  When  taken  away, 
he  should  be  confined  beyond  a hearing  distance  of  the  dam, 
and  plentifully  supplied  with  rowen  or  aftermaths,  hay,  mashed 
or  ground  oats,  or  wheat  shorts.  It  is  economy  to  provide  a 
warm  shelter  through  the  inclement  season  for  all  animals,  and 
especially  for  colts,  which,  with  all  other  young,  should  have 
an  abundance  of  nutritious  food.  They  will  thus  growe  venly 
and  rapidly,  and  attain  a size  and  stamina  at  two  years  old 
they  would  not  otherwise  have  acquired  at  three.  Every  colt 
should  be  thoroughly  halter  broken  during  the  winter  before 
a year  old.  He  will  be  all  the  easier  managed  afterwards. 

Castrating. — The  colt  should  be  altered  at  about  one  or 
one  and  a half  years  old,  but,  if  thin  in  the  neck  and  light 
before,  the  operation  may  be  deferred  to  a year  later.  Few  of 
the  French  diligence  and  farm  horses,  and  scarcely  any  of  the 
Oriental,  are  ever  castrated.  They  are  thought  to  be  more 
hardy  and  enduring  ; but  the  slight  advantage  they  may  possi- 
bly possess  in  this  respect  would  illy  compensate  for  the  trouble 
and  inconvenience  arising  from  their  management.  The  oper- 
ation should  be  performed  late  in  the  spring  or  early  in  autumn, 
while  the  weather  is  mild.  If  in  high  condition,  the  animal 
should  be  well  physicked.  The  easiest,  safest  and  most  con- 
venient way  is  to  cast  him  by  ropes  on  his  legs.  The  scrotum 
should  be  opened  on  both  sides,  and  the  testicles  cut,  or  rather 
the  cord  scraped  off,  and  tied,  which  prevents  much  bleeding. 
The  wound  may  be  dressed  with  a little  lard  ; then  turn  him 
loose  in  a pasture  which  has  a shelter  from  sun,  wind  or  rain. 
Docking  is  practiced  by  many,  but  merely  to  gratify  an  absurd 
and  cruel  caprice,  without  a single  advantage,  and  the  animaJ 
is  better  in  every  respect  with  the  tail  unmutilated. 

.Breaking. — While  feeding  in  the  stable,  the  colt  should  be 


THE  HORSE. 


91 


gently  treated,  and  accustomed  to  the  halter  and  bit,  which 
prepares  him  for  breaking.  If  permitted  to  run  with  the  others 
while  at  work,  he  becomes  familiarized  to  it,  and,  when  har- 
nessed by  the  side  of  some  of  his  well-trained  mates,  he 
considers  his  discipline  rather  a privilege  than  a task.  The 
colt  may  be  taken  in  hand  for  breaking  at  three,  and  thoroughly 
broken  to  light  work  at  four,  but  should  not  be  put  to  hard 
service  till  six  or  seven.  A due  regard  to  humanity  and  sound 
judgment,  in  thus  limiting  the  burden  in  his  early  years,  will 
save  much  disease  and  suffering  to  the  animal,  and  profit  the 
owner  by  his  unimpaired  strength  and  prolonged  life.  The 
annual  loss  from  neglecting  this  precaution  is  enormous,  which 
might  be  entirely  avoided  by  less  eagerness  to  grasp  the 
substance,  while  as  yet  the  shadow  only  is  within  reach. 
Many  animals  are  thus  broken  down  at  twelve,  and  are  in  their 
dotage  at  fifteen,  while  others  of  good  constitution,  if  well 
treated,  perform  hard  service  till  thirty. 

How  to  Tell  the  Age. — The  age  of  the  horse  is  usually 
determined  by  the  appearance  of  the  teeth  ; of  these  there  are 
two  sets  : first,  the  milk  teeth,  which  come  before  the  age  of 
one  year ; second,  the  “ permanent  set,”  which  come  soon 
after  the  falling  out  of  the  former.  This  change  is  completed 
at  the  age  of  five  years. 

The  teeth  which  are  most  uniform  in  their  progression  are 
the  nippers  or  incisors,  those  on  the  lower  jaw  being 
ordinarily  referred  to.  Of  these  nippers  there  are  six — those 
farthest  from  the  centre  are  called  “corner  teeth.” 

These  corner  teeth,  and,  indeed,  all  of  the  nippers,  are 
composed  of  a bony  substance  which  is  inclosed  in  the  enamel, 
which  gives  hardness  to  the  teeth.  Their  form  is  somewhat 
conical,  though  irregularly  so.  (Fig.  i.)  The  top  of  a newly- 
formed  tooth,  say  the  corner  tooth  of  a five-years-old  horse,  is 
long  from  side  to  side,  while,  a little  farther  down,  the  form 
becomes  more  triangular  ; and  near  the  bottom — that  part  of 
the  tooth  which  is  below  the  gums  in  early  life — it  is  long  from 
front  to  rear,  and  narrow  from  side  to  side.  This  is  shown 
in  fig.  2, which  represents  a tooth  cut  across  at  various  distances 
from  the  top  of  the  crown,  and  in  which  the  different  forms  of 


92 


THE  HORSE. 


the  different  Darts  of  the  tooth  are  plainly  represented.  Now, 

suppose  the  tooth  to  be  split  down 
the  middle,  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  on  a line  passing  across  the 
top  of  the  tooth,  from  the  outer 
side  to  the  in- 
ner side,  as  the 
tooth  stands  in 
the  jaw.  This 
will  give  a sec- 
0 tional  appearance 
like  that  in  fig.  3, 
the  concave  side 
being  the  inner 
side.  The  hard 
enamel  which 


Fig.  2. 

outer  portion  of  the  tooth  folds  fig.  3. 
inward  and  passes  down,  forming  a cavity,  nearly  to  the 
bottom  of  the  tooth,  and  then  returns  near  the  inner  edge,  until 
it  joins  the  exterior  coating  of  enamel  on  that  side.  The 
cavity  thus  formed  is  filled  with  a dark-colored  matter,  and  it 
is  closed,  or  nearly  closed,  at  the  top  by  a dishing  cover  of 
enamel.  We  are  now  prepared  to  understand  how  the  appear- 
ance of  the  teeth  becomes  changed  with  age.  The  corner 

tooth,  at  five  years  of 
age,  is  long  from  side 
to  side,  and  has,  at 
its  summit,  a deep 
cavity  called  a “mark,” 
which  is  represented  at 
the  top  of  figures  2 and 
3,  and  their  general 
appearance  is  similar 


Fig.  4. 

to  that  represented  in  figure  4. 
As  the  horse  becomes  old;. 


r,  his  teeth  are  worn  away  by 


use,  and  it  is  to  this  cause  only  are  due  the  changes  by  which 
we  determine  his  age.  The  effect  of  this  wearing  down  is  the 
same  as  would  be  that  of  cutting  or  sawing  off  a portion  of  the 
teeth.  They  are  supposed  to  be  worn  down  about  one-twelfth 


THE  HORSE. 


93 


of  an  inch  per  year,  though  the  precise  amount  must  depend 
very  much  on  circumstances,  such  as  crib-biting,  vigorous 
feeding,  etc.  If  we  look  at  the  mouth  of  a horse  eight  or  nine 
years  old,  we  shall  see  that  his  corner  teeth  have  been  so  worn 
down  that  the  mark,  or  su- 
perficial cavity,  is  entirely 
destroyed,  and  that  the  sur- 
face has  descended  to  the 
point  marked  by  the  lines  a. 
a .,  figures  i and  3 ; still 
later  the  upper  surface  of 
the  tooth  descends  to  the  point  marked  by  the  lines  b.  b., 
figures  2 and  3.  The  folding  in  of  the  enamel  has  now  almost 
entirely  disappeared,  leaving  very  little  discoloration  on  the 
teeth,  while  the  upper  surface  of  the  teeth  is  almost  triangular, 
instead  of  being  long  from  side  to  side,  as  was  the  original 
surface.  The  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  now  present  the  appear- 
ance shown  in  figure  5. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  the  teeth  of  the  lower 

jaw  become  very  long  from 
front  to  rear  ; this  having 
always  been  the  shape  of 
that  part  of  the  tooth  which 
has  never  until  now  been 
made  apparent.  The  teeth 
at  this  age  are  represented 

in  figure  6. 

The  experience  of  horsemen  has  established  the  following 
rules  for  determining  the  age  from  the  appearance  of  the  teeth  : 
At  birth  the  teeth  have  not  appeared  ; six  or  eight  days  there- 
after the  two  middle  nippers  of  the 
set  of  milk  teeth  are  cut ; the  pair 
next  to  them  are  cut  at  thirty  or 
forty  days  ; and  the  corner  teeth  at 
six  to  ten  months.  These  teeth 
have  all  the  mark,  or  superficial 
cavity,  when  first  cut ; this,  how-  Fig-  7- 

ever,  disappears  in  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw,  in  the  middle 


94 


THE  HORSE. 


nippers,  m ten  months  ; in  the  next  pair  at  one  year  ; in  the 
corner  teeth  at  from  fifteen  months  to  two  years. 

The  milk  teeth  give  place  to  the  permanent  set  as  follows  : 
The  middle  nippers  at  two  and  a half  to  three  years  ; the  next 
pair  at  three  and  a half  to  four  years  ; the  corner  teeth  at  four 
, and  a half  to  five  years.  These  periods  may  be  hastened  three 
or  four  months  by  pulling  or  knocking  out  the  milk  teeth. 

At  five  years,  the  corners  are  up  even  with  the  other  teeth, 
the  mark  is  entirely  worn  out  from  the  middle  nippers,  and 
partly  worn  from  the  next  pair  (fig.  4).  At  six  years,  the  mark 
is  almost  gone  from  the  second  pair,  and  the  outer  edge  of  the 
corner  teeth  is  worn  down.  At  seven  years,  the  mark  is 
entirely  gone  from  the  second  pair,  the  edges  of  the  corner  teeth 
are  worn  somewhat  flat,  though  there  is  still  a slight  cavity  in 
the  centre.  At  eight  years,  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  are  worn 
entirely  flat,  the  mark  having  disappeared  from  all  of  them. 
The  form  of  the  surface  of  the  tooth  has  become  oval,  and  the 
central  enamel  is  long  from  side  to  side,  and  is  near  to  the  front 
of  the  tooth.  At  nine  years,  the  middle  nippers  are  rounded 
on  the  inner  side,  the  oval  of  the  second  pair  and  of  the  cor- 
ner teeth  becomes  broader,  the  central  enamel  is  nearer  to  the 
inner  side,  and  the  marks  have  disappeared  from  the  teeth 
of  the  upper  jaw  (fig.  5).  At  ten  years,  the  second  pair  are 
rounded  on  the  inner  side,  and  the  central  enamel  is  very  near 
to  the  inner  side.  At  eleven  years,  the  corner  teeth  are  rounded, 
and  the  central  enamel  becomes  very  narrow.  At  twelve  years, 
the  nippers  are  all  rounded,  and  the  central  enamel  has  entirely 
disappeared  from  the  lower  jaw,  but  it  may  still  be  seen  in  the 
upper  jaw.  At  thirteen  years,  the  middle  nippers  commence  to 
assume  a triangular  form  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  central 
enamel  has  entirely  disappeared  from  the  corner  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaw.  At  fourteen  years,  the  middle  nippers  have  become 
triangular,  and  the  second  pair  are  assuming  that  form.  The 
central  enamel  has  diminished  in  the  middle  nippers  of  the 
upper  jaw.  At  fifteen  years,  the  second  pair  have  become  tri- 
angular ; the  central  enamel  is  still  visible  in  the  upper  jaw. 
At  sixteen  years,  all  of  the  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  have  become 
triangular,  and  the  central  enamel  is  entirely  removed  from  the 
second  pair  in  the  upper  jaw.  At  seventeen  years,  the  sides  of 


THE  HORSE. 


95 


the  triangle  of  the  middle  nippers  are  all  of  the  same  length  ; 
the  central  enamel  has  entirely  disappeared  from  the  upper 
teeth.  At  eighteen  years,  the  sides  of  the  triangle  of  the  mid- 
dle nippers  are  longer  at  the  sides  of  the  teeth  than  in  front. 
At  nineteen  years,  the  middle  nippers  become  flattened  from 
side  to  side,  and  long  from  front  to  rear.  At  twenty  years,  the 
second  pair  assume  the  same  form.  At  twenty-one  years,  all 
of  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  have  become  flattened  from  side 
to  side,  their  greatest  diameter  being  exactly  the  reverse  of 
what  it  was  in  youth. 

Feeding. — The  vigor  and  duration  of  the  horse  depend 
much  on  proper  feeding.  Like  the  cow  and  sheep,  his  natural 
and  proper  aliment  is  the  grasses,  grain  and  roots.  In  the 
middle  and  northern  sections  of  the  country,  his  dry  forage  is 
almost  invariably  good  meadow  hay,  generally  timothy,  which 
is  the  richest  of  the  cultivated  grasses.  At  the  South,  this  is 
often  supplied  by  the  blades  of  Indian  corn.  But  in  all  the 
States,  a great  variety  of  the  grasses  and  clover  are  used.  When 
put  to  hard  labor,  grain  ought  always  to  accompany  hay  in 
some  form.  Of  the  different  kinds  of  grain,  oats  are  peculiarly 
the  horse’s  food,  and  they  are  always  safe,  digestible  and  nutri- 
tive. Barley  is  the  best  substitute  for  it.  Wheat  and  Indian 
corn  are  sometimes  given,  but  either,  alone,  are  unsuitable  ; 
the  first  is  too  concentrated,  and  the  latter  too  heating.  They 
ought  to  be  sparingly  used,  and  only  when  ground.  The  offal 
of  wheat,  as  shorts  or  bran,  is  excellent,  particularly  when 
mixed  with  about  one-third  Indian  corn  meal.  Grain  is  always 
more  advantageously  fed  when  ground  or  crushed,  and  wet 
some  time  previous  to  eating,  and  it  is  still  better  when  cooked. 
On  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  Barbary  States,  in 
Spain,  France  and  Italy,  much  of  the  food  is  given  in  small 
baked  cakes,  and  the  saving  in  this  way  is  much  greater  than 
the  expense  of  preparing  it.  When  confined  to  dry  food,  roots 
or  apples  fed  once  a day  are  always  beneficial.  They  keep 
the  bowels  open,  the  appetite  and  general  health  good,  and 
contribute  largely  to  the  nutriment  of  the  animal.  Carrots 
are  the  best  of  the  roots,  as,  besides  giving  muscle  and  working 
power,  they,  more  than  any  other,  improve  the  wind  and  re- 
move all  tendency  to  heaves.  They  have  even  been  found 


THE  HORSE. 


effectual  in  curing  an  obstinate  cough.  By  many  of  the  keep- 
ers of  livery  stables  they  are  always  used,  for  which  purpose 
they  command  the  same  price  as  oats.  Potatoes,  parsnips, 
beets  and  Swedes  turnips,  in  the  order  mentioned,  are  next  to 
be  preferred.  Potatoes  are  improved  by  cooking.  Mixtures 
of  food  are  best,  as  of  cut  hay,  meal  and  roots.  Old  horses, 
or  such  as  are  put  to  hard  labor,  will  do  much  better  if  their 
food  be  given  in  the  form  easiest  of  digestion.  No  inconsid- 
erable part  of  the  vital  power  is  exhausted  by  the  digestion  of 
dry,  raw  food.  Horses  ought  to  be  fed,  and,  if  possible,  exer- 
cised or  worked  regularly,  but  never  on  a full  stomach.  This 
is  a frequent  cause  of  disease,  and  especially  of  broken  wind. 
If  their  food  is  given  at  the  proper  time,  and  the  horse  be 
allowed  to  finish  it  at  once,  without  expecting  more,  he  will 
lie  down  quietly  and  digest  it.  This  will  be  much  more  re- 
freshing to  him  than  to  stand  at  the  rack  or  trough  nibbling 
continually  at  his  hay  or  oats.  What  remains  after  he  has 
done  feeding  should  be  at  once  withdrawn.  They  should 
have  water,  in  summer  three  times,  and  in  winter  twice,  a day. 
Soft  or  running  water  is  much  the  best.  While  working,  and 
they  are  not  too  warm,  they  may  have  it  as  often  as  they  de- 
sire. Neither  should  they  be  fed  when  heated,  as  the  stomach 
is  then  fatigued  and  slighly  inflamed,  and  is  not  prepared  for 
digestion  till  the  animal  is  again  cool.  Salt  should  always  be 
within  reach,  and  we  have  found  an  occasional  handful  of  clean 
wood  ashes  a preventive  of  disease  and  an  assistance  to  the 
bowels  and  appetite. 

Shoeing. — With  a poor  hoof  an  otherwise  valuable  horse 
becomes  almost  worthless,  so  that  the  common  saying,  “ no 
foot,  no  horse,”  is  practically  correct ; for  this  reason,  the  sub- 
ject of  horse  shoeing  is  one  which  should  receive  much  atten- 
tion, as  it  is  by  poor  shoeing  that  so  many  horses  are  rendered 
almost  valueless  for  life. 

For  want  of  space  we  can  only  give  some  of  the  more 
important  points  which  should  be  observed  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  hoof  in  a natural  and  healthy  condition. 

The  -hoof,  in  its  natural  state,  is  adapted  only  to  a grassy 
surface  ; so  that,  when  we  wish  to  bring  the  horse  into  practi- 
cal use  upon  our  hard  and  stony  roads,  it  becomes  necessary  to 


THE  HORSE. 


97 


protect  the  hoof,  by  shoeing,  from  the  unnatural  wear  and  tear 
which  it  is  subject  to. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  so  large  a share  of  the  men 
who  are  permitted  to  do  this  very  important  work,  of  shoeing 
the  horse,  are  so  ignorant  of  the  nature  and  structure  of  the 
foot,  and  the  principal  rules  which  should  guide  them  in  doing 
this  very  important  branch  of  work. 

It  is  a great  fault  of  nearly  all  shoers  that  they  cut  and 
pare  with  the  idea  of  improving  the  foot,  when  their  aim 
should  be,  mainly,  to  let  nature  have  her  course  as  much  as 
possible,  or  in  other  words,  to  imitate  the  natural  condition 
of  the  foot,  and  only  pare  away  such  parts  as  have  become 
useless.  The  shoe  should  always  be  fitted  to  the  foot  and  not 
the  foot  to  the  shoe,  as  is  often  practiced.  That  part  of  the 
hoof  which  should  not  have  pressure  is  the  portion  between 
the  bar  and  the  quarter,  commonly  known  as  fhe  seat  of 
corns. 

The  greatest  pressure  should  be  around  the  outside  of  the 
foot,  for  about  half  an  inch. 

The  frog  should  be  allowed  to  come  to  the  ground,  which 
will  prevent,  to  a certain  extent,  the  concussion  which  would 
otV.rwise  take  place.  The  frog  should  not  be  cut  down,  as  is 
frequently  practiced,  nor  should  it  be  touched,  when  healthy, 
except  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing. 

In  paring  the  foot  be  very  careful  not  to  cut  down  the  out- 
side, so  as  to  allow  the  entire  weight  to  rest  on  the  inside  of 
the  shoe  upon  the  sole,  but  only  cut  away  the  dead  portion  of 
horn  on  the  sole,  and  cut  down  the  wall  from  heel  to  toe  until 
the  bearing  is  natural,  leaving  it  even  and  as  near  its  natural 
state  as  possible.  A red  hot  shoe  should  not  be  allowed  to  be 
burned  into  the  foot  to  fit  it. 

The  shoe  to  be  selected  should  depend  upon  the  condition 
of  the  foot  and  the  condition  of  the  roads,  etc.  The  flat  shoe, 
when  properly  applied,  leaves  the  foot  nearest  its  natural 
shape,  by  allowing  the  horse  a good,  even  foundation  to  stand 
upon,  and  is  most  likely  to  give  satisfaction  for  all  ordinary 
purposes.  At  some  seasons  of  the  year  it  will  be  necessary  to 
have  calks  upon  the  shoes,  but,  ordinarily,  the  foot  should  be 
allowed  to  come  as  near  the  ground  as  possible. 

6 


98 


THE  HORSE. 


What  we  mean  by  the  flat  shoe  is  flat  upon  its  superior  sur- 
face, which  comes  in  direct  contact  with  the  hoof,  the  under 
surface  being  partially  concave,  so  as  to  assist  the  horse  in 
grasping  the  ground,  to  prevent  slipping,  and  to  assist  in  pro- 
gressing. 

The  shoe  should  be  as  big  as  the  foot,  so  as  not  to  require 
any  cutting  down  the  hoof  to  make  it  fit  the  shoe,  and  the 
heels  of  the  shoe  should  not  be  permitted  to  project  back- 
wards beyond  the  heel  of  the  hoof  more  than  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch. 

The  outward  margin  of  the  shoe  should  just  correspond 
with  the  shape  of  the  foot,  except  at  the  head,  where  the  shoe 
should  be  a little  wider  from  quarter  to  heel,  especially  on  the 
outside. 

Many  persons  are  not  aware  of  the  thinness  of  the  hoof, 
which  makes  it  quite  necessary  that  the  nail  holes  should  be 
near  the  edge,  and  quite  well  forward  in  the  toe,  so  as  to  avoid 
driving  the  nails  into  the  quick,  which  would  cause  serious 
lameness  and  injury. 

Do  not  rasp  under  the  nail  clinches,  nor  over  them  ; and 
do  not  use  the  rasp  at  all  on  the  outside  of  the  hoof,  not  even 
below  the  clinches,  except  just  enough  near  the  shoe  to  round 
the  edge,  and  do  not  cut  down  the  hoof  if  you  have  used  a 
shoe  which  is  too  small. 

A nail  for  a horse’s  foot  differs  materially  from  every  other 
kind  of  nail,  not  only  in  shape,  but  in  quality  of  iron  from 
which  it  should  be  made ; it  is  important  that  it  should  be 
made  from  the  very  best  of  iron,  free  from  flaws,  seams,  liabil- 
ity to  sliver,  and  all  sulphurous  gases  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture. It  is  presumed  that  every  shoer  knows  that  a nail 
forged  hot,  from  the  end  of  a rod,  needs  no  argument  to  con- 
vince any  one  that  a better  nail  is  thus  obtained  than  by 
punching,  rolling  and  shearing  them  from  a cold  plate.  The 
numerous  and  well  authenticated  cases  where  valuable  horses 
have  been  ruined  by  using  cold  rolled  nails  are  enough  to  de- 
ter any  first-class  shoer  from  driving  anything  but  a hot-forged 
nail,  even  if  their  cost  should  be  double  that  of  the  cold  rolled 
nail,  because  no  shoer  can  take  the  risk  of  injuring  his  custo- 
mer’s horse. 


THE  HORSEi 


Use  only  the  very  best  of  nails  ; drivers  small  and  as'few- 
nails  as  will  hold  the  shoe  firmly  and  securely  to  its  place.  See 
that  the  nails  fit  the  holes,  and. the  heads  the  crease,  leaving' 
little,  if  any,  to  project  beyond  the  ground  surface  when  fin- 
ished, thus  preventing  the  clinch  from  rising  when  brought  in- 
contact with  stones,  and  saving  the  injury  of  the  ankle. 

Poll  evil 


Fistula-  jffpttngr 


ttp joint 

laments tA 


Xhorourjh 

JHnybone, 


A horse  is  a hardly  worked  animal  at  the  best.  It  is  a will-, 
ing  servant  and  exerts  its  utmost  force  at  the  instigation'of  the 
driver,  instinctively  and  cheerfully.  A vicious,  stubborn  horse 
is  made  so  ; it  is  not  a natural  product,  but  its  natural  docility^ 
and  willingness  to  work  are  destroyed  by  abuse  and  misman-. 
agement.  But  how  many  horses  are  overworked,  which  are 
forced  by  fear  of  the  whip  to • over-exert  the  musclesiandj 
sinews,  and  so  incur  injury  and  disease ! 

-We  give  herewith  a representation  of  the  skeleton|jpjf^ 
horse,  showing  the  wonderful  mechanism  of  its  limbs  and  joints: 
and  the  perfect  combination  of  levers  by  which  the  contrac*] 
^ile  force  of  its  muscles  and  sinews  is  increased. and  .multiplied! 


100 


THE  HORSE. 


either  in  the  drawing  of  loads  or  in  swift  movements.  One 
cannot  study  the  anatomy  of  this  complicated  machine  without 
surprise  that  the  noble  animal  built  around  it  should  escape,  as 
it  does,  from  more  frequent  strains  and  injuries  to  the  delicate 
parts,  nor  that  it  should  suffer,  as  it  does,  from  the  inconsider- 
ate or  ignorant  usage  of  so  many  owners.  In  fact,  there  is 
not  a disease  here  marked  down  which  is  not  directly  or  in- 
directly brought  about  by  misuse  or  careless  management, 
directly  in  the  animal  itself,  or  indirectly  by  injury  to  its  pro- 
genitors, by  which  the  disease  has  become  constitutional  and 
hereditary.  This  may  be  shown  by  tabulating  the  various  dis- 
eases pointed  out,  together  with  their  usual  causes,  as  follows  : 


DISEASES. 


CAUSES. 


Poll-evil,  fistulous  withers,  capped  elbow,  hip 
joint  lameness,  capped  bock. 


Blows,  bruises  and  falls. 


Big  head,  laminitis  or  founder. 


Innutritious  or  excessive  feed- 
ing. 


“ Sweeny,”  or  wasting  of  the  shoulder  muscle, Sprains,  wrenches  or  con- 
shoulder  joint  lameness,  elbow  joint  lameness,  thor-  f cussions  by  over-work,  over- 
ough-pin,  splint,  laminitis,  ring-bone,  navicular  die-  [ driving,  running  down  hill, 
ease,  side-bones,  stifled,  luxations  of  patella,  or  / over-loading,  and  over-exer- 
sprain  of  the  joint,  curb  and  spasm.  j tion. 

Big-head,  splints,  curb,  spavins,  thorough-pin  | Constitutional  and  heredi- 
r in  g bone.  jtary. 


All  the  above  are  preventable,  and  it  may  no  doubt  help 
greatly  in  the  very  easy  prevention  of  them,  to  point  out  in 
this  clear  and  expressive  manner  the  original  sources  of  these 
various  diseases,  adding  to  this  a few  remarks  upon  the  ana- 
tomical structure  of  the  bones  and  joints. 

Bones  are  formed  of  a cellular  and  fibrous  mineral  struc- 
ture, filled  in  and  strengthened  with  gelatine.  The  mineral 
matter  consists  chiefly  of  phosphate  of  lime,  with  some  little 
carbonate  of  lime  and  other  mineral  salts,  in  all  to  the  extent 
of  about  55  per  cent,  in  dry  bone  ; the  gelatinous  and  fatty 
matter  amount  to  about  45  per  cent.  During  life  the  bone  of 
an  animal  contains  about  25  per  cent,  of  water.  Bones  are 
perforated  by  numerous  canals  through  which  blood  vessels 
and  nerves  penetrate  in  every  direction.  They  are  furnished 
at  their  ends,  where  they  come  in  contact  with  other  bones,  as 
at  the  joints,  with  a hard,  tough,  fibrous,  matter,  known  as 
cartilage,  which  is  more  abundant  in  young  animals  than  in 
old  ones,  and  they  are  covered  all  over  with  a delicate  and 
most  sensitive  fibrous  and  vascular  tissue,  known  as  the  perios- 
teum or  covering  membrane  of  the  bone.  Joints  are  formed 


THE  HORSE. 


101 


by  articulations  of  the  bones,  contrived  so  that  one  bone  may 
move  upon  another,  as  in  a hinge  ; some  joints  have  a motion 
in  but  one  direction,  as  a knuckle  joint,  a true  hinge  ; and  some 
have  a more  or  less  rotary  motion,  as  the  hip  joint,  the  com- 
monly called  whirl-bone.  The  joints  are  provided  with  a 
slippery  serum,  known  as  the  synovial  fluid,  which  serves  to 
lubricate  them,  and  ease  their  motions,  and  to  prevent  friction 
of  the  tender,  sensitive  membranes  which  cover  them.  The 
sinews  and  tendons  which  connect  the  joints  with  the  muscles 
by  which  they  are  set  in  motion,  are  also  provided  with  the 
same  synovial  fluid  and  a covering  membrane  similar  to  the 
periosteum.  When  a limb  is  moved,  the  joint  is  bent  by  a 
drawing  of  the  tendon  attached  to  it,  and  the  tendon  is  drawn 
by  the  contraction  of  the  muscle  of  which  it  is  the  prolonga- 
tion. The  tendons  act  directly  or  over  pulleys,  which  may  be 
bones  or  bands  of  other  tendons.  In  short,  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  the  muscular  system  is  a most  complicated  system  of 
springs,  bands,  pulleys  and  cords,  by  which  the  levers  and 
hinges  of  the  bones  are  brought  into  action.  The  voluntary 
nerves,  all  of  which  proceed  from  the  brain,  or  are  connected 
with  it,  are  the  intelligent  agents  of  the  will  of  the  animal  to 
put  into  action  the  mechanism  of  the  muscles  and  bones. 

Now,  if  the  food  of  the  animal  does  not  supply  an  ade- 
quate quantity  of  mineral  matter  required  by  the  bones,  they 
become  soft  and  porous  ; there  is  an  excess  of  vascular  struc- 
ture, which  causes  enlargement,  and  this  excess  of  matter  pro- 
duces disease  and  decay  of  the  structure,  as  we  fi.id  in  the 
diseases  known  as  big-head  and  rickets  ; or  the  bones  become 
weak  and  malformed  or  bent  in  an  irregulr;  shape.  When 
the  sensitive  membrane  is  bruised,  it  becomes  inhamed  and 
may  suppurate  and  the  inflammation  may  attach  the  bone,  as  in 
poll  evil,  fistula  of  the  withers,  and  abcesses  on  the  jaws  or  on 
the  face  ; or  it  may  produce  an  excessive  growth  of  cartilage 
or  bone,  as  in  spavins,  ring-bone,  and  splints  ; or,  when  the 
tendons  are  involved  with  the  joints,  an  excess  of  synovial 
fluid  may  be  secreted,  and  bog-spavins,  thorough-]  in,  or  curb, 
may  be  produced.  When  by  a sudden  force  a mn:c! : or  ten- 
don is  stretched  or  strained  beyond  its  natural  extension,  it  is 
sprained,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  fibers  may  be  ruptured, 


109 


THE  HORSE. 


when  inflammation  occurs,  as  in  hip  joint  or  shoulder  lame- 
ness. When  by  reason  of  the  consequent  pain  the  muscle  is 
not  used — as  well  as  the  wasting  by  the  inflammation — the 
muscb  shrinks,  and  atrophy  or  loss  of  substance,  the  so-called 
sweeny,  occurs.  So,  too,  in  stifle  joint  lameness,  the  loose  bone, 
the  knee-cap  or  patella,  becomes  so  loosely  held  by  the  mus- 
cles that  it  slips  out  of  place,  or  it  may  be  drawn  out  of  place, 
and  the  leg  rendered  wholly  useless  for  the  time  being  Lastly, 
the  construction  of  the  hip  may  be  pointed  out  vith  its  pecu- 
liar combination  of  bones,  so  easily  disturbed  by  dislocation 
or  by  fracture  by  a sudden  fall  or  slip,  as  is  far  too  common, 
not  only  with  horses,  but  more  so  with  cows,  driven  recklessly 
upon  slippery  floors  or  icy  ground.  But,  without  going  further 
into  it,  this  interesting  subject  is  submitted  in  the  hope  that 
it  may  lead  our  readers  to  give  it  the  attention  it  deserves,  and 
to  study  it  out  more  completely  for  themselves. 

DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES,  BY  AN  ENGLISH  FARRIER. 

Bots. — The  ster^ach  seems  to  be  the  natural  nursery  for  the 
protection  and  the  propagation  of  the  stomach  bot.  When  the 
eggs  have  remained  in  the  stomach  for  a year,  they  become  a 
perfect  chrysalis,  (that  is,  the  form  of  a butterfly  before  it 
reaches  the  winged  state,)  and  then  they  release  their  hold  of 
the  stomach  and  are  expelled  with  the  dung.  It  will  be  pro- 
vided with  wings  in  a short  time,  and  will  fly  about  commencing 
the  propagation  of  its  species,  which  passes  through  the  same 
period  of  incubation. 

They  are  of  two  kinds,  stomach  and  fundament  bots.  The 
stomach  bots  are  the  result  of  turning  horses  into  pasture  in 
summer  months,  and  are  produced  from  the  eggs  laid  on  the 
fore  legs  of  the  horse  by  the  bot  fly. 

Symptoms  are  an  unthrifty  coat,  and  loss  of  [flesh  after 
running  out  to  pasture. 

All  horses  which  run  out  to  grass  are  quite  sure  to  have  bots 
in  their  stomachs,  and,  as  there  is  so  much  misconception  about 
bots  and  their  destructiveness  to  horses,  we  copy  the  result  of 
a series  of  experiments  with  bots  three-fourths  grown. 

When  immersed  in  rum  they  live  25  hours  ; decoction  of 
tobacco,  11  hours  ; strong  oil  of  vitrol,  2 hours  18  minutes  ; 
essential  oil  of  mint,  2 hours  5 minutes.  Were  immersed, 
without  apparent  injury,  in  spirits  of  camphor,  10  hours  ; fish 
oil,  49  hours;  tincture  aloes,  10  hours;  solution  indigo,  12 
hours.  A number  of  small  bots,  with  one  that  was  full  grown, 
were  immersed  in  a strong  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  one 


THE  HORSE. 


103 


of  the  most  powerful  poisons  ; the  small  ones  died  in  one  hour, 
but  the  full  grown  one  was  taken  out  of  the  solution  six  hours 
after  its  immersion,  apparently  unhurt. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  experiments  that  no  medicine 
can  be  given  which  will  affect  the  bot,  that  will  not  destroy  the 
coating  of  the  stomach  and  injure  or  kill  the  horse.  No 
veterinary  surgeon  can  distinguish  the  symptoms  of  bots  from 
those  of  colic.  In  fact  there  is  but  little  doubt  that  ninety-nine 
out  of  every  hundred  cases  of  belly  ache  are  no  more  nor  less 
than  colic  and  not  bots,  and  should  be  treated  as  we  direct  in 
the  treatment  of  colic. 

Fundament  Bot. — Like  the  stomach  bot,  this  is  also  the 
result  of  running  out  to  grass.  Instead  of  the  eggs  being 
deposited  on  the  legs,  they  are  deposited  on  the  lips  of  the 
horse.  They  are  found  in  the  rectum,  and  often  seen  about  the 
anus  and  under  the  tail. 

Treatment. — The  general  condition  of  the  horse  should 
be  improved,  so  that  the  debilitating  effects  of  the  bots  may 
not  interfere  with  the  general  health  of  the  horse.  It  is  gener- 
ally considered  impossible  to  expel  or  destroy  the  bots.  Give 
the  following  tonic  medicines  to  improve  the  general  condition: 
pulv.  gentian,  1-4  lb.;  pulv.  copperas,  1-4  lb.;  pulv.  fenu- 
greek, 1-4  lb.;  pulv.  elecampane,  1-4  lb.  Mix  well  and  give 
a large  tablespoonful  once  a day. 

Another  Remedy. — When  a horse  is  attacked  with  bots, 
it  may  be  known  by  the  occasional  nipping  at  their  own  sides, 
and  by  red  pimples  or  projections  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
upper  lip,  which  may  be  seen  plainly  by  turning  up  the  lip. 

First,  then,  take  new  milk,  2 qts.;  molasses,  1 qt.,  and  give 
the  horse  the  whole  amount.  Second,  15  minutes  afterwards, 
give  very  warm  sage  tea,  2 qts.  Lastly,  30  minutes  after  the 
tea,  you  will  give  of  currier’s  oil,  3 pts.,  (or  enough  to  operate 
as  physic).  Lard  has  been  used,  when  the  oil  could  not  be 
obtained,  with  the  same  success. 

The  cure  will  be  complete,  as  the  milk  and  molasses  cause 
the  bots  to  let  go  their  hold,  the  tea  puckers  them  up,  and  the 
oil  cafries  them  entirely  away.  If  you  have  any  doubt,  one 
trial  will  satisfy  you  perfectly.  In  places  where  the  currier’s 
oil  cannot  be  obtained,  substitute  the  lard,  adding  three  or  four 
ounces  of  salt  with  it  ; if  no  lard,  dissolve  a double  handful  of 
salt  in  warm  water,  three  pints,  and  give  all. 

Bowels,  Inflammation  of. — The  symptoms  are  very  severe 
pain  in  the  belly,  varying  from  those  of  colic  in  being  a 
continuous  pain  (while  in  colic  there  are  intervals  of  rest  from 
pain),  rolling,  pawing,  sweating,  rapid  breathing,  with  an  incli- 
nation to  shift  about,  with  great  fever  and  excitement.  The 


104 


THE  HORSE. 


disease  comes  on  more  gradually  than  colic  (which  see),  legs 
and  ears  cold,  belly  tender  and  painful  on  pressure. 

Causes. — Constipation,  exposure  to  cold,  drinking  cold 
water,  in  large  quantities,  when  hot,  hard  driving,  diarrhoea, 
and  as  a sequel  to  colic. 

The  above  named  causes,  when  occurring  in  a horse  predis- 
posed to  the  disease,  are  quite  liable  to  bring  it  on. 

Treatment. — If  the  cause  is  constipation,  give  a quart  ot 
raw  linseed  oil,  and  if  necessary  add  from  4 to  6 drops  croton 
oil.  If  the  cause  is  over-purging,  give  an  ounce  and  a half  of 
tincture  of  opium  in  a half  pint  of  water. 

If  the  cause  should  be  other  than  costiveness  or  diarrhoea, 
give  30  drops  of  the  tincture  of  aconite  root,  and  repeat  it 
in  two  hours.  Apply  blankets,  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  to  the 
belly,  and  renew  them  every  15  minutes.  Give  injections  of 
warm  (not  hot)  water,  castile  soap,  and  a handful  of  table  salt 
every  half  hour  until  the  bowels  move  some.  There  is  a diver- 
sity of  opinion  in  regard  to  bleeding.  It  is  my  opinion  that  it 
is  of  doubtful  utility  in  this  disease. 

Bronchitis. — This  disease  consists  in  an  inflammation  of  the 
air  passages  of  the  lungs.  It  is  a very  common  disease  among 
horses,  and  is  sometimes  confounded  with  inflammation  of 
the  lungs  (or  lung  fever),  distempers  and  colds. 

Symptoms. — Begins  with  a chill,  fever,  harsh  cough, 
labored  breathing,  mouth  hot  and  dry,  with  loss  of  appetite, 
and  in  one  or  two  days  a discharge  from  the  nostrils  will  be 
observed. 

Treatment. — Give  the  horse  a good,  comfortable  place 
(not  too  close  nor  the  reverse).  Give  15  to  20  drops  tincture 
of  aconite  root,  and  repeat  every  six  hours  until  four  doses 
have  been  given,  which  will  probably  relieve  the  fever.  Let 
the  horse  have  plenty  of  cold  water  to  drink.  We  would  dis- 
courage the  idea  of  bleeding,  as  it  would  be  more  likely  to  do 
harm  than  good. 

After  the  fever  has  subsided,  (which  will  probably  be  about 
the  second  day,)  give  a few  powders  of  the  following:’  Mix 
pulv.  licorice  root,  pulv.  fenugreek  and  pulv.  gentian,  two 
ounces  of  each,  and  divide  into  six  powders,  and  give  in  feed 
two  or  three  times  a day. 

Chronic  bronchitis  is  the  result  of  bad  treatment  of  acute 
bronchitis,  and  when  the  attack  has  been  prolonged  for  some 
time. 

Symptoms. — A cough,  which  seems  to  be  confirmed,  with 
discharge  from  the  nostrils,  and  cough  worse  after  drinking 
and  in  the  morning. 


THE  HORSE. 


105 


Treatment. — Take  of  pulv.  gentian  and  pulv.  sulphate  of 
iron,  eight  ounces  each.  Mix  thoroughly  and  divide  into 
thirty-five  powders  and  feed  twice  a day  until  all  has  been 
given ; then  make  an  ointment  of  red  iodide  ot  mercury,  one 
drachm;  lard,  one  ounce,  thoroughly  mixed  together.  Apply 
the  above  named  ointment  down  the  course  of  the  windpipe, 
and  the  next. day  apply  sweet  oil  or  lard  to  keep  the  skin  from 
cracking.  Repeat  the  application  of  the  ointment  in  one  week. 

Burns  and  Scalds. — When  the  burn  is  so  deep  as  to  destroy 
the  skin  and  superficial  tissues,  we  would  recommend  raw 
linseed  oil,  applied  with  bandages,  to  protect  the  parts  from 
the  air,  and  allowed  to  remain  for  several  days. 

Remedy  for  a Cold. — People  not  much  accustomed  to 
study  the  diseases  of  horses,  look  upon  a cold  as  a trivial 
matter.  But  they  should  bear  in  mind  that  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  disorders  to  which  the  noble  animal  is  liable,  derive 
their  origin  from  a cold.  The  causes  of  colds  are  various,  but 
the  most  usual  one  is  riding  the  horse  till  he  is  hot,  and  then 
suffering  him  to  stand  still  exposed  to  the  cold  air ; removing 
him  from  a hot  stable  to  a cold  one.  If  the  horse  has  been 
high  fed  and  clothed,  the  cold  contracted  in  this  manner  often 
proves  very  violent ; and  this  is  the  reason  why  horses  often 
catch  a severe  cold  on  their  first  coming  out  of  the  dealer’s 
hands ; neglecting  to  rub  him  down  properly,  and  to  rub  the 
sweat  carefully  off  when  he  comes  in  from  a journey  ; and  I 
have  known  grievous  disorders  brought  on  by  removing  horses 
into  a new  stable  before  the  walls  and  plastering  were  dry. 
Workmen  are  often  in  fault  for  not  leaving  air-holes  above  ; as, 
when  a horse  cotnes  into  a new  stable,  and  gathers  heat,  it  will 
cause  the  walls  and  plastering  to  sweat  very  much,  especially 
if  there  are  no  air-holes  left.  Many  a horse  has  lost  his  eyes, 
and  some  their  lives,  by  being  put  into  new  stables  before  they 
were  dry. 

SymptOxMS. — When  a horse  has  caught  a cold,  a cough  will 
follow,  ; nd  he  will  be  heavy  and  dull  in  proportion  to  the 
severity  of  the  disease  ; his  eyes  will  be  watery  ; the  kernels 
about  his  ears  and  under  his  jaws  will  swell,  and  a thin 
mucous  gleet  will  run  from  his  nose.  If  the  cold  be  violent, 
the  horse  will  be  feverish,  his  flanks  will  heave,  and  he  will  re- 
fuse his  food.  The  owners  should  be  very  careful  to  observe 
these  last  symptoms,  because,  when  they  appear,  and  are  at- 
tended with  a slimy  mouth,  cold  ears  and  feet,  moist  eyes,  and 
a great  inward  soreness,  there  is  danger  of  a fever,  and  gen- 
erally of  a malignant  kind.  But  when  the  horse  coughs 
strongly,  and  snorts  after  it,  eats  scalded  bran,  and  drinks 
warm  water,  moves  briskly  in  his  stall,  dungs  and  stales  freely, 


106 


THE  HORSE. 


and  without  pain,  his  skin  feels  kindly,  and  his  coat  does  not 
stare,  there  is  no  danger,  nor  any  occasion  for  medicine.  You 
should,  however,  bleed  him,  keep  him  warm,  give  him  some 
feeds  of  scalded  bran,  and  let  him  drink  warm  water. 

The  Cure. — If  the  horse  feels  hot  and  refuses  his  meat,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  bleed  him  plentifully,  and  to  give  the  fol- 
lowing drink : 

2 ounces  of  juice  of  liquorice. 

2 ounces  of  salt  of  tartar. 

2 drachms  of  saffron. 

2 ounces  of  honey. 

Cut  the  juice  small,  dissolve  all  together  in  hot  water,  and 
give  it  nearly  cold.  This  drink  may  be  repeated  as  occasion 
requires,  but  let  twenty-four  hours  elapse  first.  Or  give 

4 ounces  of  aniseeds. 

2 ounces  of  liquorice  root. 

1 ounce  of  gum  scammony. 

1 ounce  of  nitre. 

Boil  these  together  in  three  pints  of  water,  for  ten  or  twelve 
minutes ; strain  the  liquor  through  a cloth  ; and  add  two 
ounce;  of  honey  to  it,  when  you  give  it  to  the  horse. 

The  following  ball,  commonly  called  the  cordial  ball,  is  one 
of  the  best  yet  found  out  for  coughs  and  colds.  Be  careful  to 
get  your  drugs  good,  for  this  ball  is  of  great  worth  in  many 
diseases  ; and  few  things  will  remove  a cough  or  cold,  or  clear 
a horse’s  wind,  sooner  or  better  : 

Take  4 ounces  of  aniseeds  powder. 

4 ounces  of  fenugreek. 

4 ounces  of  liquorice  powder. 

4 ounces  of  elecampane  powder. 

4 ounces  of  dour  of  brimstone. 

4 ounces  of  liquorice,  cut  small,  and  dissolved  in  white  wine. 

1 ounce  of  saffron,  pounded  small. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  aniseeds. 

8 ounces  of  olive  oil. 

8 ounces  of  honey. 

Bray  them  all  well  together  till  they  come  into  paste,  and  if 
they  should  be  too  dry,  add  a little  more  olive  oil  and  honey. 
The  dose  is  about  two  ounces,  and  may  be  given  three  or  four 
times  a day  if  needful.  These  balls,  consisting  of  warm,  open- 
ing ingredients,  are  of  great  use  ; and  given  in  small  quanti- 
ties, about  the  size  of  a pullet’s  egg,  will  encourage  a free 
perspiration  ; but  in  case  of  a fever,  they  should  be  given  with 
the  greatest  caution. 

It  will  be  of  great  use  to  put  scalding-hot  bran  into  the 
manger,  that  the  horse  may  hold  his  head  over  it,  and  receive 
the  steam  up  his  nostrils,  which  will  cause  a running  from  them 
and  relieve  him  very  much.  I have  known  asarabacca,  dried 
and  rubbed  to  powder,  and  blown  up  the  nostrils,  to  cause  a 
discharge  ; for,  when  a horse  hus  caught  a violent  cold,  he  is 
often  troubled  with  a pain  in  his  head,  which  a good  discharge 
of  the  nose  is  very  likely  to  cure.  For  the  same  purpose  the 
horse  should  be  warmly  clothed,  especially  about  the  head, 


THE  HORSE. 


107 


neck  and  throat,  as  it  has  a tendency  to  promote  a running  at 
the  nostrils. 

By  this  simple  method,  with  proper  care,  hot  mashes  and 
warm  water,  most  colds  may  be  cured  ; and,  as  soon  as  the 
horse  begins  to  feel  heartily,  and  snorts  after  coughing,  an 
hour’s  exercise  every  day  will  greatly  hasten  the  cure.  If  the 
legs  swell,  and  the  horse  be  full  of  flesh,  rowels  are  necessary. 

A Cough  and  Asthma. — Among  all  diseases  to  which  this 
noble  creature  is  subject,  none  has  given  more  perplexity  1o 
farriers  than  a settled  cough  ; indeed  it  too  often  defies  all  the 
attempts  of  art,  and  the  horse  frequently  becomes  asthmatical, 
or  broken  winded. 

Causes. — The  causes  are  various.  Sometimes  it  is  owing 
to  colds  imperfectly  cured  ; sometimes  to  pleurisies,  or  malig- 
nant fevers,  which  have  left  a taint  upon  the  lungs  or  other 
vessels  ; sometimes  to  small  eruptions  in  the  glands,  which 
cause  the  lungs  to  be  much  larger  than  they  ought  to  be,  and  a 
quantity  of  phlegm,  and  mucilaginous  juices,  which  stuff  up 
the  glands  and  branches  of  the  windpipe  ; and  sometimes  to 
fleshy  substances  engendered  in  the  large  blood  vessels  ; for 
all  these  things  hinder  a free  respiration,  and  excite  a cough. 
It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  distinguish  one  kind  of  cough 
from  another,  and  this  makes  the  disorder  so  hard  to  cure  ; for 
it  cannot  be  cured  till  the  seat  of  the  complaint  be  found  out. 

If  the  cough  be  of  long  standing,  attended  with  a loss  of 
appetite,  wasting  of  flesh  and  weakness,  it  denotes  a consump- 
tion ; and  that  the  lungs  are  full  of  knotty,  hard  substances, 
called  tubercles.  When  a cough  proceeds  from  phlegm,  and 
mucilaginous  matter,  stuffing  up  the  vessels  of  the  lungs,  the 
flanks  have  a sudden,  quick  motion  ; the  horse  breathes  quick, 
but  not  with  his  nostrils  distended  like  one  that  is  broken 
winded  ; his  cough  is  sometimes  moist,  and  sometimes  dry  and 
husky  ; before  he  coughs  he  wheezes,  and  sometimes  throws 
out  of  his  nose  or  mouth  large  pieces  of  white  phlegm,  espe- 
cially after  drinking,  and  this  discharge  generally  gives  very 
great  relief. 

Cure. — If  the  horse  be  full  of  flesh,  take  from  him  a mod- 
erate quantity  of  blood.  The  next  day  give  him  scalded  bran, 
and  in  the  evening  the  following  ball : 

1 ounce  of  powder  of  aniseeds. 

1 ounce  of  liquorice  powder. 

1 drachm  of  calomel,  8 drams.to  an  ounce. 

Work  them  into  a ball  with  Barbadoes  tar.  Give  this  ball 
the  last  thing  at  night,  and  be  careful  to  keep  the  horse  out  of 
wet,  and  from  cold  water  the  next  day.  On  the  second  morn- 
ing give  the  following  purge  * 

1 ounce  of  Earbadoes  aloes. 

1 ounce  of  castile  soap. 


108 


THE  HORSE. 


y2  ounce  of  powdered  ginger. 

1 drachm  of  oil  of  aniseeds. 

Bray  them  together  in  a mortar,  with  a little  syrup  of  buck- 
thorn, to  make  them  into  a ball,  which  is  to  be  given  in  the 
morning,  and  plenty  of  warm  water  and  walking  exercise,  till 
it  be  wrought  off.  It  will  not  work  the  first  day.  In  three 
days  after,  give  six  ounces  of  the  cordial  ball,  in  a little  warm 
ale,  fasting,  and  to  fast  two  hours  after.  Repeat  the  calomel 
ball,  physic,  and  cordial  ball,  six  days  after,  in  the  same  man- 
n v as  before.  Let  the  horse’s  hay  be  sweet,  and  his  manger  - 
meat  scalded  bran,  with  a spoonful  of  honey  in  each  feed  ; let 
him  have  walking  exercise  in  the  open  air,  but  be  careful  of 
wet  and  of  cold  water. 

When  this  course  has  been  pursued  two  or  three  times,  give 
two  or  three  ounces  of  the  cordial  ball  every  morning.  The 
above  method  will  remove  most  coughs,  but  if  it  fail,  try  the 
following  : 

1 ounce  of  gum  ammoniacum,  in  fine  powder. 

y2  ounce  of  gum  galbanum,  in  powder. 

2 drachms  of  saffron,  brayed. 

2 drachms  of  assafcetida,  in  powder. 

Work  them  up  with  honey,  or  Barbadoes  tar,  into  one  ball  , 
roll  it  in  liquorice  powder,  and  give  it  fasting,  and  to  fast  two 
hours  after.  This  ball  must  be  given  every  morning,  for  six  or 
seven  times,  before  it  can  have  a fair  trial.  In  the  cure  of  this 
disease,  the  diet  should  be  very  moderate,  the  usual  quantity 
of  hay  should  be  abridged  and  sprinkled  with  water,  and  the 
usual  allowance  of  grain  and  water  divided  into  several  por- 
tions ; for,  with  these  regulations  in  diet,  the  disease  will  soon 
be  cured  ; and,  where  it  is  incurable,  the  horse  will  be  so  far 
recovered  as  to  be  able  to  do  a great  deal  of  v/ork. 

It  may  not  be  improper  here  to  add  that  some  young  horses 
are  subject  to  coughs  when  cutting  their  teeth,  and  their  eyes 
are  also  affected  from  the  same  cause.  In  these  cases  always 
bleed,  and,  if  the  cough  be  obstinate,  repeat  it,  and  give  warm 
mashes,  which  are  often  sufficient  alone  to  remove  the  com- 
plaint. When  young  horses  have  a cough  that  is  caused  by 
worms,  as  is  often  the  case,  such  medicines  must  be  given  as 
are  proper  to  destroy  those  vermin. 

The  Colic,  or  GripeSo — The  colic  proceeds  from  various 
1 causes  ; therefore,  the  method  of  cure  varies  ; otherwise  the 
medicines  intended  to  cure  it  may  increase  it,  and  perhaps 
render  it  fatal.  We  shall,  therefore,  divide  this  disorder  into 
three  different  species,  and  endeavor  to  give  such  plain  direc- 
tions for  managing  each,  as  cannot  fail  to  prove  very  beneficial. 
The  three  species  are  these  : i.  The  Flatulent,  or  Windy  Colic  ; 
2.  Bilious*  or  Inflammatory  Colic  ; 3.  The  Dry  Gripes. 

The  Flatulent,  or  Windy  Colic. — Symptoms. — The  horse 
is  very  restless,  lying  down  and  starting  up  again.  He  strikes 


THE  HORSE. 


109 


his  belly  with  his  hind  feet,  stamps  with  his  fore  feet,  and 
refuses  his  meat.  When  the  pain  is  violent,  he  has  convulsive 
twitches  ; his  eyes  are  turned  up,  and  his  limbs  stretched  out, 
as  if  dying  ; and  his  ears  and  feet  alternately  cold  ; he  falls 
into  profuse  sweats,  and  then  into  cold  damps  ; often  tries  to 
stale,  and  turns  his  head  frequently  to  his  flanks  ; he  then  falls 
down,  rolls  about,  and  often  turns  on  his  back.  This  last 
symptom  proceeds  from  a stoppage  of  urine,  which  generally 
attends  this  species  of  colic,  and  may  be  increased  by  a load  of 
dung  pressing  upon  the  neck  of  the  bladder. 

Causes. — This  disease  o::ten  proceeds  from  catching  cold 
by  drinking  cold  water  when  hot,  and  the  perspirable  matter 
is  by  that  means  thrown  upcn  the  bowels,  which  causes  them 
to  distend  violently,  and  sometimes  brings  on  an  inflammation 
in  the  small  intestines,  when  the  body  begins  to  swell,  and  the 
cure  is  despaired  of. 

Cure. — The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  empty  the  straight 
gut  with  a small  hand  dipped  in  oil.  This  frequently  gives 
room  for  the  wind,  before  confined  in  the  bowels,  to  discharge 
itself ; and,  by  taking  off  the  weight  which  pressed  upon  the 
neck  of  the  bladder,  the  suppression  of  urine  is  removed,  upon 
which  the  horse  immediately  stales,  and  becomes  much  easier. 
If  the  horse  be  y ung,  and  full  of  blood,  it  will  be  proper  to 
take  a sufficient  quantity  of  blood  from  the  neck. 

When  these  purgative  operations  have  been  performed,  the 
following  may  be  given,  as  it  seldom  fails  to  give  relief; 

4 ounces  of  tincture  of  senno. 

6 drachms  of  tincture  of  opium. 

1  drachm  of  oil  of  juniper. 

5 ounces  of  juniper  berries,  bruised. 

Put  one  quart  of  boiling  water  on  the  juniper  berries,  let 
them  stand  a few  minutes,  strain  it  off,  put  all  together,  and  give 
them  to  the  horse. 

If  he  does  not  find  relief  soon  after  taking  this  dose,  both 
by  staling  and  breaking  wind,  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  will 
receive  any  benefit  from  it  ; so  you  must  prepare  the  following 
clyster  for  him  as  soon  as  you  can  : 

Take  4 ounces  of  camomile  flowers  ; 

2  ounces  each  of  aniseeds,  fennel  and  coriander. 

Boil  them  ir  ( ne  quart  of  water,  and  add  2 ounces  of  Cas- 
tile soap,  cut  small,  while  the  water  is  hot,  that  the  soap  may 
dissolve.  Give  it  blood  warm.  During  the  fit  the  horse  may 
be  walked  about,  or  trotted  a little,  but  should  by  no  means  be 
harrassed,  or  driven  about  till  he  is  jaded.  If  no  bed;er,  give 
the  following : 

2 drachms  of  camphor. 

1 drachm  of  pellitory  of  Spain. 

2 ounces  of  ginger  powder. 

3 gills  of  Holland  gin. 


110 


THE  HORSE. 


If  the  horse  sweats  much  at  times,  and  then  falls  into  cold 
sweats,  give  four  ounces  of  mithridate,  in  three  gills  of  Holland 
gin,  and  repeat  the  clyster.  If  the  disorder  continues  three  or 
four  hours,  give  one  ounce  of  the  tincture  of  opium,  in  three 
gills  of  Holland  gin.  When  the  horse  begins  to  recover,  he 
will  lie  quiet,  without  starting  and  trembling  ; and,  if  he  con- 
, tinues  in  this  quiet  state  an  hour,  you  may  conclude  that  the 
danger  is  over.  Dress  him  down  well,  and  give  him  a small 
quantity  of  warm  water,  if  he  will  drink  it  J bed  him  down 
well,  cover  him  to  keep  him  warm,  and  then  leave  him  to  get  a 
little  rest.  You  must  consider  that  the  disorder  has  left  a little 
soreness  on  him,  both  within  and  without ; therefore,  make  him 
a little  gruel,  with  a pint  of  red  wine  in  it ; and,  if  any  skin  be 
knocked  off  about  his  eyes  or  his  huck-bones,  rub  it  with  the 
wash  recommended  for  bruises. 

Sometimes  the  colic  is  received  into  the  stomach,  and  does 
not  act  so  violently,  nor  cause  the  horse’s  pain  to  be  so  strong. 
You  may  best  judge  of  this  by  his  motions.  He  will  draw  his 
four  feet  together,  lay  himself  down,  stretch  out  his  feet  and 
head,  throw  his  head  back,  and  often  put  his  nose  to  his  chest ; 
after  standing  a little,  he  will  lie  down  again  as  before.  When 
the  colic  is  easier,  he  will  lie  for  an  hour  or  more  together, 
with  his  feet  stretched  out  and  his  head  thrown  back,  or  with 
his  nose  upon  his  ribs.  This  is  caused  by  bad  feed,  or  bad 
water,  or  both  ; sometimes  by  drinking  hard  water  when  hot, 
or  by  a change  from  soft  grit  water  to  limestone  or  iron  water, 
or  by  the  break  of  a storm.  I have  had  five  or  six  horses 
under  my  care  in  this  disorder  in  one  day,  at  the  break  of 
a frost,  by  drinking  ice  or  snow  water.  Sour  grain,  sour  grass, 
dry  meal,  dust,  bad  hay,  and  many  other  things  cause  this 
disorder.  Give  the  following,  which  is  almost  a certain  cure  in 
two  hours  : 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  sweet  nitre. 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  nitre. 

1 ounce  of  tincture  of  opium. 

1 ounce  of  sweet  oil. 

All  to  be  given  together  in  a gill  of  warm  ale.  Bed  the  horse 
well  down,  and  leave  him  that  he  may  get  a little  sleep,  after 
which  he  will  get  up  and  feed.  This  is  one  of  the  best  medi- 
cines that  has  yet  been  found  out.  It  has  saved  hundreds  of 
horses,  and  will  save  hundreds  more,  if  rightly  applied. 

The  Bilious  or  Inflammatory  Colic. — Symptoms. — This 
kind  of  colic,  besides  most  of  the  symptoms  of  the  former,  is 
attended  with  a fever,  great  heat,  panting,  and  dryness  of  the 
mouth.  The  horse  also  generally  parts  with  a little  loose  dung, 
and  a little  scalding  hot  water,  which,  when  it  appears  blackish, 
or  reddish,  indicates  an  approaching  mortification. 


THE  HORSE. 


Ill 


Take  3 ounces  of  senna. 

1 ounce  of  salt  of  tartar.  Infuse  them  in  a quart  of  boiling  water  an 

hour— strain,  and  add 

2 ounces  of  lenitive  electuary. 

4 ounces  of  Glauber’s  salt.  Mix  when  bot. 

If  the  disorder  be  not  removed  by  the  above  medicine,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  the  fever  and  inflammation  continue  to  increase, 
attended  with  a discharge  of  flesh-colored  matter,  the  event 
will  probably  be  fatal ; and  the  only  medicine  likely  to  prevent 
it  is  a strong  decoction  of  Jesuit’s  bark,  a pint  of  which  may 
be  given  every  three  hours,  mixed  with  a gill  of  red  port  wine; 
or  you  may  give  one  ounce  of  the  powder  of  bark  with  the 
wine.  Or,  if  these  cannot  be  got  easily,  give  four  ounces 
of  tincture  of  rhubarb  in  three  gills  of  red  port  wine.  Also 
give  a clyster  every  two  hours,  made  of  two  new-laid  eggs, 
well  broken,  and  two  ounces  of  molasses,  in  one  quart  of  milk. 
Give  it  warm. 

If  the  horse  recover,  it  will  be  proper  to  give  him  a gentle 
purge  or  two  in  a week  after. 

Take  1 ounce  of  rhubarb  in  powder. 

V2  ounce  of  jalap,  do. 

Work  them  up  into  a ball  with  syrup  of  buckthorn,  and  give 
it  to  the  horse,  with  warm  water  to  work  it  off. 

The  Dry  Gripes. — Symptoms. — This  disorder  mostly  pro- 
ceeds from  costiveness,  and  is  discovered  by  the  horse’s 
frequent  and  fruitless  attempts  to  dung,  the  blackness  and 
hardness  of  the  dung,  the  frequent  motion  of  his  tail,  the  high 
color  of  his  urine,  and  his  great  uneasiness. 

Cure. — The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  draw  the  dung  out 
of  the  fundament,  with  a small  hand,  as  far  as  you  can  reach, 
and  then  give  the  following  : 

4 ounces  of  castor  oil. 

4 ounces  of  tincture  of  senna. 

1 V2  ounces  of  oil  of  juniper. 

Give  them  altogether,  and  then  the  following  clyster  : 

Boil  in  a quart  of  water  a handful  each  of 
Camomile  flowers  and 
Marshmallows.  Strain  off  and  add 
2 ounces  of  linseed  oil,  or  pale  oil. 

If  the  horse  do  not  mend,  repeat  both  the  drink  and  the 
clyster.  During  this  disorder  the  horse  must  not  have  any  dry 
food  ; but  boiled  linseed  and  scalded  bran,  with  warm  water  to 
drink.  Gentle  walking  exercise  is  a great  means  to  cause  the 
physic  to  work  ; but  be  careful  of  cold. 

From  the  account  that  I have  given  of  the  different  species 
of  the  colic,  the  reader  will  be  abundantly  convinced  how  nec- 
essary it  is  to  be  acquainted  with  each,  that  he  may  be  able  to 
give  proper  medicine,  and  to  relieve  the  creature’s  excruciating 
pains.  He  should  carefully  avoid  all  hot,  violent  medicines, 


112 


THE  HORSE. 


which  always  prove  hurtful  in  every  species  of  this  disorder, 
and  frequently  fatal.  Nor  is  it  any  wonder  that  horses  treated 
in  that  manner  should  die,  for  such  medicines  stimulate  the 
neck  of  the  bladder,  augment  the  heat  of  the  blood,  before 
much  too  great,  and  inflame  the  bowels,  by  which  a mortifica- 
tion is  brought  on  and  the  horse  is  lost  by  the  very  means  used 
for  his  recovery. 

The  Yellows,  or  Jaundice., — This  disorder  is  very  common 
in  horses,  and  sometimes  it  is  either  unknown,  or  overlooked, 
till  it  gets  much  worse  to  cure.  A young  horse  is  easily  cured, 
but  an  old  horse  is  bad  to  cure. 

Symptoms. — The  white  of  the  eye  is  yellow,  also  the 
inside  of  the  mouth,  the  tongue  and  the  bars  in  the  mouth  are 
of  a dusky  yellow  ; the  horse  is  dull,  and  refuses  all  kinds  of 
food  ; a slow  fever  is  perceived,  which  increases  with  the  yel- 
lows ; the  dung  is  often  hard  and  dry,  and  of  a pale  yellow 
color  ; the  urine  is  generally  of  a dark  dirty  brown,  and 
when  it  has  settled,  sometimes  looks  like  blood  ; the  horse 
stales  with  pain  and  difficulty  ; and,  if  the  disorder  is  not 
checked,  becomes  in  a short  time  unable  to  stir  about.  When 
this  disease  gets  strong  hold  of  a horse  before  proper  medicines 
are  applied,  it  is  often  fatal,  or  it  brings  on  some  other  disorder 
as  bad,  or  worse,  than  itself. 

Cure. — Bleed  plentifully,  and,  as  this  disease  is  always 
attended  by  a costive  habit  of  body,  it  will  be  proper  to  give  a 
clyster  or  two  before  you  give  the  physic.  A clyster  may  be 
made  of  one  ounce  of  camomile  flowers,  boiled  in  a quart  of 
water  with  two  ounces  of  Castile  soap.  Then  give  the  follow- 
ing ball  : 

4 drachms  of  Indian  rhubarb. 

2 drachms  of  saffron. 

6 drachms  of  Socotrine  aloes. 

1 ounce  of  Castile  soap. 

To  be  brayed  in  a mortar  with  a little  syrup  of  buckthorn, 
and  made  into  two  balls  ; one  to  be  given  the  last  thing  at 
night,  and  the  other  the  first  thing  in  the  morning  ; and  give 
plenty  of  warm  water  to  work  them  off.  If  the  disease  is  obsti- 
nate, and  will  not  yield  to  the  above,  give  the  following  ball : 

1 drachm  of  calomel,  8 drachms  to  an  ounce. 

1 ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes. 

1 ounce  of  Venice  soap. 

1 ounce  of  turmeric. 

1 drachm  of  oil  of  juniper. 

All  to  be  brayed  in  a morter  with  a little  syrup  of  buck- 
thorn, and  made  into  two  balls  ; one  to  be  given  at  night,  and 
the  other  in  the  morning,  with  plenty  of  warm  water,  and 
walking  exercise  till  wrought  off. 

If  the  horse  is  better  after  the  first  medicine,  repeat  it,  for 


THE  HORSE 


113 


it  is  much  safer  than  the  last  ; but,  if  not,  the  last  may  be 
given,  and  repeated  as  need  requires  ; but  be  careful  not  to 
give  it  in  less  than  six  days  distance. 

If,  after  giving  one  dose  of  the  last  ball,  you  give  the  fol- 
lowing powders  every  day  in  celantine  tea,  if  it  can  be  got,  or 
in  warm  ale,  you  will  find  them  very  useful  in  removing  the 
complaint. 

2 ounces  of  salts  of  tartar. 

2 ounces  of  turmeric. 

These  powders  are  proper  to  be  given  after  either  of  the 
former  doses. 

• 

The  Staggers. — This  disease  is  caused  by  the  liver  making 
blood*  so  fast  that  the  cavity  of  the  heart  is  overloaded  and  the 
blood  flies  up  the  neck  vein  till  the  head  is  overloaded  too  ; 
and,  if  relief  cannot  be  obtained,  the  horse  soon  dies. 

Symptoms. — The  most  common  are  drowsiness,  watery 
and  somewhat  full  and  inflamed  eyes,  a disposition  to  reel, 
feebleness,  a bad  appetite,  the  head  generally  hanging  down, 
or  resting  on  the  manger.  There  is  little  or  no  fever,  and  the 
dung  and  urine  are  very  little  altered.  The  horse  soon  begins 
to  reel  and  falls  down,  and  sometimes  is  so  outrageous  as  to 
bite  everything  in  his  way. 

Cure. — In  the  first  place,  bleed  him  well  as  soon  as  you 
possibly  can,  by  striking  the  veins  in  several  places  at  once,  and 
take  away  four  or  five  quarts  at  one  time , and,  in  order  to 
raise  up  his  head  and  shoulders,  support  them  with  plenty  of 
straw.  If  he  survive  the  first  fit,  cut  several  rowels,  give  him 
clysters  at  night  and  morning,  made  of  barley-water  and  a 
little  sweet  oil  and  salt  ; and  blowup  his  nostrils  a little  cayenne 
pepper  or  white  hellebore.  Also  give  him 

4 drachms  of  bark. 

16  grains  of  turpeth  mineral, 
ounce  of  camphor. 

Give  it  in  a little  warm  ale.  When  ale  cannot  be  conveni- 
ently had,  any  other  beverage  to  disguise  the  taste  will  answer. 
If  the  horse  be  outrageous,  give  him 

1 ounce  of  tincture  of  opium. 

1 gill  of  syrup  of  poppies. 

1 ounce  of  tincture  guaiacum. 

Be  careful  not  to  let  him  knock  his  head,  for  it  will  increase 
the  disorder.  If  he  gets  through  the  first  fit,  give  him  two 
ounces  of  crocus  metalorum  every  day,  to  thin  his  blood  for 
fear  of  a relapse.  It  will  be  proper  to  give  him  the  following 
ball  once  a month  for  some  time  after  : 

1 ounce  of  rhubarb,  in  powder. 

Vz  ounce  of  jalap. 

1 drachm  of  calomel,  8 drachms  to  the  ounce. 


114  THE  HORSE. 

To  be  made  into  a ball  with  syrup  of  buckthorn.  This  ball 
will  be  of  great  use  in  thinning  the  blood,  and  preventing  a 
return  of  the  disorder  ; for  when  a horse  has  had  one  fit  of  it, 
he  is  very  likely  to  have  another,  if  care  be  not  taken  to  pre- 
vent it. 

Convulsions,  or  the  Stag  Evil. — Of  all  disorders  to  which 
horses  are  subject,  this  is  the  worst,  and  is  scarcely  discover- 
able till  the  horse  falls  down  raging  mad.  It  seizes  him  all  at 
once,  without  any  previous  warning.  He  raises  his  head,  with 
his  nose  toward  the  rack,  pricks  up  his  ears,  and  cocks  his 
tail.  In  this  posture  he  continues,  and  those  who  do  not 
understand  the  disorder  never  suppose  that  he  ails  anything 
of  consequence.  But  other  symptoms  soon  convince  them  of 
their  mistake  ; for  his  neck  grows  stiff,  cramped  and  almost 
immovable  ; his  jaws  are  locked,  and  every  tendon’  in  is  body 
becomes  stiff.  If  he  can  get  his  mouth  open  he  will  bite  any- 
thingthat  comes  in  his  way  ; and,  if  he  lives  a few  days  in  this 
condition,  several  knots  will  arise  on  the  tendinous  parts  of  it. 
Every  muscle  is  so  much  cramped  and  extended  that  the 
horse  looks  as  if  he  were  fastened  to  the  place,  with  his  legs 
stiff,  wide,  and  staggering,  and  the  skin  drawn  so  tight  over 
every  part  of  his  body  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  him  to 
move  ; and  if  you  attempt  to  make  him  walk,  he  will  be  ready 
to  fall  at  every  step,  unless  he  be  well  supported.  At  the  same 
time  his  eyes  are  so  fixed  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  as 
to  give  him  a dead  look.  He  snorts  and  sneezes  often,  pants 
continually,  and  his  shortness  of  breath  increases  till  the  dis- 
distemper  takes  a favorable  turn,  or  the  horse  falls  down  and 
dies. 

Cure. — In  the  first  place,  bleed  plentifully,  unless  the  horse 
be  old  and  low  in  flesh,  or  taken  from  some  hard  duty,  and 
then  you  must  not  take  so  much  blood.  After  bleeding,  give 
the  following  ball,  if  you  can  get  it  in,  but  the  horse  is  very 
often  jaw-locked,  till  nothing  can  be  got  in  but  by  clysterpipe 
put  between  his  fore  and  axle  teeth. 

Yz  ounce  of  assafcetida. 

Yz  ounce  of  gum  guaiacum. 

Yz  ounce  of  gum  camphor. 

Make  them  up  into  a ball  with  honey,  and  give  one  of  these 
balls  every  twelve  hours,  for  two  days,  if  you  can  get  them  in; 
and,  if  not,  dissolve  them  in  a little  hot  beer,  and  give  them 
with  the  clyster-pipe.  Be  careful  to  powder  the  gums.  Then 
make  an  ointment  or  lotion  of  the  following  : 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  spike. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  amber. 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  sal  ammoniac. 

Shake  them  well  together,  and  rub  the  jaws  just  below  the 


THE  HORSE. 


115 


ears,  where  they  lock  in  the  upper  chap ; also  rub  the  small  of 
the  back  well,  where  the  cross  bones  join  the  back  bone. 

In  this,  as  in  most  other  disorders,  the  body  should  be  kept 
gently  open  with  laxative  purges  and  emollient  clysters.  When 
the  jaws  are  so  locked  that  you  cannot  get  anything  in,  do  not 
open  them  by  force,  for  that  would  increase  the  disorder 
instead  of  relieving  it. 

Sheep-skins,  newly  taken  off,  and  laid  with  the  flesh  side  to 
the  horse,  will  sweat  him  greatly,  and  by  that  means  draw  a 
quantity  of  water  from  the  blood  ; indeed,  there  are  few  things 
that  will  relieve  a locked  jaw  more;  but,  if  they  be  laid  on  the 
loins,  they  must  not  lie  above  three  hours  at  a time  before  they 
are  turned  with  the  wool  side  to  the  horse.  You  may  keep  the 
skins  on  twenty-four  hours,  if  you  change  sides  every  two  or 
three  hours. 

If  the  horse  can  not  take  either  food  or  water  in  at  his 
mouth,  he  must  be  supported  by  clysters,  made  of  barley-water 
and  milk,  and  given  both  at  the  mouth  and  fundament. 

Fevers. — Horses  are  subject  to  few  disorders  which  are  not 
attended  with  more  or  less  fever. 

Causes. — Fevers  are  often  brought  on  by  sudden  heats  and 
colds  ; by  going  out  of  warm  stables  into  cold  ones  ; by 
being  clothed  and  then  having  the  clothes  stripped  off  ; and 
by  being  turned  out  to  grass  ; for  many  people  turn  their  horses 
out  to  grass  in  the  morning,  and  letting  them  lay  out,  which  is 
quite  wrong  ; for  when  they  are  turned  out  to  grass,  to  be 
there  night  and  day,  it  is  best  to  turn  them  out  at  night,  for 
then  they  will  graze  all  night;  but,  if  you  turn  them  out  in  the 
morning,  they  will  fill  themselves  in  the  day  time,  and  lie  still 
all  night,  which  is  the  way  to  catch  cold.  Most  fevers  are 
brought  on  by  colds,  therefore,  be  careful  to  keep  your  horses 
as  much  as  possible  from  catching  cold. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  is  remarkably  restless,  ranging  from 
one  end  of  his  rack  to  the  other  ; his  flanks  work  ; his  eyes 
appear  red  and  inflamed;  his  tongue  is  parched,  and  his  breath 
hot  and  of  a strong  smell.  He  often  smells  at  the  ground:  he 
loses  his  appetite,  and  though  he  will  take  hay  into  his  mouth, 
he  does  not  chew  it;  his  whole  body  is  hotter  than  usual,  but 
not  parched  ; he  dungs  often,  but  little  at  a time,  and  it  is 
generally  hard,  and  in  small  pieces  ; his  urine  is  high-colored, 
and  he  generally  stales  with  pain  and  difficulty  ; he  is  always 
craving  for  water,  but  drinks  very  little  at  a time  ; and  his  pulse 
is  much  quicker  than  usual. 

Cure. — Whenever  a fever  takes  place,  the  first  part  of  a 
cure  is  bleeding.  And,  if  the  horse  be  strong  and  in  good  con- 
dition, the  quantity  should  be  two  or  three  quarts.  When  this 


116 


THE  HORSE. 


has  been  done,  give  him  a pint  at  a time  of  the  following 
infusion,  three  or  four  times  a day  : 

4 ounces  of  juice  of  licorice 

4 ounces  of  licorice  root. 

2 ounces  of  saltpeter. 

4 ounces  of  salt  of  tartar. 

8 ounces  of  good  raisins. 

1 ounce  of  aniseeds. 

2 drachms  of  saffron. 

Boil  all  these  together  in  six  quarts  of  water,  for  ten 
minutes  ; let  it  stand  till  cold,  and  then  strain  it  off.  It  is  one 
of  the  best  medicines  for  colds,  coughs,  hoarseness,  or  fevers, 
in  either  horse  or  man  ; and,  if  it  were  more  known,  and 
more  used,  it  would  give  greater  relief  in  violent  colds  than 
anything  yet  found  out.  It  is  kind  in  its  operations,  opening 
to  the  lungs,  works  gently  by  stool  and  urine,  is  free  in  its 
passage,  and  opening  in  its  nature. 

The  horse  should  scarcely  eat  anything  but  mashes  made 
of  linseed  and  bran,  and  given  in  small  quantities.  If  he 
refuses  them,  let  him  have  dry  bran  sprinkled  with  water,  and 
put  a little  hay  into  his  rack,  as  a small  quantity  of  it  will  not 
hurt  him,  and  a horse  will  often  eat  hay  when  he  will  not  eat 
anything  else.  His  water  should  be  rather  warm,  and  given 
often,  but  in  small  quantities  ; and  his  clothing  moderate,  too 
much  heat  being  pernicious  in  a fever.  If  he  refuses  his  meat, 
do  not  let  it  lie  before  him,  but  take  it  away,  and  clean  his 
rack  and  manger.  If  he  be  able  to  go  about,  a little  walking 
exercise  in  the  open  air  will  be  very  proper,  but  you  must 
be  careful  not  to  get  him  wet. 

This  method,  with  good  nursing,  will  often  be  sufficient  to 
restore  the  horse  to  health  ; but,  if  he  refuse  his  meat,  more 
blood  should  be  taken  from  him,  and  the  drink  continued ; 
and,  if  his  dung  be  hard  and  knotty,  a clyster  should  be  given  : 

Take  Marshmallows  and 

Camomile  dowers,  a handful  each; 

Boil  one-third  away  in  three  quarts  of  water,  strain,  and  add 
4 ounces  of  Venice  treacle. 

1 pint  of  pale  rape  oil. 

The  above  will  make  three  clysters,  to  be  given  at  four 
hours’  distance.  If  his  pulse  continue  high  and  quick,  give 
the  following  : 

2 ounces  of  nitre. 

2 ounces  of  cream  of  tartar. 

4 ounces  of  Glauber's  salt. 

2 ounces  of  lenitive  electuary. 

Dissolve  them  in  hot  water,  give  one-half  and  the  other 
half  the  day  following.  If  the  horse  be  very  open  in  his  body, 
you  need  not  give  the  above  ; but  if  dry,  be  sure  to  give  it 
him.  If  he  be  very  open,  give  him  four  drachms  of  bark  in  a 
gill  of  red  port.  By  pursuing  this  method,  the  horse  will 
begin  to  recover,  and  will  relish  his  hay,  though  his  flanks  will 


THE  HORSE. 


117 


continue  to  heave  for  a fortnight.  Nothing  more  will  be 
requisite  to  complete  the  cure  than  walking  him  abroad  in  the 
air,  and  giving  him  plenty  of  clean  litter  to  rest  on  in  the  stable. 

A Broken  Wind.— This  disorder  may  sometimes  be  prevented 
but  cannot  be  cured  ; and  it  has  hitherto  been  as  little  under- 
stood as  any  to  which  a horse  is  subject.  People  have  had 
various  opinions  respecting  its  cause,  and  why  some  horses  are 
more  subject  to  it  than  others;  but,  of  all  the  opinions  hitherto 
delivered,  this  seems  the  best  founded  : That  it  is  frequently 
owing  to  the  hasty  or  injudicious  feeding  of  young  horses  for 
sale,  by  which  means  the  growth  of  the  lungs  is  rapidly 
increased,  and  all  the  contents  of  the  chest  so  much  enlarged 
that  in  a few  years  the  cavity  of  the  chest  is  not  sufficient  to 
contain  them  when  they  are  expanded  to  perform  their  proper 
functions.  Nor  is  this  opinion  founded  on  bare  conjecture,  for 
horses  that  have  died  broken-winded  have  been  opened  and  the 
lungs  and  other  parts  found  too  large  for  the  chest.  But 
although  hasty  feeding  is  often  the  cause  of  this  disorder,  yet 
it  is  not  always,  for  a narrow  chest  may  cause  it.  It  has  been 
observed  that  horses  rising  eight  years  old  are  most  subject  to 
it.  The  reason  is  this  : Because  a horse  arrives  at  his  full 
strength  and  maturity  at  that  age.  At  six  he  generally  finishes 
his  growth  in  height  ; then  he  lets  down  his  belly,  and  spreads, 
and  all  his  parts  gain  their  full  size  ; so  that  the  pressure  on 
the  lungs  and  the  midriff  is  now  increased. 

From  observations,  it  abundantly  appears  that  the  enormous 
size  of  the  lungs  and  other  contents  of  the  chest,  by  hindering 
the  free  action  of  the  midriff,  is  the  principal  cause  of  this 
disorder;  and,  as  the  lungs  are  found  much  more  fleshy  than 
usual,  they  must  consequently  have  lost  a great  part  of  their 
spring  and  tone. 

Therefore,  as  this  disorder  is  caused  by  the  largeness  of  the 
lungs,  we  may  conclude  that  it  is  one  of  those  diseases  which 
cannot  be  cured  by  art  ; and  that  the  boastings  of  those  who 
pretend  to  cure  it  are  built  on  a sandy  foundation.  They 
may,  indeed,  relieve  the  complaint,  but  will  never  cure  it,  for 
an  absolute  cure  is  not  in  the  power  of  any  human  being.  All 
that  I can  do  is  to  lay  down  some  rules  which  have  a great 
tendency  to  prevent  this  disorder,  if  pursued  in  time  ; and 
some  remedies  that  will  afford  relief  when  it  has  taken  place 
and  render  the  horse  capable  of  performing  good  service, 
notwithstanding  his  misfortune. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptom  of  a broken  wind  is  an 
obstinate  dry  cough,  which  is  neither  attended  with  sickness 
nor  loss  of  appetite;  but,  on  the  contrary,  with  a disposition  to 
foul  feeding,  eating  the  litter,  and  drinking  large  quantities 
of  water. 


118 


THE  HORSE. 


Prevention. — When  a horse  is  troubled  with  an  or. senate 
dry  cough,  and  eats  his  litter,  it  will  be  necessary  to  bleed  him, 
and  to  give  him  the  mercurial  physic  already  prescribed,  repeat- 
ing it  two  or  three  times.  Afterwards  give  the  following  balls 
for  some  time,  which  have  been  found  of  great  service  : 

4 ounces  of  gum  ammoniacum. 

4 ounces  of  galbanum. 

4 ounces  of  assafcetida. 

4 ounces  of  squills. 

Vz  ounce  of  saffron. 

Make  the  whole  up  into  balls  with  honey  and  a little  licor- 
ice powder,  and  give  one  about  the  size  of  a pullet’s  egg  every 
other  morning.  This  is  a very  good  ball  for  a dry  cough. 

But  it  is  not  enough  to  give  proper  medicines  ; the  horse’s 
diet  should  also  be  carefully  attended  to  at  the  same  time,  if 
we  would  hope  for  success.  In  order  to  do  this,  the  horse 
should  eat  very  sparingly  of  hay,  which,  as  well  as  his  grain, 
should  be  wetted  with  chamber-ley,  which  is  much  better  than 
water.  Chamber-ley  is  best  for  this  purpose,  because  of  the 
volatile  salts  which  it  contains,  as  they  are  the  means  of  remov- 
ing the  thirst.  For  the  same  reason,  garlic  is  very  efficacious 
in  this  disorder.  Two  or  three  cloves  being  given  in  each 
feed  ; or  three  ounces  bruised,  and  boiled  in  a quart  of  milk 
and  water,  and  given  every  morning  for  a fortnight,  has  been 
found  very  serviceable.  So  easy  a remedy  should  never  be 
neglected  ; for,  by  warming  and  stimulating  the  solids,  and  at 
the  same  time  dissolving  the  tenacious  juices  which  choke  up 
the  vessels  of  the  lungs,  it  greatly  relieves  the  complaint. 
Moderate  exercise  should  never  be  omitted  ; and,  although 
broken-winded  horses  are  not  able  to  endure  much  labor  the 
first  summer,  yet  many  have  been  found  less  oppressed  the 
second,  and  scarcely  perceptibly  affected  the  third,  being  then 
able  to  perform  a long  journey,  and  to  endure  great  fatigue. 
A horse  kept  constantly  in  the  field,  when  not  in  work,  will  be 
able  to  do  good  service  for  many  years. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  observe  that  those  who  hope  to 
cure  a broken-winded  horse,  or  even  one  that  is  troubled  with 
an  obstinate  cough,  by  putting  him  to  grass,  will  find  them- 
selves wretchedly  mistaken  ; for,  on  being  taken  into  the  stable 
and  fed  with  dry  meat,  he  will  be  much  worse  than  before  ; 
and  some  that  had  only  a dry  cough,  when  they  were  put  to 
grass,  have  returned  broken-winded.  Therefore,  always  re- 
member that  if  you  cannot  keep  a horse  of  this  description 
constantly  abroad,  it  is  best  not  to  put  him  to  grass  at  all,  as, 
instead  of  curing,  it  will  tend  to  augment  the  disorder. 

In  short,  the  grand  secret  of  managing  horses  of  this  kind, 
consists  in  having  particular  regard  to  their  diet  and  exercise. 
A moderate  qua-ntaty  of  hay  or  grain,  and  water,  should  be 


THE  HORSE. 


119 


given  at  a time,  and  the  former  constantly  moistened,  to  pre- 
vent their  wanting  too  much  of  the  latter.  They  should  have 
moderate  exercise,  but  never  any  that  is  violent.  By  this 
method,  and  giving  the  following  ball  once  every  fortnight  or 
three  weeks,  the  horse  will  be  able  to  do  good  service  for  many 
years: 

6 drachms  of  Socolrine  aloes. 

2 drachms  of  myrrh. 

2 drachms  of  galbanum. 

2 drachms  of  ammoniacum. 

2 ounces  of  bayberries,  in  powder. 

Make  the  whole  into  a ball,  with  a little  oil  of  amber,  and 
a sufficient  quantity  of  syrup  of  buckthorn.  This  ball  operates 
so  gently  that  there  is  no  need  of  confinement,  except  a little 
the  day  following  that  on  which  it  is  given.  The  horse  must 
have  warm  mashes  and  warm  water,  and  the  utmost  care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  his  catching  cold. 

Relief  for  Heaves. — Heaves,  the  common  name  for 
broken  wind  in  the  horse,  is  susceptible  of  great  alleviation  by 
attention  to  the  character  and  quantity  of  food  to  be  eaten  by 
the  animal,  as  every  one  knows.  If  a horse,  suffering  from  this 
disease,  is  allowed  to  distend  his  stomach,  at  his  pleasure,  with 
dry  food  entirely,  and  then  to  drink  cold  water,  ad  libitifm,  he 
is  nearly  worthless.  But,  if  his  food  be  moistened,  and  he  be 
allowed  to  drink  a moderate  quantity  only  at  a time,  the  dis- 
ease is  much  less  troublesome. 

A still  farther  alleviation  may  be  obtained  from  the  use  of 
balsam  of  fir  and  balsam  of  copaiba,  4 oz.  each,  and  mix  with 
calcined  magnesia,  sufficiently  thick  to  make  it  into  balls,  and 
give  a middling  sized  ball  night  and  morning  for  a week  or  ten 
days.  This  gives  good  satisfaction. 

Lobelia,  wild  turnip,  elecampane,  and  skunk  cabbage,  equal 
parts  of  each.  Make  into  balls  of  common  size,  and  give  one 
for  a dose,  or  make  a tincture,  by  putting  4 oz.  of  the  mixture 
into  2 qts.  of  spirits  ; and,  after  a week,  put  2 tablespoonfuls 
in  their  feed,  once  a day  for  a month  or  two.  This  remedy  is 
also  good. 

A Consumption. — Symptoms. — A consumption  is  a want  of 
nourishment  and  waste  of  flesh.  The  horse’s  eyes  look  dull, 
his  ears  and  feet  are  commonly  hot,  he  coughs  violently  by 
fits,  sneezes  often,  and  groans  at  the  same  time  ; he  gleets  at 
the  nose,  and  sometimes  throws  a yellowish  matter,  rather 
curdled,  from  his  nose  ; his  flanks  have  a quick  motion,  and  he 
has  little  appetite  to  hay,  though  he  will  eat  grain,  but  he 
grows  hot  after  it. 

Causes. — Damp  stables  are  most  likely  to  bring  on  this 
disorder,  though  it  may  be  brought  on  by  many  other  things. 


120 


THE  HORSE. 


In  my  time  I have  known  many  horses  suffer  much  by  damp 
h tables.  1 knew  a gentleman,  who  had  two  valuable  horses, 
and  he  built  a brick  stable  for  them,  without  any  air-hole  above 
their  heads.  He  put  the  horses  in  as  soon  as  the  stable 
appeared  dry,  and  their  heat  soon  caused  the  walls  of  the  place 
to  sweat,  and  to  run  down  with  water,  by  which  means  both 
the  horses  were  thrown  into  a consumption  and  died.  I men- 
tion this  to  caution  others. 

Cure. — The  first,  and  indeed  one  of  the  principal  things  to 
be  done,  is  to  bleed  in  small  quantities.  A pint,  or  at  most  a 
pint  and  a half,  is  sufficient  at  once,  and  the  operation  is  to  be 
repeated  whenever  the  breath  is  more  than  commonly  oppressed. 
We  are  assured,  by  dissection,  that  in  a consumption  both  the 
glands  of  the  lungs  and  the  mesentery  are  swelled,  and  often 
indurated.  The  only  medicine  that  can  be  depended  upon  are 
mercurial  purges  and  ponderous  alteratives.  I have  already 
given  you  examples  of  the  former,  and  the  following  is  a for- 
mula of  the  latter.  Mix 

4 ounces  of  crocus  metalorum. 

1 ounce  of  calomel  pp. 

1 pound  of  gum  Guaiacum,  finely  powdered. 

Give  about  an  ounce  every  day  in  a mash  of  bran  and  lin- 
seed. Iceland  liverwort,  a handful  boiled  in  a gallon  of  water, 
is  much  better  to  make  mashes  up  with  than  water  ; for  it  is  a 
great  helper  of  the  blood.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  noth- 
ing will  answer  so  good  an  end  as  spring  grass  ; so  that  if  the 
horse  be  afflicted  with  this  disease  in  spring-time,  turn  him  out 
to  grass  as  soon  as  you  can  ; and,  if  the  night  be  cold,  turn 
him  out  in  the  day-time,  and  take  him  in  at  night.  Salt 
marshes  are  the  most  proper  places,  when  they  can  be  met 
with.  When  a horse  has  had  this  disorder,  he  can  never  more 
bear  cold  and  hard  service  as  before. 

A Scouring,  and  other  Disorders  of  the  Intestines. — You 

should  consider  well  what  the  scouring  proceeds  from,  whether 
it  is  caused  by  foul  feeding,  bad  water,  hard  exercise,  sudden 
heat  or  cold,  or  overflowing  of  bile,  or  a weakness  of  the  intes- 
tines. 

If  it  is  brought  on  by  foul  feeding,  or  bad  water,  it  should 
not  be  stopped,  but  rather  be  promoted  ; for  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  nature  by  this  means  throws  off  the  seeds  of 
disease,  and  evacuates  the  morbid  matter  which  would  other- 
wise be  retained  to  the  great  disadvantage,  and,  perhaps,  to  the 
destruction,  of  the  animal.  The  great  difficulty,  therefore,  con- 
sists in  knowing  when  these  discharges  are  critical  and  salu- 
tary, and  when  detrimental  and  noxious  ; for  the  former  must 
not  be  checked,  but  the  aid  of  medicine  must  be  called  in  to 
put  a stop  to  the  latter. 


THE  HORSE. 


121 


For  instance,  if  a healthy  horse,  upon  taking  cold,  or  after 
hard  riding,  over  feeding,  or  at  the  beginning  of  a slight  fever, 
have  a moderate  purging,  you  must  be  careful  not  to  stop  it, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  to  promote  it,  by  an  open  diet,  and  plenty 
of  warm  gruel.  But,  if  this  purging  continue  a long  time,  with 
smart  gripings,  and  the  inner  skin  of  the  bowels  come  away 
with  the  dung,  and  the  horse  lose  both  his  flesh  and  his  appe- 
tite at  the  same  time,  recourse  must  immediately  be  had  to 
proper  medicines  ; among  which  the  following  are  very  effec- 
tual. I do  not  wish  any  one  to  give  medicines  upon  merely 
hearing  the  names  of  the  drugs,  but  to  know  first  in  what  man- 
ner the  drugs  will  operate. 

Take  2 ounce  of  rhubarb,  in  powder. 

2 drachms  of  myrrh,  in  powder. 

2 drachms  of  saffron. 

Give  altogether  in  warm  ale  and  warm  water,  for  two  days 
after.  This  dose  will  not  only  work  gently,  but  will  be  of 
great  service  to  the  horse,  as  it  will  bring  away  the  slime  which 
lodges  in  small  intestines,  and  correct  the  bile  of  the  stomach, 
and  the  horse’s  flesh  keeps  wasting  away,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  astringents.  Tormentil  root  dried,  and  pounded  in  a mor- 
tar, and  put  through  a sieve,  is  one  of  the  best  astringents  yet 
found  out,  though  very  little  known.  The  dose  is  from  an 
ounce  to  an  ounce  and  a half.  I believe  that  this  valuable  root 
has  done  more  good  in  my  time,  in  stopping  looseness  and 
bowel  complaints,  than  any  thing  else.  When  the  purging  is 
attended  with  fever,  a different  method  of  practice  is  necessary. 

Take  y2  ounce  of  rhubarb,  in  powder. 

1 ounce  of  lenitive  electuary. 

Vi  ounce  of  camphor. 

1 ounce  of  powdered  ginger. 

To  be  given  in  a pint  of  old  ale.  This  is  a very  proper 
medicine  when  the  horse  is  troubled  with  a fever  • but  if 
he  have  no  fever  upon  him,  give  the  following. 

1 ounce  of  tormentil  root, ‘in  powder. 

y2  ounce  of  Japan  earth,  do. 

Give  these  m red  wine,  or  if  that  be  thought  too  expensive, 
in  oak  bark  tea.  Japan  earth  is  a great  healer  of  the  bowels. 
Repeat  this  last  medicine  three  or  four  times  to  allow  it  a fail- 
trial  ; giving  the  horse  at  the  same  time  but  little  exercise,  for 
he  cannot  then  bear  much.  Should  this  medicine  fail,  and  the 
disorder  increase  instead  of  decreasing,  which  may  be  known  by 
his  flanks  and  belly  being  full  and  distended,  and  his  appearing 
to  suffer  strong  griping  pains,  give  the  following  clyster  : 

y2  ounce  of  isinglass,  dissolved  in  a quart  of  warm  milk. 

2 ounces  of  mithridats. 

Sometimes  the  flux  is  so  violent  as  not  to  be  overcome  by 
the  preceding  medicine,  when  recourse  must  be  had  to  the 


THE  HORSE. 


12x5 

following:  Boil  a handful  of  oak  bark  in  a quart  of  water, 
strain  it  off,  and  add 

2 ounces  of  tormentil  root,  in  powder. 

2 ounces  of  bole. 

Give  them  all  together.  This  should  be  repeated  once  a 
day  for  two  or  three  days. 

The  practitioner  should  carefully  attend  to  the  symptoms 
that  accompany  this  disorder  ; for  if  the  discharge  be  attended 
with  any  acrid  mucus,  or  slime,  the  griping  pains  being  very 
severe,  there  is  then  a sure  indication  that  the  common  lining 
of  the  bowels  are  wasted  away  ; and  then  it  will  be  necessary 
frequently  to  inject  the  following  clyster,  warm,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  fatal  consequences  which  will  otherwise  soon 
ensue: 


4 ounces  of  starch,  dissolved  in  a quart  of  water. 

Half  a pint  of  sweet  oil. 

Yolks  of  three  eggs,  well  broken. 

A little  loaf  sugar. 

This  will  do  for  twice,  at  four  hours’  distance. 

In  treating  this  disease,  be  exceedingly  careful  to  follow  my 
directions,  and  to  get  good  drugs,  for  your  success  will  depend 
upon  this  and  cautious  watching  of  the  symptoms. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  observe  that  some  horses,  from 
having  weak  stomachs  and  bowels,  throw  out  their  aliment 
undigested,  and  their  dung  is  habitually  soft  and  of  a pale 
color  ; they  also  feed  sparingly,  and  are  always  low  in  flesh. 
This  complaint,  which  often  proves  fatal  at  last,  may  be 
removed  by  the  following  medicines  : 

6 drachms  of  Socotorine  aloes. 

3 drachms  of  rhubarb,  in  powder. 

1 drachm  of  myrrh. 

1 drachm  of  saffron. 

Make  all  up  into  a ball  with  syrup  of  ginger.  After  the 
above  stomachic  purge  shall  have  been  given  two  or  three 
times,  a pint  of  the  following  infusion  should  be  given  every 
morning  : 

Take  2 ounces  of  orris  root. 

A handful  each  of 
Gentian,  Columbia  root. 

Winter  bark,  Aniseeds, 

Orange  peel,  Fennel  seed, 
and  camomile  flowers. 

Boil  all  together  in  a gallon  of  strong  ale,  and  when  cold 
clear  it  off,  and  add  one  pint  of  spirits  of  wine.  If  this  be 
thought  too  strong,  two  quarts  more  of  ale  may  be  added.  This 
is  an  excellent  cordial  for  both  healing  and  strengthening  the 
stomach  and  bowels.  These  are  the  best  methods  of  treating 
the  above  disorders,  to  which  horses  are  often  subject,  and  in 
which  they  are  often  lost  for  lack  of  proper  treatment. 


THE  HORSE. 


123 


Disorders  of  the  Kidneys  and  Bladder. — Inflammation  of 
the  kidneys  and  bladder  are  sometimes  brought  on  by  other 
disorders,  and  often  by  sprains,  hard  exercise,  catching  cold 
when  hot,  or  from  want  of  proper  care. 

Symptoms  of  a Hurt  in  the  Kidneys. — The  horse  is 
very  weak  in  the  back  and  loins;  he  stales  with  difficulty,  is  faint, 
eats  very  little  ; his  eyes  appear  languid  and  of  a dead  color  ; 
his  urine  is  foul,  thick,  and  often  bloody,  especially  after  a 
violent  strain;  he  cannot  move  backwards  without  a great  pain, 
which  may  be  seen  at  every  attempt.  It  is  sometimes  hard  to 
distinguish  an  inflammation  from  a sprain,  or  what  is  called 
“ tifled  in  the  back.”  There  is  no  method  but  observing  the 
gait  of  the  horse.  If  he  have  got  tifled  in  the  back,  he  will 
be  hard  put  to  it  to  keep  from  coming  down  behind,  and, 
indeed,  will  often  come  down;  his  eyes  will  look  rather  red, 
but  his  urine  the  same  as  before.  A tifle  lies  in  the  marrow,  or 
pith  of  the  back. 

Cure. — The  principal  remedy  for  a hurt  in  the  kidneys  is 
bleeding,  which  should  be  done  pretty  plentifully,  as  by  this 
means  an  inflammation  will  be  prevented  ; and  if  you  have 
reason  to  think  that  the  inflammation  has  already  begun,  from 
the  creature’s  being  feverish  and  staling  with  great  difficulty, 
the  operation  should  be  repeated  ; for  unless  the  inflammation 
be  prevented,  or  immediately  removed,  the  consequences  will 
be  fatal.  But,  although  bleeding  is  the  principal,  it  is  not  the 
only  remedy,  for  rowelling  is  of  great  service.  Put  a rowel  on 
each  side  of  his  belly,  and  give  the  following  balls  twice  a day, 
in  a pint  of  the  decoction  of  marshmallows,  having  an  ounce  of 
gum  arabic,  and  an  ounce  of  honey,  dissolved  in  it  : 

1 ounce  of  salts  of  Prunella. 

6 drachms  of  spermaceti. 

2 ounces  of  Castile  soap. 

Add  as  much  honey  as  will  make  a ball ; and  if  the  urine 
be  bloody,  an  ounce  of  Japan  earth  must  be  added.  If  the 
fever  continue,  you  must  repeat  the  bleeding  and  give  emol- 
lient clysters,  and  the  cooling,  opening  drink,  before  recom- 
mended for  fevers,  till  it  abate.  These  methods  will  often 
prove  successful,  but  sometimes  the  disease  is  too  obstinate  to 
be  overcome  by  them,  and  the  urine  still  passes  with  pain  and 
difficulty.  Recourse  must  then  be  had  to  the  following  balls, 
and  they  must  be  prepared  twice  a day  till  the  horse  stales 
without  pain,  and  his  urine  becomes  clear,  and  without  any 
purulent  settlement : 

1 ounce  of  Venice  turpentine. 

1 ounce  of  Castile  soap. 

6 drachms  of  nitre. 

2 drachms  of  myrrh,  in  powder. 

Make  the  whole  into  a ball  with  honey,  and  wash  it  down 
with  a strong  decoction  of  marshmallows. 


124 


THE  HORSE. 


These  are  the  best  methods  of  treatment  in  this  disorder, 
and  will  in  general  prove  successful.  Sometimes,  indeed,  this 
malady  is  too  strong  for  the  power  of  medicine,  and  then  the 
urine  continues  turbid,  and  daily  becomes  of  a deeper  color, 
with  a foetid  smell,  a sure  sign  that  the  kidneys  are  ulcerated  ; 
which  generally  terminates  in  a consumption,  and  the  creature 
becomes  absolutely  incuiable. 

In  treating  of  the  colic,  I have  recommended  a method  for 
removing  the  stranguary,  when  it  proceeds  from  wind,  or  from 
dung  pressing  upon  the  neck  of  the  bladder  ; but  sometimes  it 
proceeds  from  an  inflammation,  and  a retention  of  urine. 

Symptoms  of  an  Inflammation  of  the  Neck  of  the 
Bladder. — When  a horse  is  seized  with  a stranguary  from  the 
above  cause,  it  will  make  frequent  motions  to  stale,  standing 
wide,  and  straddling,  his  bladder  being  full  of  urine,  and  his 
flanks  distended  ; he  will  be  uneasy,  constantly  shifting  his 
hind  feet,  and  often  giving  clicks  in  his  motions  ; he  also  some- 
times hangs  his  head,  and  then  raises  it  suddenly. 

Cure. — First  bleed  largely,  and  then  give  the  following: 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  sweet  nitre, 

2 ounces  of  syrup  of  marshmallows 

1 ounce  of  Venice  soap. 

Cut  the  soap  small,  dissolve  it  in  a gill  of  hot  water,  put  the 
above  to  it,  and  give  it  to  the  horse.  Repeat  it  every  eight 
hours.  Also  dissolve  an  ounce  of  gum  arabic  and  an  ounce  of 
nitre  in  a gallon  of  water,  and  let  him  drink  plentifully  of  it. 
If  he  will  drink  of  his  own  accord,  it  is  best ; but  if  not,  horn 
a little  into  him,  for  it  will  greatly  tend  to  remove  the  cause  of 
the  disease,  and  consequently  to  terminate  the  effects. 

There  is  a disease  of  the  kidneys,  viz.:  a diabetes  or  pro- 
fuse staling,  which  produces  effects  directly  opposite.  This 
disorder  is  seldom  cured  in  old  horses,  as  their  fibres  are 
become  rigid  and  unable  to  perform  their  office,  a misfortune 
which  all  the  power  of  medicine  cannot  remove.  But  in  young 
horses  this  disease  is  often  cured,  and  the  following  method 
will  generally  be  attended  with  success  : 

Cure  of  a Diabetes. — In  order  to  cure  this  threatening  dis- 
order, great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  the  horse  drink  too 
much  water,  and  never  to  give  him  any  moist  food.  Attention 
to  these  particulars  will  go  a great  ways  towards  a cure  ; and 
instead  of  giving  him  common  water  to  drink,  give  him  lime- 
water,  to  make  which,  take  about  three  pounds  of  lime,  pour 
six  quarts  of  water  into  it ; let  it  stand  three  days,  take  the 
scum  off  the  top,  and  give  the  horse  the  water  to  drink.  Be 
careful  not  to  stir  the  lime  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  This 
is  very  clear,  wholesome  water,  and  very  good  for  many  dis- 
orders, 


THE  HORSE. 


125 

Some  farriers  give  strong  alum  possets  two  or  three  times 
a day  but  this  kind  of  treatment  cannot  be  proper,  for  the 
alum  takes  so  fast  hold  of  the  juices  of  the  stomach  that  if  the 
horse  were  not  ill,  it  would  be  enough  to  make  it  so. 

The  Molten  Grease. — This  is  so  common  a disorder  that  it 
ought  to  be  well  understood,  but,  alas  ! like  many  others,  it  is 
often  mistaken  for  something  else.  The  disease  is  a melting 
down  of  the  fat  of  the  horse’s  body,  caused  by  violent  exer- 
cise in  very  hot  weather  ; or,  if  the  horse  be  full  of  flesh,  it 
may  happen  in  cold  weather.  Hard  riding,  or  sudden  colds, 
will  bring  on  this  disorder. 

Symptoms. — It  is  always  attended  with  a fever,  heat,  rest- 
lessness, starting  and  trembling,  inward  sickness,  and  shortness 
of  breath.  Also,  the  horse’s  dung  is  extremely  greasy,  and  he 
often  falls  into  a scouring.  His  blood,  when  cold,  is  covered 
with  a thick  scum  of  fat,  of  a white  and  yellow  color,  but  gen- 
erally the  latter.  The  congealed  part,  or  sediment,  appears 
like  a mixture  of  size  and  grease,  and  is  so  extremely  slippery 
that  it  will  not  adhere  to  the  fingers  ; and  the  small  proportion 
of  serum  is  also  slippery  and  clammy.  The  horse  soon  loses 
his  flesh  and  fat,  the  latter  being  probably  dissolved  into  the 
blood.  Such  as  have  sufficient  strength  to  sustain  the  first 
shock,  commonly  become  hidebound,  and  their  legs  swell 
greatly  ; and  in  this  state  they  continue  till  the  blood  and 
juices  are  rectified  ; and,  if  that  is  not  done  effectually,  the 
Farcy,  or  an  obstinate  surfeit,  is  generally  the  consequence, 
which  cannot  be  removed  but  with  the  utmost  difficulty. 

Cure. — In  the  first  place,  bleed  pretty  plentifully,  and  re- 
peat the  operation  two  or  three  days  successively  ; but  take 
care  that  you  take  only  a small  quantity  at  a time  after  the  first 
bleeding,  as  otherwise  the  creature  would  be  rendered  too 
weak  to  support  himself,  and  his  blood  too  poor  to  be  easily 
recruited.  As  soon  as  he  has  been  bled  the  first  time,  let  two 
or  three  rowels  be  put  in,  and  the  emollient  clysters  pre- 
scribed for  fevers  be  thrown  up  daily,  to  mitigate  the  fever, 
and  to  cleanse  the  intestines  from  the  greasy  matter.  At  the 
same  time  plenty  of  water-gruel  should  be  given,  and  some- 
times a small  quantity  of  water,  with  a little  nitre  dissolved  in 
it.  The  latter  will  be  of  great  service,  as  it  will  prevent  the 
blood  from  running  into  grumous  concretions,  and  proving 
the  source  of  innumerable  disorders,  if  not  causing  a total 
stagnation,  and,  consequently,  the  death  of  the  animal. 

The  horse  must  be  treated  in  this  manner  till  the  fever  be 
entirely  gone,  and  he  shall  have  recovered  his  appetite  ; and 
then  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  him  three  or  four  purges,  a 
week  distant  from  each  other,  which  will  make  him  stale  and 


126 


THE  HORSE. 

perspire  plentifully,  and,  at  the  same  time,  bring  down  the 
swellings  of  his  legs.  The  following  is  well  calculated  for  the 
purpose  : 

6 drachms  of  Socotrine  aloes. 

4 ounces  of  gum  Guaiacum,  in  powder. 

2 drachms  of  ginger. 

2 drachms  of  jalap. 

2 drachms  of  oil  of  juniper. 

To  be  made  into  a ball  with  syrup  of  buckthorn.  By  pur- 
suing this  method  the  horse  will  soon  be  recovered,  for  this 
purge  will  mend  his  appetite,  and  increase  his  flesh.  If  it  be 
too  weak,  add  a drachm  more  of  aloes.  It  will  bring  down  his 
swelled  legs,  and  carry  away  all  the  superfluous  matter  that 
clogs  the  blood.  When  you  give  the  physic,  be  careful  to  give 
plenty  of  warm  water  all  the  time. 

A Surfeit. — Some  people  pronounce  every  ill-thriven  horse 
surfeited,  whether  he  is  so  or  not.  A surfeit  is  nothing  more 
than  the  effects  of  an  ill-cured  disease,  and,  therefore,  what  is 
called  a surfeit  in  horses  is  very  different  to  the  disease  which 
bears  that  name  in  the  human  body  ; the  latter  being  the  be- 
ginning of  a disease,  and  the  former  the  remains  of  one. 

Symptoms. — The  horse’s  coat  will  stare,  look  of  a rusty 
color,  and  even  appear  dirty,  although  the  greatest  pains  have 
been  taken  to  keep  him  clean.  His  skin  will  be  covered  with 
scales  and  dandruff,  which  will  appear  like  meal  among  the 
hair,  and,  when  cleaned  off,  will  be  followed  by  a succession  of 
the  same  matter,  occasioned  by  the  perspiration  being  ob- 
structed. Some  horses  will  be  covered  with  a kind  of  scab, 
sometimes  moist,  attended  with  heat  and  inflammation,  and 
the  humor  so  very  sharp,  and  causing  so  violent  an  itching, 
that  the  creature  is  incessantly  rubbing  himself,  and  by  that 
means  making  himself  raw  in  different  parts  of  his  body. 
Some  horses  have  neither  scales,  dandruff  nor  scab  ; but  look 
dull,  sluggish  and  lazy.  Some  are  hidebound,  and  others 
afflicted  with  flying  pains  and  temporary  lameness.  In  short, 
the  symptoms  are  very  various,  and  almost  as  numerous  as 
those  of  the  scurvy  itself. 

Causes. — The  causes  are  as  various  as  the  symptoms.  Some 
horses  are  surfeited  by  high  feeding  and  want  of  proper  exer- 
cise, which  produce  a bad  digestion  and  generate  ill  humors. 
Some  are  surfeited  by  unwholesome  food  ; some  by  hard  riding; 
some  by  bad  or  improper  physic,  and  some  by  standing  in 
stables  through  which  the  rain  drops,  or  by  lying  wet.  But 
as  many  also  get  surfeited  by  standing,  when  hot,  at  the  doors 
of  public  houses,  such  bad  practices  should  be  guarded  against. 

Cure. — If  we  duly  consider  the  nature  of  surfeits,  their 
cure  will  be  much  more  easily  performed.  All  allow  that  they 


THE  HORSE. 


127 


arise  from  a bad  state  of  the  blood  ; but  how  is  this  to  be 
remedied  ? By  bleeding  and  purging.  But  this  must  be  done 
in  a very  gentle  manner.  Take  about  a quart  of  blood,  and  the 
next  day  give  the  following  ball  : 

1 ounce  of  Socotrine  aloes. 

1 drachm  of  calomel,  pp. 

2 drachms  of  oil  of  aniseeds. 

Add  as  much  lenitive  electuary  as  will  make  it  into  a ball. 
Give  plenty  of  warm  water  to  work  it  off.  Repeat  both  bleed- 
ing and  physic  in  eight  days  and  when  the  last  dose  is  wrought 
off,  give  him  the  six  ounces  of  the  cordial  balls  in  a little  warm 
ale.  Also  give  a spoonful  of  the  following  powders  every  day 
in  a mash  : 

4 ounces  of  flour  of  brimstone. 

4 ounces  of  crocus  metalorum. 

4 ounces  of  nitre,  in  powder. 

Mix  all  up  well  together.  By  persevering  in  the  above 
method  you  may  cure  the  most  inveterate  surfeit,  and,  if  any 
scabs  or  runnings  appear  in  the  skin,  rub  them  with  the  follow- 
ing : 

4 ounces  of  sulphur  vivum. 

2 ounces  of  white  copperas. 

2 ounces  of  white  hellebore,  in  powder. 

Mix  these  powders  with  churn-milk,  rub  the  places  affected 
well,  and  the  grievance  will  soon  disappear.  Sometimes  a sur- 
feit settles  in  the  legs,  and  they  swell  much,  and  then  break 
out  and  run  very  much.  When  this  is  the  case,  two  taps  put 
into  the  lower  belly  will  be  of  great  use.  Staling  balls  should 
be  given  every  third  day,  and  plenty  of  warm  water  to  work 
them  off  with.  Make  the  staling  balls  as  follows  : 

1 ounce  of  white  resin. 

4 drachms  of  Castile  soap. 

2 drachms  of  oil  of  juniper. 

2 drachms  ef  camphor. 

4 drachms  of  saltpetre. 

Bray  all  well  together  in  a paste,  in  a mortar,  and  form  it 
into  a ball.  The  above  is  only  for  one  dose,  but  you  may 
make  as  many  as  you  think  proper  at  once,  and  keep  them  for 
use.  Give  them  at  night,  and  they  will  work  off  the  next  day. 
These  balls  are  of  great  service  in  many  of  the  disorders  of 
horses,  and  are  some  of  the  best  staling  balls  yet  found  out. 

By  following  the  foregoing  directions,  a cure  will  generally 
be  performed.  Sometimes  in  this  disorder  little  knots  break 
out,  especially  upon  the  hind  parts  of  the  horse,  and  these 
knots  throw  out  a little  matter.  When  this  is  the  case,  you 
must  rub  them  with  strong  mercurial  ointment.  Sometimes 
these  little  tubes,  or  pustules,  have  living  insects  in  them  ; but, 
by  rubbing  them  as  I have  just  directed  you,  they  will  be  de- 
stroyed and  the  cure  completed. 


128  THE  HORSE. 

The  Hidebound. — This  disorder  is  too  often  brought  on  by 
the  horse  being  worked  too  hard,  and  badly  kept  ; although 
this  is  not  always  the  case.  When  the  skin  of  a horse  sticks  so 
close  to  his  ribs  that  it  appears  immovable,  the  horse  is  said  to 
be  hidebound.  But  this  is  not  properly  a disease,  but  rather  a 
symptom,  being  often  caused  by  previous  disorders,  such  as 
fevers,  convulsions,  surfeits,  worms,  or  disorders  of  the  kidneys 
or  lungs. 

Cure. — As  the  hidebound  may  proceed  from  various  causes, 
it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  cause,  before  such  medicines 
can  be  applied  as  will  remove  it.  If  it  owe  its  origin  to  hard 
labor  and  want  of  food,  rest  and  plenty  will  soon  remove  it. 
If  it  be  caused  by  worms,  worm  medicines  must  be  applied  ; 
or  if  it  be  left  by  any  imperfectly  cured  disorder,  the  followirig 
drink  must  be  given: 

2 ounces  of  aniseeds  in  powder. 

2 ounces  of  ginger,  in  powder. 

2 ounces  of  mustard. 

2 ounces  of  turmeric. 

All  to  be  powdered,  and  to  be  given  in  warm  ale,  fasting, 
and  to  fast  two  hours  after.  Bleeding,  tapping  and  physic  are 
also  necessary,  when  the  hidebound  is  left  by  any  disorder. 

The  Mange. — This  disorder  is  more  shameful  than  danger- 
ous, for  you  cannot  gt>  abroad  with  a scabby  horse  without 
being  hissed  at,  neither  is  it  proper;  for  this  disease  is  so 
infectious  that  every  horse  that  may  come  near  it  will  be  in 
danger. 

The  mange  is  too  well  known  to  need  a long  description, 
though  some  have  been  mistaken,  and  have  taken  a hot  itching 
eruption  for  it. 

Symptoms. — At  first  it  is  confined  to  the  skin,  but,  by  long 
continuance,  it  vitiates  and  pollutes  the  blood.  The  skin  is 
generally  thick  and  full  of  wrinkles,  especially  about  the  mane, 
the  loins  and  the  tail;  and  the  little  hair  remaining  on  those 
parts  stands  erect.  The  ears  and  eyebrows  are  commonly 
naked;  and,  when  the  limbs  are  affected,  they  have  the  same 
appearance;  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  horse  is  not  raw  nor 
does  the  skin  peel  off  as  in  a surfeit. 

Causes. — The  mange  is  generally  taken  by  infection,  for  it 
is  so  very  catching  that  if  a horse  be  put  into  a stable  where 
one  with  the  mange  has  stood,  before  it  is  thoroughly  cleansed, 
he  will  hardly  fail  being  infected.  But,  though  infection  is  the 
general,  it  is  not  the  only  cause,  of  the  mange.  Low  feeding, 
and  running  long  abroad  in  cold,  pinching  weather  without 
sufficient  provender,  will  cause  a horse  to  have  the  mange. 

Cure. — When  a horse  has  been  infected  by  another,  the 


'The  horse.  129 

disorder  is  not  so  obstinate  as  when  caused  by  starvation,  for 
the  blood  will  not  be  in  so  bad  a state.  When  you  think  a 
horse  has  got  the  mange,  apply  the  following,  where  you  think 
it  needful,  and  it  will  cure  it  at  the  beginning,  without  much 
trouble  or  expense: 

4 ounces  of  sulphur  vivum. 

4 ounces  of  white  copperas. 

4 ounces  of  white  hellebore  root,  in  powder. 

Mix  all  together  in  two  quarts  of  buttermilk,  and  rub  the 
places  well.  By  this  method  you  can  cure  most  scabs  of  short 
duration;  but,  when  once  the  mange  has  got  great  hold,  it  will 
require  sharper  treatment.  Make  the  following  for  one  horse: 

4 ounces  of  sulphur  vivum. 

2 ounces  of  white  hellebore  root,  in  powder. 

2 ounces  of  blue  stone  vitriol,  in  powder. 

Vi  ounce  of  verdigris,  in  powder. 

4 ounces  of  Flanders  oil  of  bays. 

3 gills  of  whale  oil. 

Mix  all  well  together,  and  rub  the  horse  well  with  it  all 
over — in  the  sun,  if  in  summer,  but  before  a fire  if  in  the  win- 
ter. In  summer  you  must  always  turn  him  out  to  grass 
after  rubbing,  but  in  winter  keep  him  warm  in  the  house.  You 
must  be  careful  to  wash  your  saddles  and  bridles,  cart  gears, 
stands,  mangers,  racks,  etc.,  well  with  quick-lime  and  chamber- 
ley;  for,  if  you  do  not  clean  all  that  the  horse  may  have  used, 
the  infection  will  remain.  You  will  find  the  above  a certain 
cure,  if  managed  rightly,  for  I have  cured  hundreds  with  it, 
and  I do  not  remember  one  instance  of  its  failure. 

At  the  same  time  give  freely  of  flour  of  sulphur  and  liver 
of  antimony  ; and,  if  you  have  a number  of  horses  infected,  be 
sure  to  rub  them  all  together. 

The  Farcy,  or  Farcin. — There  have  been  many  opinions 
respecting  this  disease.  Some  authors  reckon  five  kinds;  but 
although  there  are  so  many  different  branches,  yet  four  of  them 
have  the  same  root.  The  water  farcy  is  different  from  the 
others,  and,  therefore,  I shall  put  it  afterwards  by  itself.  There 
is  a scurvy  which  horses  are  subject  to,  and  which  is  often 
called  a farcy,  but  it  is  no  such  thing,  for  there  are  only  the 
two  kinds  of  farcy  which  I shall  here  treat  upon.  Horses  are 
often  said  to  have  the  farcy  when  they  have  not,  for  sometimes  * 
when  people  do  not  know  the  proper  name  of  a disorder,  they 
call  it  farcy.  The  true  farcy  is  a disorder  of  the  blood  vessels, 
and  generally  follows  the  course  of  the  veins,  and,  when  invet- 
erate, thickens  their  coats  and  integuments  in  such  a manner 
that  they  become  like  so  many  cords. 

Symptoms. — At  the  beginning  of  this  disorder,  a few  small 
knobs  or  tumors,  resembling  grapes,  are  found  on  the  veins, 
which  are  so  painful  to  the  touch  that  the  creature  shows  evi- 

7 


130 


THE  HORSE. 


dent  marks  of  uneasiness  on  their  being  pressed  with  the 
finger.  They  are  at  first  very  hard,  like  unripe  grapes,  but  in 
a very  little  time  they  grow  soft,  and  break  and  discharge  a 
bloody  matter,  and  become  very  foul  and  untoward  ulcers. 
This  disease  appears  in  different  places  on  different  horses. 
Some  show  it  first  on  the  head;  some  on  the  external  jugular 
vein;  some  on  the  plate  vein,  extending  from  thence  down- 
ward, on  the  inside  of  the  fore  leg,  towards  the  knee,  or 
upwards  towards  the  brisket.  In  some  it  first  appears  about 
the  pasterns,  on  the  sides  of  the  large  veins,  and  on  the  insides 
of  the  thighs,  extending  towards  the  groin;  in  others  on  the 
flanks,  spreading  by  degrees  towards  the  lower  belly;  and  some 
horses  are  nearly  covered  all  over  the  body  at  once. 

Cure. — When  the  farcy  attacks  only  one  part  of  a horse, 
and  that  where  the  blood  vessels  are  small,  it  may  be  easily 
cured;  but  when  the  plate  vein  is  affected  and  turns  corded, 
and  especially  when  the  crural  veins  withinside  the  thigh  are 
in  that  condition,  the  cure  is  very  difficult,  and  the  creature  is 
rarely  fit  for  anything  but  the  lowest  work  after  it.  Therefore, 
those  who  depend  on  some  particular  medicine,  and  flatter 
themselves  with  being  able  to  cure  every  species  of  the  farcy 
with  it,  will  find  themselves  wretchedly  mistaken;  for  different 
medicines  are  needful,  according  as  the  disease  is  superficial  or 
inveterate.  The  former  is  easily  cured,  for  sometimes 
moderate  exercise  is  sufficient;  but  the  latter  requires  knowledge 
and  experience,  and  often  baffles  the  most  skillful  and  defies 
the  whole  power  of  medicine. 

From  the  above  description  of  this  disease,  it  appears  that 
it  is  of  the  inflammatory  kind,  and  that  the  blood  vessels  are 
affected.  Copious  bleedings  are,  therefore,  absolutely  necessary, 
especially  if  the  horse  be  fat  and  full  of  blood.  This  evacua- 
tion always  checks  the  progress  of  the  farcy  in  its  beginning, 
but  its  good  effects  soon  vanish,  especially  if  the  horse  be  low 
in  flesh.  After  bleeding,  mix  the  following: 

4 ounces  of  cream  of  tartar. 

4 ounces  of  lenitive  electuary. 

4 ounces  of  Castile  soap. 

2 drachms  of  calomel,  8 drachms  to  an  ounce. 

Make  these  into  balls,  and  give  two  ounces  a day  for  some 
time.  While  giving  these  balls,  dissolve  a little  nitre  in  the 
water  given  to  the  horse  to  drink.  These  medicines  will  keep 
his  body  open,  and  allay  the  inflammatory  heat  of  his  blood, 
which  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  disease;  and,  while  they  are 
given  inwardly  to  remove  the  cause,  let  the  tumors  be  rubbed 
twice  a day  with  the' following  ointment: 

4 ounces  of  elder  ointment. 

4 ounces  of  Flanders  oil  of  bays. 

2 ounces  of  white  vitriol. 

1 ounce  of  red  precipitate. 

2 ounces  of  sugar  of  lead. 


THE  HORSE.  131 

Beat  all  well  together  into  an  ointment,  and  keep  it  for  use. 
This  ointment  will  soon  disperse  the  tumors,  which  will  leave 
small  bald  spots  on  the  skin,  but  the  hair  will  grow  again  in 
time.  If  the  tumors  break,  and  run  a thick,  well  digested 
matter,  it  is  a sign  that  the  disease  is  conquered,  and  the  horse 
will  soon  be  well;  but  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  him  two 
ounces  of  liver  of  antimony  every  day  for  a fortnight,  and  two 
ounces  every  other  day  for  a fortnight  after,  in  order  to  sweeten 
his  blood,  and  disperse  the  small  bunches  that  remain.  This 
method  never  fails  when  the  small  veins  only  are  affected;  and 
a short  time  will  complete  the  cure. 

But  when  the  farcy  affects  the  large  blood  vessels,  the  cure 
is  far  more  difficult.  Let  the  practitioner  always  attempt  it  at 
the  beginning  of  the  disease,  as  he  then  will  have  fewer  diffi- 
culties to  encounter;  for  delay  renders  that  almost  impossible 
to  be  overcome  which  at  first  might  have  been  easily  conquered. 
Therefore,  when  the  plate  or  crural  veins  are  corded,  lose  no 
time,  but  bleed  immediately  on  the  opposite  side,  and  apply  to 
the  distempered  vein  the  following  mixture,  which  is  proper  to 
dress  the  wound  with,  but  not  before  they  are  broken  out: 

3 drachm  of  corrosive  sublimate. 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  salt. 

Powder  the  sublimate,  and  put  into  a bottle,  and  put  the 
spirits  of  salt  upon  it  to  dissolve  it;  then  add  two  ounces  of 
vinegar  by  degrees.  This  is  a very  proper  mixture  to  dress 
the  ulcers  with;  but,  if  it  cannot  be  got,  take 

6 ounces  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

3 ounces  of  oil  of  vitriol. 

Put  the  pot  in  water  with  the  turpentine  in  it,  and  pour  the 
oil  of  vitriol  in,  a little  at  a time,  and  keep  stirring  it  till  it  shall 
have  subsided.  If  the  farcy  be  situated  in  the  loose  and  fleshy 
parts,  such  as  the  flanks  and  belly,  the  mixture  should  consist 
of  equal  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  oil  of  vitriol;  but  when 
the  seat  of  the  disease  is  in  the  parts  which  are  less  fleshy,  the 
proportions  above  are  best  calculated  to  perform  a cure.  The 
medicine  must  be  used  in  the  following  manner:  Rub  the 
parts  affected  with  a woolen  cloth,  and  then  apply  some  of  the 
compound  oil  to  every  bud  and  tumor.  Continue  this  method 
twice  a day,  and  at  the  same  time  give  cooling  physic  every 
other  day.  The  balls  and  nitrous  draughts  before  mentioned 
will  answer  the  intention.  By  this  treatment  the  tumors  will 
be  digested,  and  the  cords  dissolved;  but  it  will  be  necessary 
to  give  liver  of  antimony  to  complete  the  cure,  and  to  prevent 
a relapse;  and  also  to  dress  the  sores,  when  well  digested, 
with  a mixture  of  bees-wax  and  oil,  which  will  heal  them,  and 
smooth  the  skin. 

Sometimes  the  disease  will  not  yield  to  this  treatment, 


THE  HORSE. 


I&J 

especially  when  situated  near  the  flanks  or  the  lower  belly.  In 
that  case  it  will  be  necessary  to  bathe  the  parts  with  the  com- 
pound oil  as  far  as  the  centre  of  the  belly;  and  at  the  same 
time  to  give  a course  of  antimonial  medicines.  The  following 
composition  is  stronger  than  the  last,  and  on  that  account  is 
often  used  when  the  disease  is  obstinate: 

4 ounces  of  spirits  of  wine.  x 

2 ounces  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

4 ounces  of  oil  of  vitriol. 

2 ounces  of  vinegar. 

Mix  all  together  with  the  caution  before  directed.  When  this 
method  fails,  and  the  disorder  becomes  inveterate,  try  the 
following,  which  is  recommended  by  an  eminent  practitioner: 

Vz  pint  of  linseed  oil. 

3 ounces  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

2 ounces  of  oil  of  bays. 

% ounce  of  oil  of  origanum. 

*4  ounce  of  strong  aquafortis. 

2 ounces  of  Barbadoes  tar. 

1 drachm  of  tincture  of  euphorbium. 

Mix  all  together  with  caution,  as  before  directed.  This 
medicine  must  be  rubbed  on  the  tumors  and  corded  veins  once 
in  two  or  three  days,  observing  that  if  the  mouths  of  the  ulcers 
are  choked  up,  or  so  thick  as  to  confine  the  matter,  to  open  a 
passage  with  a small  hot  iron;  and  also  to  destroy  the  proud 
flesh,  which  maybe  kept  down  by  touching  it  occasionally  with 
oil  of  vitriol,  aquafortis  or  butter  of  antimony. 

In  this  disorder,  these  are  the  best  ways  of  proceeding  that 
have  yet  been  discovered;  but  it  is  to  be  considered  as  an 
obstinate  one,  and  is  sometimes  very  hard  to  cure.  It  has 
hitherto  baffled  many  an  able  practitioner,  and  it  is  to  be 
feared  will  baffle  many  more;  for  when  the  blood  has  got  into 
such  a corrupted  state,  it  bids  defiance  to  medicines. 

The  ingenious  Dr.  Brackden  recommends  the  strong  mer- 
curial ointment  for  rubbing  the  cords  and  tumors  with  before 
they  break;  and,  in  order  to  disperse  them  when  they  are 
broken,  to  dress  the  sores  with  a mixture  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  Venice  turpentine  and  quicksilver.  If  the  mouth 
becomes  sore  by  this  means,  a gentle  purge  should  be  given  to 
prevent  salivation.  This  is  doubtless  a very  good  method,  and, 
if  care  be  taken,  will  often  prove  effectual. 

I have  given  you  the  best  prescriptions  that  I am  able  to 
give,  and  such  as  will  not  fail  to  cure  if  properly  applied,  if  the 
horse  be  not  incurable.  I have  been  more  particular  in  treat- 
ing of  this  disease,  because  it  is  common  among  horses,  and 
very  often  managed  improperly  by  those  who  pretend  to  cure 
it.  Such,  therefore,  as  have  valuable  horses  in  this  disease, 
would  do  well  to  be  careful  whom  they  employ,  and  assiduous 
in  observing  the  methods  they  make  use  of  to  cure  it,  if  they 
do  not  think  proper  to  attempt  a cure  themselves.  In  my 


THE  HORSE. 


133 


opinion  they  may  do  it  better  themselves  by  following  these 
directions  than  by  trusting  to  farriers. 

The  Water  Farcy. — This  disease  varies  very  much  from 
the  last,  and  would  more  properly  be  called  a dropsy  than  a 
farcy.  There  are  two  kinds  of  this  disorder,  but  they  are 
nearly  of  the  same  nature.  One  of  them  is  produced  by 
indisposition  terminating  in  the  skin,  as  is  often  the  case  in 
epidemical  colds;  the  other  is  a true  dropsy,  where  the  water 
is  not  confined  to  the  body  and  limbs,  but  is  found  in  different 
parts  of  the  body,  and  a great  number  of  soft  swellings  appear. 
When  you  press  the  finger  pretty  hard  upon  any  of  the 
swelled  parts,  or  under  the  horse’s  belly,  or  any  part  of  the 
body,  you  may  take  it  for  granted  that  he  has  got  the  dropsy, 
or  what  is  called  the  water  farcy. 

This  disorder  mostly  proceeds  from  foul  feeding,  or  a con- 
tinuance of  very  wet  weather  in  the  end  of  summer. 

Cure.— Whenever  the  swellings  appear,  make  scarifications, 
that  is,  holes  through  the  skin.  This  may  be  done  by  a short 
fleam;  and  if  you  have  not  one  short  enough,  put  a collar 
made  of  a piece  of  leather  on  it.  If  the  swelling  be  under  the 
oelly,  strike  a good  many  holes  in  at  a time,  but  be  careful  to 
avoid  the  veins.  By  this  means  a great  quantity  of  water  will 
run  out.  Taps  in  the  brisket  are  also  often  of  great  service. 
I have  fleamed  horses  four  or  five  times  before  I could  get 
the  swelling  to  subside.  When  the  water  has  subsided,  the  blood 
is  left  in  a bad  state,  to  remedy  which  a gentle  purge  should  be 
given  two  or  three  times,  eight  days’  distance,  to  recover  the 
crasis  of  the  blood,  and  brace  up  the  relaxed  fibres  of  the  whole 
body.  Lime  water  is  very  proper,  with  a little  nitre  in  it,  and 
let  the  horse’s  food  be  warm  mashes  or  bran,  with  a little  malt 
in  it.  His  keep  must  be  increased  by  degrees.  The  disorder 
mostly  happens  to  young  horses  that  have  not  been  used  to 
high  keep.  You  must  give  one  of  the  following  balls  every 
day,  omitting  the  time  when  the  physic  is  working: 

2 ounces  of  squills. 

1 ounce  of  camphor. 

1 ounce  of  Castile  soap. 
ll/2  ounces  of  turpentine. 

4 ounces  of  yellow  resin. 

Make  these  into  a ball  with  honey,  and  give  one  ounce  at  a 
time.  These  balls  will  work  the  water  off  by  urine.  When 
the  horse  has  been  treated  in  this  manner  till  the  water  is 
evacuated,  and  he  begins  to  recover,  give  him  a pint  of  the 
following  infusion  every  day  for  a fortnight,  fasting,  and  let  him 
fast  one  hour  after  each  dose: 

4 ounces  of  gentian  root. 

4 ounces  of  black  hellebore. 

2 ounces  of  Jesuit’s  bark. 

4 ounces  of  camomile  flowers, 

1 handful  of  qentaury. 


134 


THE  HORSE. 


Boil  all  together  in  six  quarts  of  water,  for  ten  minutes;  let 
stand  till  cool,  and  then  strain  it  through  a cloth.  This 
strengthening  drink  will  brace  the  fibres,  cause  the  fluids  to 
circulate  quicker,  and  complete  the  cure. 

Founders. — The  chest  founder  is  produced  by  violent 
exercise  on  a full  stomach,  and  drinking  large  quantities  of 
cold  branch  water;  by  the  use  of  mouldy  bran,  corn,  or  oats,  or 
by  eating  large  quantities  of  green  food,  such  as  oats,  wheat, 
peas,  etc.,  while  performing  hard  labor.  The  seat  of  the  dis- 
ease is  in  the  lungs;  the  heart  and  liver  are  also  considerably 
enlarged,  insomuch  that  there  is  not  room  for  them  to  perform 
their  office  with  ease.  The  liver,  lungs,  diaphragm  and  sur- 
rounding parts,  are  all  covered  with  large  brown  spots,  and  arc 
much  inflamed. 

Symptoms. — A horse  that  is  chest  foundered  will  straddle 
or  stake  with  his  fore  legs,  showing  an  unwillingness  to  bring 
his  feet  together;  and,  if  they  are  placed  near  each  other,  he 
will  not  permit  them  to  remain  so  for  a minute,  indeed,  they 
are  frequently  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  apart,  which  is  caused 
by  a fulness  and  continual  uneasiness  about  the  chest;  the 
cavity  being  too  small  to  contain  the  lungs,  etc.,  in  their  enlarged 
situation,  with  ease.  The  hind  legs  are  free  from  the  palsied 
appearance  of  those  before,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish 
it  from  a common  founder,  as  it  is  wanting  in  all  its  symptoms, 
except  the  stiff  and  numbed  appearance  of  the  legs. 

Large  bleedings,  and  half  an  ounce  of  aloes,  given  intern- 
ally in  a ball,  have  sometimes  afrorded  momentary  relief.  A 
horse  laboring  under  this  disease  is  worth  but  little  more  than 
his  board,  as  he  is  unable  to  bear  fatigue,  or  undergo  severe 
service. 

The  common  founder  is  caused  by  riding  the  horse  until 
much  heated  and  fatigued,  and  then  allowing  him  to  cool  sud- 
denly, by  drinking  freely  of  cold  water,  or  standing  in  an  ex- 
posed situation,  or  in  a cold  stable  without  covering;  or,  with- 
out sudden  cooiing,  it  may  be  produced  by  too  bountiful  feed- 
ing, and  his  swallowing  his  food  greedily,  while  very  warm  and 
hungry.  Under  such  unfavorable  circumstances,  the  poor  ani- 
mal, after  resting,  instead  of  being  refreshed,  is  stiff  and  sore; 
his  rest,  food,  and  drink,  being  more  destructive  to  health  than 
constant  action  and  abstinence.  On  the  contrary,  had  he  been 
allowed  to  cool  gradually,  and  fed  sparingly,  he  would  have 
escaped  injury. 

Cure. — Take  from  the  neck  vein  a gallon  of  blood,  and 
give  as  a drink,  in  a quart  of  strong  sassafras  tea,  a tablespoon- 
fur  of  saltpetre,  and  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  assafoetida;  with- 
holding any  drink  for  six  hours;  at  the  end  of  which,  should 


THE  HORSE. 


135 


he  not  be  better,  take  half  the  quantity  of  blood,  repeat  the 
drink,  offering  him  bran  or  oats  scalded  with  sassafras  tea,  his 
drink  being  mixed  with  tea.  His  feet  should  be  well  cleansed, 
and  filled  with  cow  dung. 

Other  Remedies. — As  soon  as  your  horse  is  foundered, 
bleed  him  in  the  neck  in  proportion  to  the  severity  of  the  case. 
In  extreme  cases,  bleed  him  as  long  as  he  can  stand.  Then 
draw  his  head  up,  and,  with  a spoon,  lay  salt  back  on  his  tongue, 
till  he  has  swallowed  one  pint.*  Let  him  drink  only  moderately. 
Anoint  his  feet  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  he  will  soon 
be  well.  The  founder  pervades  every  part  of  the  system. 
Bleeding  arrests  it  in  the  blood,  and  the  salt  in  the  stomach 
and  bowels.  Attend  to  it  immediately  after  the  injury. 

The  Prairie  Farmer  recommends,  as  a simple  and  certain  cure, 
to  bleed  the  horse  freely  in  the  neck,  as  soon  as  the  founder  is 
discovered,  and  as  soon  as  practicable,  place  him  in  water,  about 
up  to  his  belly — the  colder  the  better — and  let  him  stand  two- 
thirds  of  a day;  or,  if  badly  foundered,  longer.  This  drives 
the  founder  from  his  feet  and  legs,  and  prevents  its  settling 
there. 

Poll  Evil. — This  disease  in  the  horse  proceeds  sometimes 
from  striking  the  poll  of  his  head  against  any  hard  substance, 
or  from  bruising  the  part  with  the  halter,  which  causes  it  to 
swell.  First  abate  the  inflammation,  by  bleeding,  physic,  and 
the  application  of  cold  lotions  to  the  part.  This  will  some- 
times disperse  the  swelling.  If  it  matters,  hasten  its  formation 
with  warm  fomentations,  poultices,  or  stimulating  embroca- 
tions; then  open  the  swelling  so  that  the  whole  of  the  matter 
should  run  out,  and  continue  to  do  so.  This  is  done  by  a 
seton.  Keep  it  clean  with  warm  water.  A piece  of  the  skin  of 
old  bacon,  rubbed  on  with  a hot  iron,  is  a good  application. 
Poll  Evil  has  been  cured  by  the  following  mixture  (apparently, 
at  least,  by  it  in  some  instances):  Take  finely  pulverized  flint 
glass,  three  spoonsful,  put  into  urine  one  pint  in  a bottle,  and 
bury  it  in  the  ground  for  three  or  four  days;  after  which,  take 
one  spoonful  or  more  of  the  mixture,  well  shaken  up,  and  put 
that  much  into  each  ear,  once  a day,  for  three,  four,  or  five 
days. 

A Sprain  in  the  Back. — All  kinds  of  sprains  resemble  each 
other.  They  are  a relaxation  of  the  tendinous  fibres,  from  the 
muscular  parts  being  overstretched.  Sprains  in  the  back  are 
mostly  caused  by  overweighting  the  horse,  or  by  his  losing  his 
hind  feet  on  the  side  of  the  hill;  and,  sometimes,  by  putting 
him  back  too  quickly.  There  is  much  difference  between  a 
sprain  in  the  back,  and  what  is  called  tilled  in  the'back.  Some- 
times a horse  catches  cold  in  his  loins  by  having  his  clothes  on 


136 


THE  HORSE. 


his  saddle  taken  off  when  he  is  hot,  and  being  turned  out  of 
doors;  and  some  horses  are  subject  to  rheumatics,  which  make 
them  lame  in  many  places,  and  are  generally  taken  for  sprains. 

To  cure  a sprain  in  the  back,  first  bleed  pretty  freely,  and 
then  give  the  following  drink: 

1 ounce  of  tincture  of  guaiacum. 

1 ounce  of  balsam  copaiva. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  juniper. 

To  be  put  into  a quart  of  strong  parsley-root  tea;  half  to  be 
given  at  night,  half  in  the  morning,  and  plenty  of  warm  water 
to  work  them  off. 

Also,  lay  a sheep’s  skin  with  the  flesh  side  to  his  loins  for 
six  or  eight  hours,  if  he  can  bear  it;  and  then  turn  the  wool 
side  to  him,  and  let  it  stay  on  a day;  and,  when  you  take  it  off, 
sheet  him  well  for  fear  of  catching  cold. 

A Sprain  in  the  Shoulder. — When  the  shoulder  of  a horse 
is  sprained,  he  does  not  put  out  the  leg  like  the  other,  but,  in 
order  to  ease  it,  sets  the  sound  foot  firmly  -on  the  ground. 
When  trotted  in  hand  he  forms  a kind  of  circle  with  his  lame 
leg,  instead  of  putting  it  forward,  and  when  he  stands  in  the 
stable  that  leg  is  advanced  before  the  other. 

There  is  what  is  called  a shoulder-slip,  which  is  worse  than 
a sprain.  When  this  happens,  the  horse  can  neither  lift  his  leg 
nor  put  it  forward.  You  may  know  this  by  the  shoulder-blade 
standing  higher  than  the  other;  but,  to  discern  that,  you  must 
make  him  stand  on  the  lame  leg,  for  the  leg  he  stands  on  will 
always  appear  a little  higher  than  the  other.  The  flesh  will 
also  shortly  waste  away  from  the  shoulder-blade,  which  is  a 
sure  sign  of  a shoulder-slip.  When  the  accident  has  taken 
place,  put  a tap  in  the  lame  side  of  the  animal’s  breast,  and 
blow  the  shoulder  full  of  wind  with  a pipe.  When  you  have 
rinded  the  skin  to  put  the  tap  in.  hold  the  skin  fast  to  the  pipe, 
and  blow  the  part  that  you  have  rinded  full,  and  let  some  one 
draw  the  wind  up  into  the  shoulder  with  the  edge  of  his  hand 
as  far  as  the  top  of  the  shoulder-blade,  and  then  put  in  the  tap, 
or  rowel,  and  stop  the  hole  up  well  with  tow  and  salve.  Give 
warm  water  for  three  days,  and  then  open  the  place,  stir  the  tap 
round,  and  rub  the  shoulder  all  over  with  the  following  lini- 
ment: 

2 ounces  of  spirits  of  wine. 

2 ounces  of  sweet  oil. 

2 ounces  of  spirits  of  sal  ammoniac. 

Shake  them  well  together,  rub  the  shoulder  well  with  the 
mixture  every  third  day,  for  some  time,  and  if  the  horse  do  not 
get  better,  with  three  or  four  times  rubbing,  use  the  following: 

2 ounces  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  origanum. 

Shake  these  up  together,  tub  all  on  at  a time,  and  walk  the 


THE  HORSE. 


13  7 


horse  about  a little  afterwards.  When  near  tne  wb  t>-.v naming 
in  the  salt  water  is  very  proper,  and  I have  known  swimming 
in  fresh  water  to  be  of  great  use,  particularly  in  clear  running 
streams. 

A sprain  in  the  shoulder  point  requires  nearly  the  same 
treatment  as  a slip,  but  you  need  not  blow  it.  When  it  is 
attended  by  inflammation,  cooling  mixtures,  such  as  extract  of 
lead  and  water,  must  be  used.  But  when  a swelling  or  an  in- 
flammation takes  place,  it  is  mostly  caused  by  a hurt,  or  by  a 
stroke  from  another  horse.  If  there  be  no  swelling,  rub  the 
shoulder  point  well  with  the  following  mixture  every  third  day: 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  amber. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  spike. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  origanum. 

Shake  these  well  together,  and  rub  the  shoulder  point  every 
other  day.  If  the  horse  be  no  better,  take 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine* 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  origanum. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  amber. 

Shake  these  together,  and  rub  the  shoulder  point  well  with 
them  every  third  day;  and,  if  the  horse  continue  lame,  recourse 
must  be  had  to  blistering. 

A Sprain  in  the  Coffin  joint. — This  is  often  a grievous  dis- 
ease, and  it  is  difficult  to  discover  where  the  lameness  is.  It  is 
often  neglected  till  the  joint  grows  stiff,  and  then  the  horse 
pitches  upon  his  toe,  and  is  afraid  of  bearing  any  weight  upon 
his  foot.  If  you  press  with  your  thumb  in  the  hole  in  the 
horse’s  heel,  and  upon  the  cornet  of  his  foot,  you  will  soon  dis- 
cover whether  the  hurt  is  in  the  coffin  joint. 

When  people  cannot  tell  the  cause  of  a horse’s  lameness, 
they  often  say  that  he  has  got  sprained  in  the  coffin.  In  my 
opinion  it  is  better  not  to  doctor  a horse  than  to  apply  stuff  to 
you  know  not  what.  If  people  would  have  a little  patience, 
most  lamenesses  would  soon  show  themselves,  especially  a 
sprain  in  the  coffin  joint,  for  it  would  raise  a ring  round  the 
corner  of  the  foot,  not  much  unlike  a ring-bone,  but  closer  to 
the  foot. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  draw  a little  blood  from  the 
spurn  vein,  then  mix  an  equal  quantity  of  oil  of  bays,  or  oil  of 
origanum,  beat  well  together,  and  rub  well  all  round,  just 
above  the  hoof.  Apply  this  for  three  or  four  days  together, 
and  if  no  better,  you  must  have  recourse  to  repeated  blistering. 

A Sprain  in 'the  Back  Sinews. — This  kind  of  sprain  is 
more  frequent  among  horses  than  any  other,  and  is  so  common 
that  I need  not  describe  it,  but  only  inform  you  how  to  cure 
it. 

If  it  be  recent,  bathe  the  leg  with  a little  hot  vinegar,  or 


138 


THE  HORSE. 


verjuice,  with  a little  saltpetre  dissolved  in  it,  and  put  round 
it  a proper  bandage ; or,  curriers’  shavings,  wetted  with  a com- 
position made  of  vinegar,  spirits  of  wine,  and  a little  tar,  and 
laid  on  the  swelling,  with  a pretty  tight  bondage  round  them, 
will  be  of  great  use.  Take  it  off  once  a day,  and  soak  the 
shavings  again,  or  get  fresh.  Injuries  of  this  kind  must  not  be 
expected  to  be  removed  immediately.  Rest  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary, and  turning  the  horse  out  to  grass  would  be  of  great  ser- 
vice as  soon  as  the  swelling  disappears,  but  not  before.  If 
these  methods  fail,  the  next  thing  is  to  blister  ; for  I have 
known  blistering  to  succeed  when  all  the  former  have  failed. 
The  last  thing  to  have  recourse  to,  is  firing  ; and  this  must  be 
done  carefully,  and  by  some  experienced  person. 

Sprains  of  the  Knees  and  Pasterns. — The  knees  are  liable 
to  many  misfortunes  besides  sprains.  The  speedy  cut  is  done 
by  striking  one  foot  against  the  other  leg,  just  below  the  knee, 
and  is  frequently  done  by  a horse  that  trots  high.  Sometimes 
it  swells  very  much,  and  is  taken  for  a sprain.  Sometimes 
horses  get  kicked  by  others,  or  meet  with  some  other  accident, 
which  causes  a swelled  knee,  which  is  sometimes  bad  to  re- 
move. A poultice,  made  as  follows,  and  carefully  applied  to 
the  part  injured,  will  have  a great  tendency  to  remove  the 
swelling  : 

Take  4 ounces  of  tar. 

4 ounces  of  spirits  of  wine. 

3 ounces  of  hogs’  lard. 

Melt  these  together  over  a slow  fire,  and  be  careful  not  to 
set  fire  to  them,  and  put  in  as  much  linseed  meal  as  will  make 
them  of  proper  consistence.  This  is  a very  good  poultice  for 
many  kinds  of  swellings,  and,  although  but  little  known  hitherto, 
I hope  that  it  will  be  found  of  great  service.  If  any  substance 
be  left,  which  will  not  give  way  to  this  method,  you  must  lay 
on  a little  blistering  ointment 

Lameness  in  the  stifle. — The  stifle  is  the  tenderest  part  of 
a horse,  except  the  eye.  How  many  horses  have  lost  their 
lives  by  misfortune  in  this  part,  and  how  many  have  been  left 
lame  by  not  being  properly  cured  ! A horse  that  is  lame  in 
the  stifle  generally  treads  on  his  toe,  and  cannot  set  his  heel  to 
the  ground  without  great  pain  and  difficulty.  When  you  find 
this  is  the  case,  bathe  the  part  well  with  warm  vinegar  ; and 
if  a puny  swelling  appear,  foment  it  well  with  a woolen  cloth, 
wrung  out  of  hot  vinegar,  wormwood  and  rosemary,  having 
added  half  a pint  of  spirits  of  wine  to  a quart  of  the  decoction. 
Let  this  operation  be  continued  till  the  swelling  is  nearly  gone. 

Owners  of  horses  should  watch  closely  for  this  lameness. 
They  cannot  be  too  careful  of  the  feet  of  their  animals.  You 


THE  HORSE. 


139 


should  examine  the  feet  of  your  horses  frequently,  and  with 
much  minuteness. 

When  a horse  has  got  a stroke,  and  cut  by  the  heel  of  his 
shoe,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  out  the  cold  air,  and  to 
keep  him  from  drinking  cold  water,  especially  in  winter  time  ; 
for,  if  the  horse  take  cold,  and  an  inflammation  come  on,  there 
is  reason  to  fear  that  death  will  follow.  When  you  perceive 
that  a horse  has  got  a stroke,  and  is  cut  through  the  skin,  bathe 
it  well  with  the  following  mixture 

2 ounces  of  spirits  of  wine. 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  sal  ammoniac. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  amber. 

Shake  all  well  together,  bathe  the  place  well  with  it,  and  lay 
on  a diachylon  plaster  with  gum,  in  order  to  keep  out  the 
cold.  If  the  horse  grow  very  lame,  and  the  place  swell  much, 
foment  with  the  following  : 

Take  a bandful  each  of  wormwood, 
elder  leaves,  camomile  flowers, 
juniper  berries,  marshmallow  leaves, 

boil  in  2 gallons  of  chamber  ley. 

If  the  above  cannot  all  be  got,  take  double  the  quantity  of 
juniper  berries  and  camomile  flowers,  and  foment  for  some 
time,  as  before  directed  ; and,  when  you  leave  off  fomenting, 
rub  with  the  above  mixture.  Be  careful  to  wrap  the  part  up 
warm,  and,  as  soon  as  it  comes  to  matter,  dress  it  with  basili- 
con  ointment.  If  any  brown  lee  appear,  syringe  tincture  of 
benjamin,  or  balm  drops,  into  the  wound.  When  a callous 
substance,  or  proud  flesh,  appears,  cut  it  off  with  red  precipi- 
tate. These  are  the  best  ways  of  curing  a horse  that  has  got 
lamed  in  the  stifle. 

Lameness  in  the  Cup-bone,  or  Whirlebone. — A lameness  in 
this  part  of  the  hip  is  discovered  by  the  horse  dragging  his  leg 
after  him,  and  dropping  backwards  on  his  heel  when  he  trots. 
If  the  muscles  of  the  hips  only  are  injured,  the  lameness  may 
be  soon  cured  ; but,  if  the  ligaments  of  the  cup  are  affected, 
or  relaxed,  the  cure  is  often  very  tedious  ; and,  when  the  cup 
is  full  of  glueish  liquor,  the  cure  is  doubtful.  I have  known  the 
ligament,  which  holds  the  hip  bone  in  the  cup,  to  be  broken, 
and  then  the  hipbone  has  come  loose  ; but  this  seldom  hap- 
pens, and  when  it  does,  nothing  can  be  done  to  relieve  it. 
When  a horse  is  lame  in  the  cup  bone,  rub  him  well  with  the 
following  mixture. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  amber. 

Vz  ounce  of  oil  of  origanum. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

Shake  these  well  up,  rub  one-half  on  the  cup,  and  the  other 
half  the  third  day.  I have  known  this  mixture  to  remove  the 
complaint  when  of  long  standing  ; but,  if  it  fail,  you  must 


140 


THE  HORSE. 


try  what  blistering  will  do.  The  last  thing  to  be  tried  is  firing. 
I have  fired  horses  that  have  been  lame  above  a year,  and  cured 
them  by  it. 

It  is  very  easy  to  fire  a horse  in  this  part.  Take  the  iron  and 
make  a circle,  eight  inches  in  diameter,  like  a cart  wheel,  with 
scores  about  an  inch  asunder.  Cut  nearly  through  the  skin  ; 
and  if  you  do  cut  through  in  some  places,  it  will  be  no  worse. 

Sprains  in  the  fetlock,  or  anywhere  in  the  limbs,  may  be 
treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  if  the  oils  will  not  remove  the 
substance,  blisters  will  ; therefore,  I shall  give  you  a recipe  for 
a blister,  which  is  not  only  suitable  for  those  complaints,  but 
for  others  where  a blister  is  wanted  : 

Take  l/2  ounce  of  quicksilver. 

V2  ounce  of  Venice  turpentine. 

2 ounces  of  Flanders  oil  of  bays. 

54  ounce  of  gum  euphorbium. 

1 ounce  of  Spanish  flies. 

2 drachms  of  oil  of  origanum. 

Rub  the  Venice  turpentine  and  quicksilver  well  in  a mor- 
tar for  some  time,  and  then  put  in  the  oil  of  bays,  and  rub 
some  time  longer,  till  the  quicksilver  is  quite  killed.  Powder 
the  gum  and  flies  well,  and  mix  them  all  together.  When  you 
lay  the  blister  on,  rub  it  well  against  the  hair,  to  get  it  to  the 
bottom  ; lay  it  on  with  a broad  pointed  knife,  and  cover  it 
with  a cloth,  or  the  horse  will  get  his  mouth  to  it.  This  blis- 
ter will  answer  any  purpose  you  want  a blister  for,  but  you 
must  observe  that  there  must  be  fifteen  days  between  the  times 
of  laying  it  on. 

The  Bone-Spavin. — Although  this  is  a common  disorder 
among  horses,  yet  it  is  little  understood  by  either  breeders  or 
farriers.  The  bone-spavin  is  a bony  excrescence,  or  hard 
swelling,  on  the  inside  of  the  hock  of  a horse’s  leg,  and  some- 
times owes  it  origin  to  kicks  and  blows,  and,  sometimes,  to 
natural  causes  ; but,  in  the  former  case,  it  is  much  more  easily 
cured  than  in  the  latter ; and  those  that  grow  spontaneously 
on  colts,  or  young  horses,  are  not  so  bad  as  those  that  appear 
in  horses  that  have  arrived  at  their  full  strength  and  maturity. 
In  old  horses  they  are  generally  incurable. 

Sometimes  the  horse  is  very  lame  when  the  spavin  is  first 
> coming  out,  and  when  it  has  come  out,  is  better  for  some  time, 
and  then  grows  lamer  again  as  the  bone  hardens.  I would  ad- 
vise you  to  apply  a blister  as  soon  as  you  have  any  suspicion 
that  a horse  is  likely  to  put  out  a spavin,  and  to  continue  blis- 
tering, every  fortnight,  for  some  time,  by  which  means  you  may 
stop  a spavin  in  a young  horse. 

Cure. — Mild  medicines  should  be  used  if  the  horse  is 
young,  as  they  will  in  a short  time  wear  the  tumor  down  by 
degrees,  which  is  much  better  than  trying  to  remove  it  at  once 


THE  HORSE. 


141 


by  severer  methods,  which  often  have  a very  bad  effect,  and 
produce  worse  consequences  than  those  they  were  intended  to 
remove.  But  in  full  grown  horses  other  treatment  is  neces- 
sary. The  following  ointment  is  probably  the  best  that  can  be 
used  : 

2 ounces  of  cantharides. 

4 ounces  of  mercurial  ointment. 

3 ounces  of  tincture  of  iodine. 

4 ounces  of  turpentine. 

3 drachms  of  corrosive  sublimate. 

Mix  with  two  pounds  of  lard. 

Cut  off  the  hair  from  the  parts  affected,  and  grease  thorough- 
ly with  the  ointment  thus  made,  rubbing  it  well  in  with  the 
naked  hand.  Let  it  remain  two  days  and  then  grease  the  part 
with  lard.  In  two  days  more  wash  it  off  with  soap  and  water, 
and  then  apply  the  ointment  again.  Continue  this  till  a cure 
is  effected.  By  this  means,  bone-spavin  may  often  be  cured; 
but  when  they  fail,  recourse  must  be  had  to  firing. 

Before  you  fire  a horse  for  the  bone  spavin,  be  careful  to 
take  the  vein  out  of  the  way,  for  it  generally  lies  over  the 
spavin,  and  you  cannot  fire  deep  enough  to  come  at  the  callous 
substance  without  its  removal.  In  order  to  destroy  the  vein, 
cut  a nick  through  the  skin  upon  it,  just  below  the  spavin,  and 
another  just  above  it,  and  put  a crooked  needle  under  the  vein, 
and  tie  both  ends;  then  cut  the  vein  across  between  thetyings, 
both  above  and  below,  and  you  may  either  draw  the  piece  of 
the  vein  out,  or  leave  it  in.  Let  the  iron  you  fire  with  be  pretty 
sharp;  cut  four  or  five  nicks  upon  the  bone,  and  let  the  iron 
take  hold  of  the  superfluous  bone,  in  order  that  it  may  waste 
away  by  mattering;  and  when  you  have  done,  lay  on  some 
white  pitch,  pretty  hot,  and  put  a cloth  around  it  to  keep  it  on. 
In  three  days  open  the  place,  and  dress  it  with  yellow 
'basilicon. 

The  Blood-Spavin,  or  Bog-Spavin. — Many  farriers  and 
horse-dealers  divide  this  disease  into  two  heads,  and  give  them 
different  names;  but,  to  my  certain  knowledge,  they  are  both 
one,  for  I have  proved  it  in  many  ways.  A blood-spavin  does 
not  come  by  breeding  from  spavined  mares,  nor  by  being  got 
by  spavined  horses,  as  the  bone-spavin  does;  but  you  may  safely 
breed  out  of  a blood-spavined  mare,  or  have  the  foals  got  by  a 
blood-spavined  horse.  In  my  opinion,  blood-spavins  are  gen- 
erally brought  on  either  by  sprains,  or  by  hard  labor  when  the 
horse  is  young,  and  sometimes  when  he  is  full  grown. 

The  blood-spavin,  or  bog-spavin,  is  a dilation  of  the  vein 
that  runs  along  the  inside  of  the  hock,  and  forms  a small  soft 
swelling  in  the  hollow  part,  which  in  time  renders  the  creature 
lame,  but  seldom  till  the  gelatinous  matter  becomes  ropy,  like 
melted  glue  in  a bag,  and  is  situate  on  the  inside  of  the  hough. 


142 


THE  HORSE. 


Sometimes  it  goes  through  the  back  part  of  the  joint,  and  then 
it  is  called  a thorough-pin. 

Cure. — Soon  as  you  discover  the  vein  puffed  up,  or  forming 
a bag,  lay  on  some  blistering  ointment,  and  in  four  days  after 
bathe  the  swelling  with  hot  vinegar,  with  a little  saltpeter  dis- 
solved in  it.  Also  put  a bandage  round  it  to  disperse  the 
| swelling  as  much  as  you  can.  If  this  method  do  not  succeed, 
you  must  make  two  incisions  in  the  skin  lengthwise,  as  the  vein 
runs,  one  just  above,  and  the  other  just  below,  the  joint,  and 
lay  the  vein  bare;  then  put  the  end  of  a buck’s  horn  under  it, 
raise  it  up,  and  fasten  it  in  both  places  with  waxed  thread; 
then  cut  the  vein  in  two  at  both  places  within  the  tyings,  and, 
if  you  think  proper,  draw  the  vein  out.  This  method  of  pro- 
ceeding will  cure  most  bog-spavins  at  the  beginning.  The 
blood-spavin  may  also  be  cured  by  applying  the  same  ointment 
used  in  bone-spavin,  only  it  should  be  applied  once  in  six  days 
instead  of  once  in  four.  This  spavin  ointment  is  very  power- 
ful, and  when  properly  used  is  the  best  ever  invented. 

A Gorb. — This  is  a soft  swelling  that  rises  out  of  the  joint, 
on  the  back  part  of  the  hind  leg,  just  below  the  hock,  and 
mostly  lames  the  horse,  besides  being  unpleasant  to  the  eye. 
To  cure  it,  strike  a few  holes  into  it  with  a pricker,  made  sg  as 
just  to  go  through  the  skin,  then  rub  well  with  oil  of  origanum, 
and  blister  as  often  as  needful.  If  this  will  not  answer,  use 
the  spavin  ointment  once  in  six  days. 

A Ring-Bone. — This  is  so  well  known  that  I need  not 
describe  it,  but  only  point  out  the  remedy;  yet  I must  observe 
that  a sprain  in  the  coffin  is  sometimes  taken  for  a ring-bone, 
when  it  causes  a rim  to  rise  just  above  the  foot.  Ring-bones 
come  out  from  the  pastern,  between  the  fetlock  and  the  foot; 
but  if  the  pastern  is  long,  they  are  nearer  the  foot.  They  will 
generally  yield  to  the  same  method  of  cure  as  a corb,  especially 
if  just  coming  out,  but  if  not,  use  the  spavin  ointment  in  same 
manner  as  in  bone-spavin,  only  do  not  apply  it  so  often.  Once 
in  six  days  is  often  enough. 

Mallenders  and  Sallenders. — The  first  is  on  the  fore  leg  at 
the  bend  of  the  knee,  and  the  last  on  the  hind  leg  at  the  bend 
of  the  hough.  They  crack  and  throw  out  a thin  brown  mattei, 
- and,  sometimes,  a hard  scurf,  or  scab,  which  prevents  the  horse 
from  bending  the  limbs  which  are  affected,  as  he  should  do. 

Cure. — They  both  proceed  from  the  same  cause,  and  con- 
sequently require  the  same  treatment,  which  consists  in  wash- 
ing the  parts  with  old  chamber-ley,  or  a warm  lather  of  soap- 
suds, and  afterwards  applying  strong  mercurial  ointment, 
spread  on  tow,  to  the  cracks,  once  a day,  till  the  scabs  fall  off, 


THE  HORSE. 


143 


when  the  cure  will  be  complete;  and  then  it  will  be  necessary 
to  give  him  a dose  or  two  of  physic.  If  the  disorder  will  not 
yield  to  the  mercurial  ointment,  make  a strong  mixture  of 
vitriol  water,  and  wash  the  cracks  with  it,  and  it  will  dry  them 
up,  and  cause  the  scabs  to  fall  off. 

The  Strangles. — Most  horses  have  this  disorder  while 
young,  but  at  seven  years  old  they  are  out  of  danger.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  this  disorder.  The  common  kind  is  a swelling 
under  or  between  the  jaw  bones.  The  other,  which  is  called 
the  bastard  kind,  is  much  the  worst.  Sometimes  swellings 
appear  on  the  buttocks,  break  and  discharge  matter  for  a few 
days,  and  then  dry  up,  after  which  others  appear  in  a fresh 
place  in  the  same  manner.  I have  known  horses  that  have 
had  this  complaint  eight  or  ten  weeks.  The  common  kind 
begins  with  a swelling  between  the  jaw  bones,  which  sometimes 
extends  to  the  muscles  of  the  tongue,  and  is  often  attended 
with  so  much  heat,  pain  and  inflammation,  that  before  the 
matter  is  formed,  the  creature  swallows  with  the  utmost 
difficulty. 

Symptoms. — The  strangles  is  attended  with  great  heat  and 
fever,  a painful  cough,  and  great  inclination  to  drink,  without 
being  able.  Some  horses  lose  their  appetites  entirely,  and 
others  eat  but  very  little,  occasioned  by  the  pain  resulting  from 
the  motion  of  the  jaws  in  chewing  and  swallowing.  When 
the  horse  runs  much  at  the  nose,  it  is  not  a good  sign. 
Although  this  disease  is  very  troublesome,  it  is  not  dangerous, 
except  when  the  swelling  turns  upwards  against  the  windpipe 
and  gullet,  and  then  there  is  danger  of  suffocation  if  it  do  not 
break  soon. 

Cure. — The  strangles  is  not  properly  a disease,  but  a 
discharge  common  to  young  horses,  and,  therefore,  it  follows 
that  the  discharge  must  be  promoted  in  order  to  throw  off  the 
offensive  matter.  The  best  method  of  doing  this  is  to  keep  the 
swelling  always  soft  by  soaking  it  with  softening  ointment, 
such  as  marshmallows  or  elder  ointment.  I have  known  oil  of 
swallows,  with  a little  spirit  of  hartshorn  in  it,  to  be  very  useful 
in  bringing  the  swelling  forward  and  causing  it  to  break.  A 
cloth  in  the  form  of  a cap,  put  on  the  horse’s  head,  and  stuffed 
with  wool  to  keep  the  swelling  warm,  will  be  of  great  service. 
Some  people  apply  a poultice,  but  there  is  no  need  of  this  if 
the  above  be  properly  used.  Give  plenty  of  warm  water,  with 
a little  meal  in  it;  for  in  this  disorder  a horse  cannot  swallow 
dry  food  enough  for  its  support.  When  they  gather  and  break, 
see  that  the  matter  runs  freely;  if  not,  open  them  with  the 
point  of  a sharp  knife.  It  will  be  five  or  six  days  before  they 
break. 


' 144 


THE  HORSE. 


When  the  swelling  is  broken,  and  orifice  C4  e.  {"icq.  V A^e  to 
discharge  the  matter,  dress  with  the  following  ointment  spread 
on  tow: 

TaVe  1 pound  of  yellow  resin. 

1 pound  of  Burgundy  pitch. 

% pound  of  honey. 

y2  pound  of  common  turpentine. 

1 1/2  pounds  of  hog’s  lard. 

4 ounces  of  heeowax. 

1 ounce  of  verdigris,  finely  powdered. 

Melt  the  ingredients  together,  but  do  not  put  the  verdigris 
in  till  nearly  cold,  and  keep  stirring  all  the  time  till  cold,  or 
the  verdigris  will  fall  to  the  bottom.  This  is  one  of  the  best 
salves  for  wounds  that  has  been  found  out,  and  especially  for 
old  ones. 

The  bastard  strangles  requires  the  same  kind  of  treatment, 
but  it  is  proper  to  give  the  horse  some  calomel  physic  also. 

The  Glanders. — This  disease  has  baffled  all  who  have  tried 
to  cure  it,  and  probably  will  do  so  to  the  end  of  time;  so  I ad- 
vise those  who  may  have  a glandered  horse,  to  put  him  off  as 
soon  as  they  shall  be  certain  that  he  is  so.  People  often  mis- 
take other  disorders  for  the  glanders.  A violent  cold  some- 
times causes  a running  at  the  nostrils,  and  kernels  under  the 
jaws,  when  the  horse  is  free  from  the  glanders.  Sometimes  a 
running  at  the  nostrils  is  caused  by  laying  too  much  weight  on 
a horse.  I do  not  pretend  to  cure  glanders. 

Symptoms. — The  matter  discharged  from  the  nostrils  of  a 
glandered  horse,  is  either  white,  yellow,  greenish,  or  streaked, 
or  tinged  with  blood.  When  the  disease  has  been  of  long 
standing,  and  the  bones  are  fouled,  the  matter  turns  blackish 
and  becomes  very  bad.  The  glanders  is  always  attended  with 
a swelling  of  the  kernels,  or  glands,  under  the  jaws,  but  in  every 
other  respect  the  horse  is  generally  healthy  and  sound,  till  the 
disorder  has  continued  some  time,  and  the  morbid  matter  has 
effected  other  parts.  If  a thin,  limpid  fluid  be  first  discharged, 
and  afterwards  a whitish  matter — if  the  gland  under  the  jaw  do 
not  continue  to  swell,  and  the  disorder  shall  have  been  but 
recently  contracted,  a speedy  cure  may  be  effected  by  applying 
the  following: 

1 ounce  of  roach  alum. 

1 ounce  of  white  vitriol. 

Powder  these  well,  put  them  into  a pint  of  warm  vinegar, 
and  syringe  about  an  ounce  up  his  nostrils  every  day.  This 
may  do  good  if  the  disorder  be  newly  caught. 

Swellings  and  Impostlmmes. — When  a swelling  is  in  its 
first  stage,  bathe  it  well  with  verjuice  or  vinegar,  with  a little 
saltpetre  dissolved  in  it;  and  if  the  swelling  still  continue,  mix 


THE  HORSE. 


145 


1 ounce  of  extract  of  lead. 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  wine. 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  sal  ammoniac. 

3 ounces  of  vinegar. 

Rub  the  swelling  well  with  it;  but  if  it  be  very  hot,  add  four 
ounces  of  water  instead  of  the  vinegar.  Should  the  swelling 
come  forward  and  form  matter,  which  you  may  feel  by  the 
pressure  of  your  finger,  let  the  matter  out,  but  be  sure  to  make 
the  incision  large  enough  that  you  may  dress  it  with  ease. 
When  you  have  laid  the  part  open,  dress  it  with  the  green  salve 
before  recommended,  on  tow,  for  you  cannot  have  a more 
proper  salve.  The  next  time  you  dress  it,  that  is,  the  day  after, 
make  a wash  of  the  following: 

2 ounces  of  spirits  of  wine. 

2 ounces  of  spirits  of  rosemary 

1 ounce  of  roach  alum. 

2 ounces  of  water. 

Mix  these  all  together,  and  they  will  answer  the  purpose 
extremely  well.  When  you  have  washed  the  wound  with  the 
above  mixture,  lay  on  a little  green  salve,  on  tow,  and  bind  it 
on  if  you  can,  but  if  you  cannot,  lay  on  a plaster  to  keep  it  on. 

Some  swellings,  such  as  have  been  caused  by  bad  barfens  on. 
the  shoulders,  or  blows  on  the  legs,  will  not  submit  to  weak 
mixtures,  nor  come  to  matter  in  a reasonable  time.  Mix  the 
following,  and  it  will  either  take  them  off  or  bring  them  to 
matter: 

2 ounces  of  oil  of  spike. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  amher. 

J4  ounce  of  oil  of  origanum. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

Mix  these  well  together,  and  rub  the  swelling  well  with 
them  every  other  day.  I have  known  this  to  remove  obstinate 
swellings. 

W ounds. — Wounds  are  caused  by  accidents  of  various  kinds. 
When  the  skin  is  much  torn  from  the  flesh,  if  you  are  at  hand 
while  the  wound  is  quite  fresh,  take  a square-pointed  needle 
and  a waxed  thread,  and  sew  it  up.  Mind  to  put  the  needle  in 
straight,  one  side  over  against  the  other;  draw  the  skin  tight, 
and  tie  a knot;  cut  off  the  thread,  and  then  take  another  stitch 
about  an  inch  off,  gnd  so  proceed.  When  same  people  sew  up 
a wound,  they  do  it  the  same  as  they  would  sew  up  a piece  of 
cloth,  but  that  is  quite  wrong,  for  they  should  tie  a knot  at 
every  stitch,  and  cut  the  thread  off.  But  when  you  do  not  see  the 
wound  until  the  place  is  growing  dead,  and  the  skin  is  drawing 
up,  then  take  off  the  loose  skin;  for  if  you  keep  it  on  it  will 
curl  up,  and  leave  a blemish.  Always  keep  the  lips  of  the 
wound  down. 

When  a wound  is  upon  or  near  a joint,  there  is  danger  of 
throwing  out  a joint-lee,  of  which  there  are  three  kinds.  One, 

8 


146 


THE  HORSE. 


and  mostly  the  first,  is  thin  and  brown,  something  like  sweet 
wort;  the  second  is  rather  thicker  and  tougher,  something  like 
melted  glue;  and  the  third,  which  is  the  worst,  is  like  muddy 
water  and  snort  mixed  together.  This  last  has  deceived  many 
people,  for  when  the  wound  has  thrown  out  this  kind  of  lee, 
with  little,  white  slippery  pieces,  something  like  matter,  it  has 
often  been  taken  for  such.  When  you  find  any  of  these  kinds 
of  lee,  get  a bottle  of  Riga  Balsam,  and  syringe  the  wound 
every  day.  If  Riga  Balsam  can  not  be  got,  use  the  tincture  of 
benjamin.  I have  known  fomentations  to  be  of  great  use,  espec- 
ially on  the  stifle  joint.  When  a wound  is  of  a dead  color,  and 
the  lips  rise,  and  the  dirty  lee  flows  profusely,  the  cure  is  to  be 
despaired  of.  If  proud  flesh  arise  when  a wound  is  in  a fair  way 
for  healing,  take 

1 ounce  of-basilicon. 

2 drachms  of  red  precipitate. 

Mix  them  well  together,  and  lay  them  on  the  proud  flesh. 
This  ointment  is  also  very  proper  to  dress  a wound  with  that 
appears  dead,  and  does  not  discharge  a proper  matter.  If  the 
proud  flesh  do  not  submit  to  the  above,  lay  on  a little  blue 
vitriol,  in  powder,  or  touch  it  with  caustic  or  oil  of  vitriol;  and 
should  none  of  these  make  it  give  way,  lay  on  a little  corrosive 
sublimate.  The  salves,  tinctures,  and  mixtures  already  laid 
down,  are  sufficient  to  cure  any  curable  wound. 

Hurts  ill  the  Feet. — Horses  are  oftener  hurt  in  the  feet  than 
anywhere  else,  and  those  hurts  are  often  received  from  the 
blacksmith.  Every  blacksmith  should  be  a farrier,  and  every 
farrier  a blacksmith,  for  these  businesses  should  go  hand  in 
hand.  Sometimes  a horse  is  lamed  by  being  shod  into  the 
quick.  The  foot  should  always  be  carefully  examined  on  the 
first  appearance  of  lameness.  Sometimes  a nail  with  a flaw  in 
it  will  cause  a great  grievance,  as  one  part  will  come  out  and 
the  other  will  gojnto  the  foot.  Blacksmiths  should  never  use 
such  nails  except  in  a frost,  when  they  can  put  them  into  the 
old  holes.  Sometimes  they  leave  stumps,  or  pieces  of  nails,  in 
the  feet;  and  sometimes  when  they  drive  a nail  they  turn  the 
point  into  the  foot,  and  then  draw  it  back  and  put  in  another, 
take  no  further  thought  about  it,  and  when  the  horse  becomes 
lame,  they  say  he  is  gravelled. 

When  a horse  has  got  lamed  in  the  foot,  be  careful  to  cut 
it  well  out,  and  to  damage  the  hoof  as  little  as  possible,  and 
dress  the  place  with  oil  of  turpentine,  spirits  of  tar,  and  com- 
mon tar.  Lap  no  hot  drying  drugs  on,  unless  proud  flesh  rise. 

Sometimes  corns  on  the  heels  cause  a horse  to  be  lame;  cut 
them  out,  and  dress  the  place  with  aquafortis.  There  is 
another  fault  which  blacksmiths  are  guilty  of,  and  which  is  a 
great  hurt  to  a horse,  that  is,  cutting  or  paring  the  heel  down 


THE  HORSE. 


14? 


too  much.  The  heel  being  best  to  come  at,  they  clap  the  par- 
ing-knife there  and  cut  them  down,  when  there  is  no  need  to 
take  any  off  them  at  all.  The  heels  are  the  greatest  support  of 
the  horse,  and,  by  paring  them  too  thin,  both  corns  and  lame- 
ness in  the  back  sinews  are  produced. 

Before  a blacksmith  begins  to  shoe  a valuable  horse,  especi- 
ally a road-horse,  he  should  examine  how  he  stands  and  how 
he  goes.  If  he  go  low,  heavy  shoes  should  be  used;  but  if  he 
go  high,  light  ones.  If  he  turn  his  toes  out,  he  will  cut  with 
the  heel,  and,  if  he  turn  them  in, will  cut  with  the  spurn.  If  he 
have  a thin,  flat  foot,  he  should  have  broad  shoes;  but,  if  a 
hollow,  dished  foot,  narrow  ones.  If  the  crust  be  thin,  and 
the  vein  near,  small  nails  should  be  used.  Some  horses  are 
hoof-bound — that  is,  have  straight  heels,  which  pinch  the  vein 
between  the  hoof  and  the  coffin.  When  this  is  the  case,  thin 
the  soles  of  the  feet  till  the  blood  springs  through,  and  then  put 
on  screw-shoes,  and  screw  the  feet  out.  Let  the  screw-shoes 
stay  on  a fortnight.  You  may  screw  the  feet  out  more  than 
half  an  inch. 

The  next  thing  to  be  considered  is  gravel  rising  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top  of  the  foot,  and  breaking  out  at  the  cornet. 
How  many  twitter-bones  have  been  thus  formed  that  might  have 
been  prevented!  When  the  gravel  conies  up  to  the  top  of  the 
foot,  take  away  the  sole  at  the  bottom,  and  the  hoof  at  the  top, 
and  mix  equal  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  oil  of  origanum, 
and  bathe  the  top  part  of  the  foot.  This  will  prevent  a twitter 
from  forming. 

A Twitter-Bone. — A twitter-bone  makes  a horse  very  lame, 
and  not  fit  for  work.  It  keeps  throwing  a tough  white  matter 
out  of  what  is  called  a pipe.  In  order  to  cure  it,  first  find  out 
where  the  pipe  leads.  This  you  may  do  with  a piece  of  round 
lead,  the  size  of  a small  quill-barrel.  Have  the  following 
ready,  viz.: 

y2  ounce  of  sublimate,  in  fine  powder. 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  salt. 

Mix  all  together,  and  syringe  a squirt  full  into  the  pipe  when 
you  take  the  lead  out;  and,  when  you  draw  out  the  point  of  the 
syringe,  put  your  thumb  on  the  place  to  prevent  it  coming  back 
again,  and  then  put  on  a pledget  of  green  salve  and  tow.  Do 
this  every  other  day,  for  three  or  four  times,  and  by  this 
method  most  twitters  may  be  removed.  But,  if  this  fails,  the 
next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  put  a hot  iron,  the  thickness  of  a 
small  finger,  where  the  pipe  leads  to,  and  tc  fill  the  hole  with 
sublimate,  and  bind  on  it  a pledget  of  green  salve  with  a cloth. 
Let  it  be  five  days,  and  then  lay  on  some  more  salve  and  tow, 
and  in  five  days  more  the  twitter-bone  and  pipe  will  come  out. 
The  wound  must  be  washed  with  the  following  mixture,  and 


148 


THE  HORSE. 


dressed  with  green  salve  and  tow  every  other  day,  till  nearly 
well: 

1 ounce  of  bole. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  origanum. 

4 ounces  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

Shake  them  up  well  together,  and  they  will  both  help  to  heal 
the  wound- and  bring  down  the  substance.  If  any  more  twit- 
ter-bones or  pipes  form,  you  must  take  them  out  in  the  same 
manner. 

A Fistula,  and  Bruises  of  the  Withers. — The  withers  are 
much  subject  to  bruises,  caused  by  bad  saddles,  or  such  as  are 
too  wide  in  the  front;  but,  whatever  be  the  cause,  it  is  well 
known  that  by  neglect  they  often  terminate  in  a fistula. 

When  the  withers  are  bruised,  and  a swelling  appears,  lay  a 
poultice  of  bran  and  vinegar  over  the  part.  People  who  have 
a horse  which  is  crushed  in  the  withers,  and  pay  no  regard  to 
it,  are  worse  than  savages,  and  are  not  fit  to  have  such  a useful 
animal. 

Cure. — After  a horse  has  been  bruised  in  the  withers,  the 
skin  breaks,  and  matter  is  discharged,  and  then  the  owner 
supposes  that  the  abscess  will  subside,  but  he  is  often  mistaken; 
and  the  pipe  which  he  perceives  throwing  out  matter  is,  at  the 
same  time,  running  forwards  in  the  withers,  and  forming  a 
fistula.  When  you  find  the  disease  proceeding  in  this  manner, 
lay  the  pipe  open,  and  dress  it  with  the  following  mixture 

4 ounces  of  potash. 

4 ounces  of  honey. 

2 ounces  of  white  vitriol. 

1 pint  of  vinegar. 

Boil  all  together,  wash  the  wound  well  with  the  mixture, 
and  lay  on  the  green  salve  and  tow.  If  the  above  be  not  dry 
enough,  add  two  ounces  more  of  white  vitriol,  and  two  ounces 
of  bole.  These  will  make  a salve  by  themselves;  and  by  these 
methods  you  may  cure  any  disease  of  the  withers  arising  from 
external  injuries. 

But  tumors  often  arise  in  the  withers  from  internal  causes, 
such  as  the  crisis  of  fevers.  When  this  happens,  you  must  not 
attempt  to  stop  it,  nor  use  anything  to  put  it  back,  for  by  this 
means  you  would  drive  it  more  into  the  shoulder-blades,  and 
make  it  worse  to  cure;  but,  on  the  contrary,  do  everything 
you  can  to  assist  nature  in  bringing  it  forward.  You  cannot 
do  better  than  lay  on  poultices  twice  a day  till  it  breaks,  for 
reason  tells  us  that  it  is  better  to  do  so  than  to  cut  it;  but, 
when  it  is  broken,  open  the  orifice  with  a knife,  that  you  may 
have  more  freedom  in  using  it;  but  be  careful  in  using  the 
knife,  that  you  do  not  catch  hold  of  the  ligament  which  turns 
along  the  neck  of  the  withers.  Sometimes  it  runs  to  the  other 


THE  HORSE. 


140 


side  of  the  neck  under  the  withers.  The  cure  is  the  same  as 
before.  Lay  all  the  cavities  open  with  the  knife,  and  not  cut 
across  if  you  can  avoid  it.  Then  take  the  following  never- 
failing  mixture  to  dress  with: 

4 ounces  of  crude  sal  ammoniac. 

2 ounces  of  bole. 

8 ounces  of  honey. 

2 ounces  of  pearl  ashes. 

2 ounces  of  white  vitriol. 

1 pint  of  vinegar. 

Boil  all  together,  and  apply  it  to  the  wound  every  day 
at  first,  and  afterwards  every  other  day  till  well. 

Warbles,  Girth-Galls,  and  Plushes  from  Saddles. — These 
grievances  are  commonly  known,  and  the  following  mixture 
will  effect  a cure,  take  off  the  soreness,  and  leave  the  skin  kind. 
I may  affirm  that  it  is  one  of  the  best  recipes  yet  found  out 
for  the  purpose: 

2 ounces  of  extract  of  lead. 

l/z  an  ounce  of  white  copperas. 

2 ounces  of  spirits  of  wine. 

4 ounces  of  soft  water. 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  sal  ammoniac. 

Mix  all  together  in  a bottle,  keep  shaking  it  up,  and  rub  the 
affected  places  well  with  it,  and  put  your  saddles  and  barfens 
on  while  the  places  are  wet,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from 
infecting  other  horses. 

Sometimes  horses  have  what  are  called  setfasts  on  their 
backs.  Rub  them  with  a little  mercurial  ointment,  in  order  to 
raise  them  and  make  them  come  off;  and,  if  you  cannot  pull 
them  out  after  using  the  ointment,  cut  them  out  with  a sharp 
knife,  and  apply  to  the  place  the  above  mixture,  or  heal  it  up 
as  a common  wound.  Most  excrescences  on  horses  are  cured 
in  this  manner. 

Windgails. — These  are  mostly  on  the  hind  legs,  near  the 
fetlock,  but  I have  known  them  above  the  fetlock,  and  on  the 
arm.  Windgails  are  not  only  eye-sores,  but  lame  many  ahorse. 
Many  methods  are  used  to  disperse  them  without  effect.  If 
you  put  your  finger  on  one  side,  and  your  thumb  on  the  other, 
and  press  with  one  of  them,  you  will  find  the  windgall  to  go 
quite  through  the  leg.  The  reason  that  they  are  mostly  on  the 
hind  leg  is,  that  the  horse  stands  lower  behind  than  before, 
and  throws  most  weight  on  the  hind  legs. 

Cure. — On  the  first  appearance  of  a windgall,  bathe  the 
place  well  with  warm  vinegar  and  spirits  of  wine,  and  put  a 
pretty  tight  bandage  round  it.  If  this  do  not  remove  it,  lay  on 
blistering  ointment  till  the  cure  shall  be  completed.  But  should 
this  method  also  fail,  which  it  seldom  does,  you  must  lay  the 
windgall  open  and  dress  it  as  a common  wound.  Before  you 


150 


THE  HORSE. 


use  the  knife,  be  careful  to  get  the  horse’s  body  into  a proper 
cool  state  by  physic. 

The  Grease. — This  disorder  is  mostly  brought  on  by  soft 
corn,  hard  usage,  want  of  proper  cleaning,  or  a depraved  state 
of  the  blood  and  juices;  therefore,  it  is  proper  to  divide  it  into 
two  heads. 

Cure,  when  the  Vessels  are  Relaxed. — On  first  ob- 
serving the  legs  of  a horse  to  swell  after  standing  several  hours, 
and  to  recover  theii  proper  dimensions  with  exercise,  be  care- 
ful to  wash  them  clean  with  chamber-ley,  soap-suds,  or  vinegar 
and  water,  every  time  he  comes  in,  for  this  will  prevent  or 
remove  the  disorder.  Horses  that  have  round  or  fleshy  legs 
are  more  subject  to  the  grease  than  those  that  have  flat  legs; 
but  a flat-legged  horse  is  more  easily  sprained.  Nitre,  sulphur, 
and  liver  of  antimony  are  proper,  both  to  prevent  the  grease 
and  refine  the  blood.  Mix  equal  parts  of  each,  and  give  a 
meat-spoonful  every  day  in  his  food. 

Cure  for  the  Grease  from  .Internal  Causes. — If  the 
horse  be  full  of  flesh,  the  cure  must  be  begun  by  bleeding, 
rowels,  and  repeated  purging;  after  which  two  ounces  of  the 
following  balls  should  be  given  every  other  day  for  some  time, 
and  they  will  work  by  urine  the  day  following: 

4 ounces  of  yellow  resin. 

2 ounces  of  salt  of  prunel. 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  juniper. 

2 ounces  of  salt  of  tartar. 

8 ounces  of  Castile  soap. 

1 ounce  of  camphor. 

Put  these  into  a mortar  with  about  two  ounces  of  honey, 
or  as  much  as  will  make  them  into  balls,  and  they  will  carry  off 
the  offending  humors,  and  free  the  blood  from  its  noxious 
qualities.  But,  at  the  same  time  these  internal  remedies  are 
taken,  outward  ones  should  not  be  omitted.  The  legs  should 
be  bathed  with  warm  verjuice;  and,  if  very  bad,  a poultice  of 
boiled  turnips  applied.  If  turnips  cannot  be  got,  make  a 
poultice  of  linseed  meal  and  bran,  with  a little  hog’s  lard  ir 
to  prevent  it  from  growing  hard. 

Sometimes  horses  are  neglected  when  in  the  grease  till  they 
have  what  are  called  grape-legs.  These  may  be  cured  on  their 
first  appearance,  when  they  are  in  bud,  by  laying  on  caustic,  or 
corrosive  sublimate.  When  the  swelling  is  abated,  make  the 
following  into  a salve  to  dress  the  sores  with: 

1 ounce  of  blue  stone  vitriol,  in  powder. 

2 ounces  of  white  lead,  in  powder. 

4 ounces  of  honey. 

Mix  these  well  together,  and  lay  them  on  the  sores  with 
tow,  to  heal  them;  but  should  they  continue  foul,  and  not 
frame  to  heal,  mix  four  ounces  of  green  salve,  and  four  ounces 


THE  HORSE. 


151 


of  ^Egyptiacum  ointment  well  together,  and  lay  it  on  in  the 
above  manner.  The  mixture  will  both  heal  and  dry  up  the 
sores. 

Scratches. — This  disease  is  a forerunner  of  the  grease,  and 
is  a hot,  oozing  matter  that  breaks  out  like  links,  with  a nause- 
ous smell.  It  is  very  troublesome  to  a horse,  causing  his  heels 
to  look  red  and  angry,  and  to  be  very  sore  ; and,  sometimes, 
it  is  so  violent  as  to  render  a horse  lame,  and  make  him  unfit 
for  use. 

If  you  do  not  bleed  and  physic  as  soon  as  you  find  a heat 
in  a horse’s  heels,  you  may  soon  have  him  laid  in  the  grease. 
Sometimes  in  slight  touches  of  this  complaint  the  heels  are 
not  hotter  than  usual.  In  that  case,  take  a little  flour  of  sul- 
phur and  spirits  of  wine,  mix  them  together  into  an  ointment, 
and  fill  the  cracks  well  with  it.  When  the  disorder  is  too  hot 
to  be  healed  by  this  ointment,  rub  with  a little  ^Egyptiacum 
ointment,  but  be  careful  not  to  lay  too  much  on,  for  it  is  a 
great  drier. 

Rat-tails  at  first  resemble  the  grease,  and  are  attended  with 
a hot,  scorbutic  humor  at  the  beginning,  and  often  by  neglect 
destroy  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and  then  there  is  no  complete 
cure  for  them,  but  they  may  be  relieved  by  rubbing  with  equal 
parts  of  strong  mercurial  ointment  and  Flanders  oil  of  bays. 

If  the  horse  have  got  the  scurvy,  or  scabs  on  his  legs,  this 
ointment  will  mostly  take  them  off  ; but  if  not,  mix  well  with 
hog’s  lard,  one  drachm  of  sublimate,  in  fine  powder.  These 
two  last  mixtures  will  cure  most  scabs,  and  mixed  together  will 
cure  the  itch. 

The  Crown  Scab. — This  disorder  is  similar  to  the  last.  It 
breaks  out  on  the  cornet  of  the  foot,  and  is  at  first  a hot,  run- 
ning tumor,  and,  afterwards,  a dry,  scurvy  scab.  Let  the  horse 
be  bled,  and  physicked,  and  then  rub  him  with  either  of  the 
above  ointments,  and  the  cure  will  be  effected. 

How  to  Manage  a Horse  on  a Journey. — In  the  first  place, 
find  out  whether  the  horse  is  in  health,  and  has  been  properly 
fed  and  exercised  ; for,  when  a horse  is  flushed  up,  and  has 
had  no  exercise,  he  is  very  unfit  for  a journey.  Before  you  set 
out  be  careful  to  observe  if  his  shoes  are  fast,  and  if  they  sit 
easy  ; also,  whether  he  cuts  before  or  behind,  or  interferes,  as 
it  is  called.  If  a horse  cut  with  bad  shoes  he  will  probably  do 
it  with  new  ones,  notwithstanding  what  horse  dealers  may  say 
to  the  contrary. 

If  your  horse’s  back  inflame  by  the  rubbing  of  the  saddle, 
wash  the  part,  as  soon  as  you  perceive  it,  with  salt  and  water, 
or  vinegar  and  water,  and  have  the  stuffing  of  the  saddle 
altered,  so  as  to  remove  the  pressure  from  the  part  effected. 


152 


THE  HORSE. 


but  if  the  skin  be  broken  before  you  perceive  it,  the  injured 
part  should  be  washed  with  a mixture,  composed  of  equal  parts 
of  extract  of  lead,  spirits  of  wine  and  water.  You  must  look 
well  after  his  back,  and  walk  sometimes,  in  order  to  ease  him, 
especially  when  going  down  hill. 

It  often  happens,  especially  to  young  horses,  that  the  legs 
swell,  or  become  gourdy,  as  farriers  call  it,  with  traveling,  and 
more  frequently  when  a horse  cuts.  It  is  also  observed  that 
the  hind  legs  swell  oftener  than  the  fore  legs,  because  the  fore 
parts  stand  highest  in  the  stall,  and,  consequently,  the  greatest 
stress  lies  on  the  hind  legs.  The  best  method  of  prevention  is 
to  wash  the  legs  with  warm  water  every  time  you  bait,  by  which 
means  the  disease  will  be  prevented,  and  much  time,  trouble 
and  expense  saved. 

Nothing  is  of  more  consequence  in  traveling  than  to  take 
care  that  your  horse  has  water  at  proper  times  and  in  proper 
quantities.  When  a horse  travels  he  perspires  considerably, 
especially  in  hot  weather,  and  should,  therefore,  be  allowed  to 
drink  a little  more  than  usual,  as  opportunity  offers,  which  will 
refresh  him  greatly  ; but  never  suffer  him  to  drink  much  at  a 
time,  for,  if  you  suffer  him  to  drink  his  fill,  he  will  be  dull  and 
sluggish  afterwards,  besides  the  harm  he  may  receive  from 
drinking  too  much  cold  water  when  he  is  hot.  Never  allow 
your  horse  to  be  led  in  water,  or  to  have  his  heels  washed, 
after  you  have  arrived  at  your  inn,  but  let  him  have  lukewarm 
water,  or  water  moderatelv  cool,  when  he  has  stood  some  time 
in  the  stable. 

It  is  a general  rule  that  when  any  extraneous  body,  or  foreign 
matter,  such  as  sand  or  gravel,  is  lodged  in  any  part  of  the 
animal’s  body,  it  must  be  extracted  as  soon,  and  as  easily,  as 
possible.  When  gravelly  matter  has  got  into  the  quick  at  a 
nail-hole,  or  any  other  aperture,  it  ought  to  be  removed  as  soon 
as  possible,  but  with  as  little  loss  of  substance  as  the  nature  of 
the  case  will  admit  of,  for  it  is  a folly  to  cut  and  pare  away  the 
hoof,  as  some  ignorant  farriers  do  ; because  by  that  means  they 
increase  the  evil,  instead  of  removing  it,  as  it  is  a considerable 
time  before  the  breach  is  repaired,  and,  till  that  is  done,  the 
same  part  is  likely  to  admit  more  gravel.  So  much,  therefore, 
and  no  more,  of  the  hoof  should  be  taken  away  as  is  necessary, 
viz.:  till  the  blackness  or  discoloration  vanishes;  then  the 
wound  should  be  dressed  with  the  following  balsam  : 

l/2  an  ounce  of  balsam  of  Peru. 

6 drachms  of  myrrh. 

3 drachms  of  storax. 

3 drachms  of  Socotrine  aloes. 

3 drachms  of  frankincense. 

3 drachms  of  gum  guaiacum. 

Powder  the  ingredients  that  will  powder,  and  put  them  in 
a bottle  with  one  quart  of  spirits  of  wine,  and  let  them  stand 


THE  HORSE. 


153 


warm  for  eight  or  ten  days,  shaking  the  bottle  up  every  day. 
This  is  an  excellent  balsam  for  green  wounds,  and  no  person 
that  keeps  valuable  horses  should  be  without  it.  Apply  it 
warm  to  the  wound,  dipping  a piece  of  tow  or  lint  into  it,  and 
fastening  it  on  to  the  part  out  of  which  the  gravel  or  thorn 
has  been  taken,  and  renew  it  as  it  grows  dry. 

A horse  is  often  seized  with  the  gripes  on  a journey,  the 
best  and  surest  cure  for  which  is  the  following  : 

9 drachms  of  tincture  of  opium. 

1 ounce  of  spirits  of  sweet  nitre. 

2 ounces  of  olive  oil. 

Mix  the  above  in  half  a pint  of  mint-water,  give  it  to  the 
horse,  and,  at  the  same  time,  bed  him  well,  that  he  may  lie 
down  to  rest,  and  be  careful  not  to  give  him  cold  water  for  a 
day  or  two  after. 

A horse  that  is  subject  to  scouring  or  purging  on  the  road, 
has  what  is  called  a washy  constitution,  and  such  horses  sel- 
dom bear  hardships  well,  because  the  aliment  passes  off  before 
it  is  thoroughly  digested,  which  is  a sign  that  the  fibers  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels  are  lax  ; therefore,  such  horses  should  not 
be  chosen.  The  best  method  of  curing  the  disorder  is  to 
keep  the  horse  chiefly  on  hard  food,  and  to  give  him  proper 
exercise. 

When  a horse  purges  upon  the  road,  occasioned  by  foul 
feeding,  or  catching  cold,  give  him  the  following  : 

4 ounces  of  Venice  treacle. 

3 ounces  of  Armenian  bole. 

1 ounce  of  Japan  eartli. 

1 ounce  of  powdered  ginger. 

Make  these  up  into  four  balls,  and  give  them  night  and 
morning. 

When  a horse  has  got  a cough  by  catching  cold,  give 

4 ounces  of  cordial  balls. 

1 ounce  of  licorice  powder. 

1 ounce  of  elecampane  bark. 

Give  all  together  in  warm  ale,  fasting,  and  to  fast  two  hours 
after. 

Hints  on  Feeding. — The  foundation  of  many  diseases  is 
laid  in  feeding  all  horses  in  the  same  proportions,  without 
regard  to  age,  constitution,  or  the  work  which  the  horse  is 
required  to  do.  The  impropriety  of  such  a course  is  readily 

seen. 

Bad  hay  has  not  proper  nourishment  in  it  ; therefore  it 
would  be  poor  policy  to  buy  it  simply  because  it  is  cheap,  as  it 
is  often  very  dear  in  the  end. 

Old  horses  will  do  better  on  chaff  than  on  hay,  as  they  can 
chew  and  digest  it  better. 

There  is  not  sufficient  nutriment  in  hay  or  grass  alone  to 
support  a horse  well  under  hard  work. 


154 


THE  HORSE. 


Corn  which  has  been  damaged  is  very  injurious,  as  it  will 
produce  inflammation  of  the  bowels  and  skin  diseases. 

Oats  and  corn  are  the  best  nourishment  if  a horse  is 
worked  hard,  but  if  not,  it  should  be  chiefly  hay,  because  corn 
and  oats  supply  more  nourishment  and  flesh-making  material 
than  any  other  kind  of  food  ; but  hay  not  so  much. 

For  a coach  horse,  four  to  six  quarts  of  good  oats,  and 
eighteen  pounds  of  good  hay,  are  usually  sufficient.  If  a horse 
should  be  worked  hard  he  should  have  more  of  each  ; but,  if 
worked  but  little,  he  should  have  less. 

Chopped  hay,  sprinkled  with  a little  water,  which  has  a tea- 
spoonful of  salt  dissolved  in  it,  is  quite  pleasing  to  the  taste  of 
the  horse,  and  is  also  more  easily  digested. 

Spring  or  well  water  is  not  usually  as  good  for  a horse  as 
water  from  a stream  or  pond,  as  the  former  is  usually  hard  and 
cold. 

Horses  require  and  should  have  at  least  a pailful  of  water, 
morning  or  evening;  or,  what  is  better,  give  a half  pailful  at 
four  different  times  in  a day. 

A horse  should  not  be  driven  or  worked  hard  directly  after 
he  has  had  a full  draught  of  water,  nor  soon  after  eating  heart- 
ily, as  exertion  prevents  digestion. 

Do  not  allow  a horse  to  become  accustomed  to  drinking 
warm  water,  for,  if  compelled  to  drink  cold  at  any  time,  it  will 
be  liable  to  cause  colic. 

Do  not  work  nor  drive  a horse  if  he  refuses  his  food,  after 
drinking,  until  you  have  given  him  rest. 

Do  not  feed  nor  water  a horse  directly  after  his  coming  in 
very  warm,  but  let  him  walk  about  until  cool;  groom  him  quite 
dry  first  with  a wisp  of  straw,  and  then  with  a comb  and  brush, 
and  rub  the  legs  well  with  the  hand.  When  he  is  cool  give  him 
his  grain. 


XHE/HORSE. 


1.  Caries  of  the  lower  jaw. 

2.  Fistula  of  the  parotid 

duct. 

3.  Bony  excrescence  or 

Exostosis  of  the  low- 
er jaw 

4.  Swelling  by  pressure  of 
k the  bridle. 

5.  Poll-evil. 

6.  Inflamed  parotid  gland. 
*•  Inflamed  jugular  vein. 

8.  Fungus  tumor,  pro- 
duced by  pressure  of 
the  collar. 


9-  Fistula  in  the  withers. 

10.  Saddle-gall. 

11.  Tumor  of  the  elbow. 

12.  Induration  of  the  knee. 

13.  Clap  of  the  back  sinews 

14.  Malanders. 

15.  Splint. 

10.  .Ring-bone. 

17.  A Tread  upon  the  coro- 

net. 

18.  Q,uittor. 

19.  SandCrack. 

20.  Contracted  or  ring  foot 

of  a foundered  horse. 


21.  Capped  hock. 

22.  Malanders. 

23,.  Spavin. 

24.  Curb. 


20.  Thick  leg. 

27.  Grease. 

28.  A crack  in  front  of  the’ 

foot, called  cow-crack 

29.  Quarter-crack. 

30.  \ entral  hernia. 

31.  Rat-tail. 


A FEW  MISCELLANEOUS  RECIPES 

tivPCfXn?h‘lQui  i ^eu'ng  musty  hay-  and  feed  roots  and  laxa- 
tivefood.  Sprinkle  human  urine  on.  his  fodder,  or  cut  up 

o t?s0Ug,hS’  a,nd'™?  Wlth  hls  grain,  or  boil  a small  quantity, 
of  flax-seed,  and  mix  it  in  a mash  of  scalded  bran,  adding  a) 

iTrm  TfSth0ereSUlSar’MmKaSSeS’  °r  h0ney'  Administer  luU 
“ d be  any  aPPearance  of  heaves,  put 'a' 
spoonfufof  ground  ginger  once  per  day  in  his  provender  and 
allow  him  to  drink  freely  of  lime  water  ’ na 


156 


THE  HORSE. 


Split  or  Broken  Hoof. — Let  the  blacksmith  bore  two  holes, 
on  each  side  of  the  crack  or  split,  pass  along  nails  through  the 
holes,  and  clinch  tight.  After  anointing  with  the  hoof-bound 
liquid,  it  will  soon  grow  together. 

To  Cure  Distemper. — Take  I 1-4  gals,  blood  from  the  neck 
vein;  then  administer  sassafras  oil,  1 1-2  ounces.  Cure 
speedy  and  certain. 

Founder  Cured  in  24  Hours. — Boil  or  steam  stout  oat-straw 
for  half  an  hour;  then  wrap  it  around  the  horse’s  leg  quite  hot; 
cover  up  with  wet  woolen  rags,  to  keep  in  the  steam;  in  6 
hours  renew  the  application;  take  one  gal.  of  blood  from  the 
neck  vein,  and  give  one  quart  of  linseed  oil.  He  may  be 
worked  next  day. 

Cure  for  Staggers. — Give  a mess  twice  a week,  composed 
of  bran,  1 gal.;  sulphur,  1 tablespoonful;  saltpetre,  1 spoonful; 
boiling  sassafras  tea,  1 quart;  assafoedita,  1 1-8  ounce.  Keep 
the  horse  from  cold  water  for  half  a day  afterwards. 

Cure  for  Bots. — Give  the  horse  first,  2 quarts  of  new  milk 
and  1 quart  molasses;  fifteen  minutes  afterwards,  give  2 quarts 
very  strong  sage  tea;  30  minutes  after  the  tea,  give  3 pints  (or 
enough  to  operate  as  physic)  of  currier’s  oil.  The  molasses 
and  milk  cause  the  bots  to  let  go  their  hold,  the  tea  puckers 
them  up,  and  the  oil  carries  them  completely  away.  Cure  cer- 
tain in  the  worst  cases. 

Ring-Bone  and  Spavin  Cure. — Venice  turpentine  and  Span- 
ish flies,  of  each  two  ounces;  euphorbium  and  aqua-ammonia, 
of  each  1 ounce;  red  precipitate,  1-2  ounce;  corrosive  subli- 
mate, 1-4  ounce;  lard,  1 1-2  lbs.  Pulverize  all,  and  put  into 
the  lard;  simmer  slowly  over  coals,  not  scorching  or  burning; 
and  pour  off  free  of  sediment.  For  ring-bones,  cut  off  the 
hair,  and  rub  the  ointment  well  into  the  lumps,  once  in  forty- 
eight  hours.  For  spavins,  once  in  twenty-four  hours  for  three 
mornings.  Wash  well  previous  to  each  application  with  suds, 
rubbing  over  the  place  with  a smooth  stick  to  squeeze  out  a 
yellow  matter.  This  has  removed  very  large  ring-bones. 

Bone  Spavins,  French  Paste. — Corrosive  sublimate, 
quicksilver,  and  iodine,  of  each  1 ounce.  Rub  the  quicksilver 
and  iodine  together,  then  add  the  sublimate,  and  lastly  the 
lard,  rubbing  them  thoroughly.  Shave  of  the  hair  the  size  of 
the  bone  enlargement;  grease  all  around  it,  but  not  where  the 
hair  is  shaved  off;  this  prevents  the  action  of  the  medicine, 
except  on  the  spavin;  then  rub  in  as  much  of  the  paste  as  will 
lie  on  a three-cent  piece,  each  morning,  for  three  or  four  morn- 
ings. In  from  seven  to  eight  days,  the  whole  spavin  will  come 
out;  then  wash  the  wound  with  suds  for  an  hour  or  so,  to  re- 


THE  HORSE.  15? 

move  the  poisonous  effects  of  the  paste;  afterwards  heal  up 
the  sore  with  any  good  healing  salve,  keeping  the  sore  covered 
while  it  is  healing  up. 

Another  Recipe  for  Ring-Bone. — Pulverize  cantharides, 
oils  of  spike,  origanum,  amber,  cedar,  Barbadoes  tar  and  Brit- 
ish oil,  of  each  2 ounces;  oil  of  worm  wood,  1 ounce;  spirits 
turpentine,  4 ounces;  common  potash,  1-2  ounce;  nitric  acid, 
6 ounces;  sulphuric  acid,  4 ounces;  lard  3 lbs.  Melt  the  lard, 
and  slowly  add  the  acids;  stir  well,  and  add  the  other  articles, 
stirring  till  cold;  clip  off  the  hair,  and  apply  by  rubbing  and 
heating  in.  In  about  three  days,  or  when  it  is  done  running, 
wash  off  with  soap-suds,  and  apply  again.  In'old  cases,  it  may 
take  three  or  four  weeks;  but,  in  recent  cases,  two  or  three 
applications  have  cured. 

Another. — Pulverized  cantharides,  oils  of  origanum  and 
amber  and  spirits  turpentine,  of  each  1 ounce;  olive  oil,  1-2 
ounce;  sulphuric  acid,  3 drachms;  put  all  except  the  acid  into 
alcohol,  stir  the  mixture,  add  the  acid  slowly,  and  continue  to 
stir  till  the  mixture  ceases  to  smoke;  then  bottle  for  use;  ap- 
ply to  ring-bone  or  spavin,  with  a sponge,  tied  on  the  end  of  a 
stick,  as  long  as  it  is  absorbed  into  the  parts;  twenty-four  hours 
after,  grease  well  with  lard,  and,  in  twenty-four  hours  more, 
wash  off  well  with  soap-suds.  One  application  is  generally 
sufficient  for  spavins,  but  may  need  two;  ring-bones  always 
two  or  three  applications,  three  or  four  days  apart,  which  pre- 
vents loss  of  hair.  This  will  stop  all  lameness,  but  does  not 
remove  the  lump. 

Splint  and  Spavin  Liniment. — Oil  of  origanum,  6 ounces; 
gum  camphor,  2 ounces;  mercurial  ointment,  2 ounces;  iodine 
ointment,  1 ounce;  melt  by  putting  all  into  a wide-mouthed 
bottle,  and  setting  it  in  a kettle  of  hot  water.  Apply  it  to  bone- 
spavins,  or  splints,  twice  daily  for  four  or  five  days,  and  a cure 
is  guaranteed. 

Liniment  for  Sweeney. — Alcohol  and  spirits  turpentine,  of 
each,  8 ounces;  camphor-gum,  pulverized  cantharides,  and 
capsicum,  of  each,  1 ounce;  oil  of  spike,  3 ounces;  mix. 
Bathe  this  liniment  in  with  a hot  iron,  and  a certain  cure  is  sure 
to  follow. 

For  Looseness  or  Scouring  in  Horses  or  Cattle. — Tormentil 
root  powdered;  dose  for  a horse  or  cow,  1 to  1 1-2  ounce.  It 
may  be  stirred  into  1 pint  of  milk,  and  given;  or,  it  may  be 
steeped  in  1 1-2  pints  of  milk,  then  given  from  three  to  six 
times  daily  until  cured. 

Scours  and  Pin-Worms  in  Horses  and  Cattle. — White-ash 
bark  burnt  into  ashes,  and  made  into  a rather  strong  lye;  then 


158 


THE  HORSE. 


mix  1-2  pint  of  it  with  i pint  warm  water,  and  give  all  two  or 
three  times  daily.  This  will  certainly  carry  off  the  worms, 
which  are  the  cause,  in  most  instances,  of  scours  and  looseness. 

Grease  Heel. — Lye  made  from  wood  ashes,  and  boil  white- 
oak  bark  in  it  till  it  is  quite  strong,  both  in  lye  and  bark- 
ooze;  when  it  is  cold  it  is  fit  for  use.  Wash  off  the  horse’s 
legs  with  Castile  soap;  when  dry,  apply  the  above  lye  with  a 
swab  fastened  on  a long  stick  to  keep  out  of  his  reach,  as  the 
smart  caused  by  the  application  might  make  him  let  fly  without 
much  warning;  but  it  is  a sure  cure,  only  it  brings  off  the  hair. 
To  restore  the  hair  after  the  cure  is  effected,  make  and  apply  a 
salve  by  stewing  elder  bark  in  old  bacon;  then  form  the  salve 
by  adding  a little  resin  according  to  the  amount  of  oil  when 
stewed,  or  1-4  lb.  resin  to  each  pound  of  oil. 

2.  Chloride  of  zinc,  1 1-2  drachms;  water,  10  ounces; 
glycerine,  8 ounces;  mix.  If  there  is  much  discharge,  apply  a 
poultice  for  several  hours,  followed  by  application  of  the  above, 
after  cleansing  well  with  soft  water  and  Castile  soap.  The 
following  powders  should  be  given  at  the  same  time  in  the  feed, 
every  night  for  a week  or  two:  Bicarbonate  of  soda,  1 ounce; 
arsenic,  1 drachm;  iodide  of  iron,  1-2  ounce;  fenugreek,  2 
ounces;  ginger,  2 ounces;  elecampane,  1 ounce.  Mix  thor- 
oughly, and  divide  into  12  powders. 

For  Scratches  and  Grease  Heel. — 1.  Balsam  fir,  4 
ounces;  lard,  4 ounces.  Stir,  with  a gentle  heat,  until  thoroughly 
mixed.  Wash  the  sores  well  with  Castile  soap  and  apply. 

2.  Sugar  of  lead,  2 ounces;  borax,  1 ounce;  sweet  oil,  6 
ounces.  Mix,  and  apply  twice  daily,  after  washing  with  Castile 
soap,  and  drying. 

3.  Tincture  of  myrrh,  2 ounces;  glycerine,  4 ounces; 
tincture  of  arnica,  2 ounces.  Mix  thoroughly,  and  apply  two 
or  three  times  a day,  after  cleansing,  as  above,  with  Castile 
soap. 

4.  Take  1-2  ounce  of  powdered  verdigris  and  1 pint  of 
rum,  or  proof  spirits.  Mix,  and  apply  once  or  twice  a day. 
This  works  nicely  for  grease  heel  or  mud  fever. 

5.  Take  oxide  of  zinc,  1 drachm;  lard,  1 ounce;  powdered 
gum  benzoin,  10  grains;  camphorated  spirits,  1 drachm.  Mix 
thoroughly,  and  rub  on  twice  a week.  Do  not  wash  after  the 
first  application. 

To  Distinguish  and  Cure  Distemper. — Wet  up  bran  with 
rather  strong  lye;  if  not  too  strong,  the  horse  will  eat  it  greed- 
ily; if  they  have  the  distemper,  a free  discharge  from  the 
nostrils,  and  a consequent  cure,  will  be  the  result  if  continued 
a few  days;  but,  if  only  a cold,  with  swellings  of  the  glands, 
no  change  will  be  discovered. 


THE  HORSE. 


159 


Physic  Balls  for  Horses. — Barbadoes  aloes,  from  4 to  5 or 
6 drachms  (according  to  the  size  and  strength  of  the  horse); 
tartrate  of  potassa,  i drachm;  ginger  and  Castile  soap,  each  2 
drachms;  oil  of  anise  or  peppermint,  20  drops.  Pulverize 
and  make  all  into  one  ball  with  thick  gum  solution.  Feed  by 
giving  scalded  bran  instead  of  oats  for  two  days  before  giving 
the  physic,  and  during  its  operation. 

Nerve  and  Bone  Liniment. — Take  beef’s  gall,  1 qt.;  alco- 
hol, 1 pt.;  volatile  liniment,  1 lb.;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1 lb.; 
oil  of  origanum,  4 ounces;  aqua  ammonia,  4 ounces;  tincture 
of  Spanish  flies,  6 ounces;  mixed.  Uses  too  well  known  to 
need  description. 

This  is  more  particularly  applicable  to  horse  flesh. 

Condition  Powders. — Take  fenugreek,  cream  of  tartar,  gen- 
tian, sulphur,  saltpetre,  resin,  black  antimony  and  ginger,  equal 
quantities  'of  each,  say  1 ounce,  all  to  be  finely  pulverized; 
cayenne,  also  fine,  half  the  quantity  of  any  one  of  the  others, 
say  1-2  ounce.  Mix  thoroughly.  It  is  used  in  yellow  water, 
hidebound,  coughs,  colds,  distemper,  and  all  other  diseases 
where  condition  powders  are  generally  administered. 

In  ordinary  cases,  give  two  teaspoonsfuls  once  a day  in  feed. 
In  extreme  cases,  give  it  twice  daily. 

Cathartic  Condition  Powders. — Gamboge,  alum,  salt- 
petre, resin,  copperas,  ginger,  aloes,  gum-myrrh,  salts,  and  salt, 
and,  if  the  horse  is  in  very  low  condition,  put  in  wormwood, 
all  the  same  quantities,  viz.:  1 ounce  each.  Dose,  1 table- 
spoonful in  bran,  twice  daily;  not  giving  any  other  grain  for  a 
few  days;  then  once  a day,  with  oats  and  other  good  feed. 

This  last  is  more  applicable  for  old,  worn-down  horses  which 
need  cleaning  out,  and  starting  again  into  new  life,  and  in  such 
cases,  just  the  thing  to  be  desired. 

Condition  Powders — 1.  Gentian,  fenugreek,  sulphur, 
saltpetre,  cream  of  tartar,  of  each,  2 ounces;  resin,  black 
antimony,  of  each,  1 ounce;  ginger,  licorice,  3 ounces  each; 
cayenne,  1 ounce,  pulverized  and  mixed  thoroughly.  Dose,  1 
tablespoonful,  once  or  twice  a day,  mixed  with  the  feed.  Used 
with  good  success  for  coughs,  colds,  distemper,  hidebound,  and 
nearly  all  diseases  for  which  condition  powders  are  given. 

2.  Fenugreek,  4 ounces;  ginger,  6 ounces;  anise,  pulver- 
ized, 4 ounces;  gentian,  2 ounces;  black  antimony,  2 ounces; 
hard-wood  ashes,  4 ounces.  Mix  all  together.  Excellent  to 
give  a horse  an  appetite. 

3.  Licorice,  4 ounces;  fenugreek,  [4  ounces;  elecampane, 
4 ounces;  blood  root,  1 ounce;  tartar  emetic,  1-2  ounce;  ginger 
and  cayenne,  each,  1 ounce.  Mix,  and  give  a tablespoonful 
two  or  three  times  a day  in  feed.  One  of  the  best  condition 


160 


THE  HORSE, 


powders  for  any  cough,  cold  distemper,  or  epizootic;  also 
excellent  for  heaves.  For  heaves,  i ounce  of  lobelia  and  cam- 
phor may  be  added. 

For  Heaves. — I.  One  teaspoonful  of  lobelia  given  in  the 
feed,  once  a day,  for  a week,  and  then  once  or  twice  a week, 
will  stop  them  for  a time. 

2.  Balsam  copabia,  i ounce;  spirits  of  turpentine,  2 ounces; 
balsam  fir,  1 ounce;  cider  vinegar,  16  ounces.  Mix  and  give 
a tablespoonful  once  a day. 

3.  Saltpetre,  1 ounce;  indigo,  1-2  ounce;  rain-water,  4 
pints.  Mix,  and  give  a pint  twice  a day. 

4.  Licorice,  elecampane,  wild  turnip,  fenugreek,  skunk- 
cabbage,  lobelia,  cayenne,  and  ginger;  equal  parts  of  each. 
Mix,  and  give  a tablespoonful  once  or  twice  a day.  If  the 
horse  refuse  to  eat  it  in  feed,  make  it  into  a ball  and  give. 

5.  Calcined  magnesia,  balsam  of  fir,  balsam  copabia,  of 
each,  1 ounce;  spirits  of  turpentine,  2 ounces.  Put  them  all 
into  1 pint  of  best  cider  vinegar.  Give  for  a dose,  1 table- 
spoonful in  his  feed  once  a day  for  a week,  then  every  other 
day  for  two  or  three  months.  Wet  his  hay  with  brine,  and  also 
his  other  feed.  He  will  cough  more  at  first,  but  looser  and 
looser  till  cured. 

Contracted  Hoof  or  Sore  Feet. — 1.  Take  equal  parts 
of  soft  fat,  yellow  wax,  linseed  oil,  Venice  turpentine,  and  Nor- 
way tar;  first  melt  the  wax,  then  add  the  others,  mixing  thor- 
oughly. Apply  to  the  edge  of  the  hair  once  a day. 

2.  Benzine,  1 ounce;  salts  of  nitre,  1 ounce;  alcohol,  3 
ounces;  aqua  ammonia,  2 ounces;  Venice  turpentine,  8 ounces. 
Mix,  apply  to  the  edge  of  the  hair,  and  all  over  the  hoof,  once 
a day,  for  ten  days,  then  twice  a week  for  a short  time 

Horse  Liniments. — 1.  Oil  spike,  oil  origanum,  oil  hemlock, 
oil  wormwood,  aqua  ammonia,  camphor  gum,  of  each,  2 ounces; 
olive  oil,  4 ounces;  alcohol,  1 quart.  Mix.  This  is  an  excel- 
lent liniment  for  man  or  beast. 

2.  Oil  origanum,  oil  amber,  sweet  oil,  of  each  1 ounce; 
oil  spike,  aqua  ammonia,  and  oil  of  turpentine,  of  each,  2 
ounces.  Mix. 

3.  Linseed  oil,  8 ounces;  turpentine,  8 ounces;  oil  ori- 
ganum, 4 ounces.  Mix  well.  This  is  excellent  for  sprains 
and  bruises,  and  is  good  as  a general  liniment. 

4.  Oil  spike,  1 ounce;  oil  origanum,  2 ounces;  alcohol,  16 
ounces.  Good  for  lameness  resulting  from  almost  any  cause. 

5.  Take  equal  parts  of  alcohol,  chloroform,  aqua  ammonia, 
Jamaica  rum  and  water,  and  mix 

6.  Turpentine  and  seneca  oils,  of  each,  7 1-3  ounces; 
sweet  oil  and  tincture  of  arnica,  of  each,  3 2-3  ounces;  oils  of 


THE  HORSE. 


I6i 

origanum,  hemlock,  juniper,  amber,  and  laudanum,  of  each, 

1 1-3  ounces;  spirits  of  ammonia,  1-2  ounce;  and  gum  cam- 
phor, 1-4  ounce,  which  make  a little  less  than  1 quart,  there 
being  64  quarts,  besides  the  gum  camphor,  in  the  whole 
amount.  This  calculation  will  be  sufficiently  near  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes. 

Liniment,  very  Strong. — Oil  of  spike,  aqua  ammonia,  qjid 
oil  of  turpentine,  each  2 ounces;  sweet  oil  and  oil  of  amber, 
each  1 1-2  ounces;  oil  of  origanum,  1 ounce.  Mix. 

Liniment  for  Fifty  Cents  per  Gallon. — Best  vinegar,  2 
quarts;  pulverized  saltpetre,  1-2  lb.;  mix  and  set  in  a cool 
place  till  dissolved.  Invaluable  for  old  swellings,  sprains, 
bruises,  &c. 

Cuts,  Wounds  and  Sores.— 1.  Take  of  lard,  4 ounces; 
beeswax,  4 ounces;  resin,  2 ounces;  carbolic  acid,  1-4  ounce. 
Mix  the  three  first  and  melt,  then  add  the  carbolic  acid,  stirring 
until  cool.  This  is  excellent  for  man,  as  well  as  beast. 

2.  Tincture  aloes,  1 ounce;  tincture  myrrh,  1-2  ounce; 
tincture  opium,  1-2  ounce;  water,  4 ounces;  mix,  and  apply 
night  and  morning. 

3.  Tincture  opium,  2 ounces;  tannin,  1-4  ounce.  Mix. 

4.  Carbolic  acid,  1 ounce;  soft  water,  1 quart.  Mix. 

Ointment  for  Horses. — Beeswax,  2 ounces;  resin,  3 ounces; 
lard,  4 ounces;  carbolic  acid,  1 drachm;  honey,  1-2  ounce;  melt 
all  together,  and  bring  slowly  to  a boil,  then  remove  from  the 
fire,  and  add  slowly,  1 gill  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  stirring  all 
the  time  until  cool;  used  with  good  success  for  galls,  cracked 
heels,  flesh  wounds  or  bruises 

Eye  Water. — Sugar  of  lead,  I drachm;  tincture  of  opium, 

2 drachms;  soft  water,  1 pint;  mix,  and  wash  the  eye  two  or 
three  times  a day. 

Founder. — 1.  Vinegar,  3 pints;  cayenne  pepper,  1-2 
drachm;  tincture  of  aconite  root,  15  drops;  mix,  and  boil 
down  to  1 quart;  when  cool,  give  it  as  a dreneh;  blanket  the 
horse  well;  after  the  horse  has  perspired  for  an  hour  or  more, 
give  one  quart  of  raw  linseed  oil;  this  treatment  will  be  found 
good  for  horses  foundered  by  eating  too  much  grain. 

2.  Some  recommend  for  horses  foundered  on  grain,  to 
bleed  about  1 gallon,  then  to  drench  the  horse  with  1 quart  of 
raw  linseed  oil;  after  this  to  rub  the  fore  legs  well,  and  for  a 
long  time,  with  very  warm  water,  having  a little  tincture  of 
opium  mixed  with  it.  As  the  horse  will  not  recover  from  loss 
of  blood  for  a long  time,  it  is  usually  better  to  adopt  the  treat- 
ment given  in  No.  1. 


162 


THE  HORSE 


Tonic  Balls. — Copperas,  i 1-2  drachms;  ginger,  1 drachm; 
gentian,  1 drachm;  saltpetre,  3 drachms,  resin,  1-2- ounce;  flax- 
seed meal,  1 ounce;  mix,  and  form  into  a ball. 

Cordial  Balls — 1.  Anise,  powdered,  1-2  ounce;  ginger, 

1 drachm;  gentian,  1 drachm;  fenugreek,  2 drachms.  Mix. 

2.  Caraway  and  ginger,  each,  2 drachms;  anise,  gentian  and 
fenugreek,  each,  1 ounce.  Mix. 

' 3.  Camphor,  1 drachm;  anise,  3 drachms;  tincture  of 
opium,  1 ounce;  powdered  extract  of  licorice,  3 drachms,  flax- 
seed meal,  1 ounce.  Mix. 

Laxative  Balls. — 1.  Linseed  meal,  1 ounce;  aloes,  1-2 
ounce;  Castile  soap,  1-2  ounce.  Mix. 

2.  Ginger,  1 drcahm;  Castile  soap,  2 drachms;  Barbadoes 
aloes,  pulverized,  6 drachms;  flaxseed  meal,  1 ounce. 

Cough  Mixtures. — 1.  Oil  of  tar,  given  as  directed  for 
treatment  of  heaves,  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  for  nearly  all 
coughs. 

2.  Take  of  alcohol,  1-2  pint;  balsam  of  fir,  2 ounces;  mix 
well,  and  add  all  the  tar  it  will  cut.  Shake  well  before  using. 
Dose  from  one  to  two  spoonfuls,  two  or  three  times  a day. 

Thrush. — 1.  Wash  the  feet  well  with  Castile  soap  and 
water,  and  sprinkle  a small  quantity  of  pulverized  blue  vitriol 
in  the  cleft,  and  then  fill  up  all  the  cavities  with  cotton,  and 
press  it  in,  so  as  to  keep  out  all  dirt,  and  repeat  as  often  as 
necessary  until  the  cure  is  complete. 

2.  Blue  vitriol  and  copperas,  of  each  one  ounce,  burnt 
alum,  2 ounces;  white  vitriol,  1-4  ounce.  Mix. 

3.  Take  white  vitriol,  2 ounces;  soft  *vater,  8 ounces.  Mix, 
and  apply  to  the  diseased  surface,  after  the  ragged  parts  have 
been  cut  away  and  thoroughly  cleansed.  Pack  the  cavities 
with  cotton  batting,  so  as  to  keep  out  all  dirt. 

Healing  Mixtures. — 1.  Carbolic  acid,  I ounce;  soft  water, 

2 pints.  Mix. 

2.  White  vitriol,  1 ounce;  soft  water,  2 pints.  Mix. 

3.  Pulverized  camphor,  1 drachm;  prepared  chalk,  6 
drachms:  burnt  alum,  4 drachms.  Mix.  Sprinkle  over  the 
sore. 

4.  Tincture  of  opium,  1 ounce;  tannin,  1 drachm;  mix 
and  shake  well  before  using.  Excellent  for  galls  of  collar, 
saddle,  or  in  fact  for  any  purpose  requiring  a healing  astrin- 
gent. 

For  Fresh  Wounds. — Copperas,  2 drachms;  white  vitriol, 

3 drachms;  gun  powder,  2 drachms;  boiling  soft  water,  2 
quarts.  Mix;  when  cool  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Sore  Lips. — The  lips  become  sore  frequently  at  the  angles 


THE  HORSE. 


163 


of  the  mouth,  from  bruising  with  the  bit.  They  can  be  cured 
by  applying  the  following  mixture  : 

Tincture  of  myrrh,  2 ounces';  tincture  of  aloes,  1 ounce,  and 
tincture  of  opium,  1-2  ounce.  Mix,  and  apply  three  or  four 
times  a day. 

For  Flesh  Wounds. — To  prevent  inflammation  or  tendency 
to  sloughing  or  mortification,  take  1 pound  saltpetre;  2 gallons 
of  water;  3 pints  proof  spirits.  Mix,  and  inject  into  the  wound 
with  a "syringe,  three  times  a day  until  it  heals.  In  treating 
deep  wounds,  or  those  of  a dangerous  character,  especially  if 
the  animal  is  inclined  to  be  fat,  give  a dose  of  physic,  feed 
bran,  carrots,  &c.  No  grain  should  be  fed,  and  grass  is  more 
desirable  than  hay.  If  grass  is  fed  freely,  physic  is  not  neces- 
sary. 

Quarter  Crack. — The  best  way  to  cure  quarter  crack  is 
to  open  the  heel  on  that  side,  between  bar  and  frog,  cutting 
down  pretty  well,  (not  sufficient  to  cause  bleeding),  until  the 
quarter  will  give  freely  ; then  put  on  a shoe  that  will  expand 
the  heel.  It  is  also  necessary  in  this  case  that  the  inner  heel 
should  be  opened  or  spread,  as  the  hoof  is  simply  too  small 
for  the  foot  ; if  this  is  properly  done  the  point  is  directly 
reached.  Some  recommend,  in  addition  to  this,  burning  with 
a hot  iron  a crease  across  at  the  upper  edge  of  the  hoof.  If 
this  is  done  properly  the  hoof  will  not  split  any  more.  The 
hoof  may  now  be  more  rapidly  grown  if  desired.  Opening 
the  foot  and  the  shoe  is  the  point  of  success. 

Cracked  Heels.- — Tar,  8 ounces;  beeswax,  1 ounce;  resin, 
1 ounce;  alum,  1 ounce;  tallow,  1 ounce;  sulphate  of  iron,  1 
ounce;  carbolic  acid,  1 drachm;  mix,  and  boil  over  a slow  fire. 
Skim  off  the  filth,  and  add  2 ounces  of  the  scraping  of  sweet 
elder. 

Cure  for  Mange. — Oil  of  tar,  I ounce;  lac  sulphur,  1 1-2 
ounces;  whale  oil,  2 ounces.  Mix.  Rub  a little  on  the  skin 
wherever  the  disease  appears,  and  continue,  daily,  for  a week, 
and  then  wash  off  with  Castile  soap  and  warm  water. 

For  Sprains,  &c. — Hog’s  lard  and  spirits  of  turpentine. 
Mix,  and  place  in  the  hot  sunshine  for  four  or  five  days.  Ap- 
ply four  or  five  times  a week. 

For  Colic. — Take  of  gum  myrrh,  1 ounce;  gum  camphor, 
1 ounce;  powdered  gum  guaiac,  1 ounce;  cayenne,  1 ounce; 
sassafras  bark  powdered,  1 ounce;  spirits  turpentine,  1 ounce; 
oil  origanum,  1-4  ounce;  oil  hemlock,  1-2  ounce;  pulverized 
opium,  1-2  ounce;  strongest  alcohol,  2 quarts;  mix  all  together 
and  shake  often  for  eight  or  ten  days  and  filter  or  strain 


3.64 


THE  HORSE. 


through  flannel.  Dose,  from  i to  3 tablespoonfuls,  according 
to  the  severity  of  the  case;  give  in  a pint  of  milk. 

We  have  never  known  the  above  remedy  to  fail  of  giving 
relief  when  given  for  colic,  in  horses.  In  many  cases  where 
it  has  been  used  it  has  given  immediate  relief  even  though  vari- 
ous other  remedies  had  failed  of  giving  any  relief. 

It  makes  one  of  the  very  best  of  pain  killers  for  family  use, 
and  we  advise  all  to  keep  it  on  hand. 

To  Grow  Hair. — Mix  sweet  oil,  1 pint;  sulphur,  3 ounces. 
Shake  well,  and  rub  well  into  the  dock  twice  a week. 

For  Worms. — Calomel,  1 drachm;  tartar  emetic,  1-2 
drachm;  linseed  meal,  1 ounce;  fenugreek,  1 ounce.  Mix  and 
give  in  feed  at  night,  and  repeat  the  dose  for  two  or  three 
times,  and  follow  with  1 1-2  pints  of  raw  linseed  oil,  about  6 
hours  after  the  last  powder  has  been  given. 

For  Distemper. — Hops,  2 ounces;  carbolic  acid,  30  drops; 
boiling  water,  2 gallons.  Mix  the  hops  and  carbolic  acid  with 
the  boiling  water  and  compel  the  animal  to  inhale  the  steam 
for  15  or  20  minutes  at  a time,  and  repeat  three  times  a day. 
Apply  a strong  mustard  paste  to  the  throat,  and  place  a warm 
poultice  over  the  paste.  Feed  warm  mashes  and  boiled  vege- 
tables; keep  the  stable  comfortably  warm,  and  the  air  pure. 
Give  the  following  powders  once  a day:  Powdered  Peruvian 
bark,  2 ounces;  powdered  gentian,  1 ounce;  powdered  copperas, 
1 ounce;  mix,  and  divide  into  8 powders. 

How  to  Make  a Horse  Follow  You.— Turn  him  out  into  a 
large  stable  or  shed,  where  there  is  no  chance  to  get  out,  with 
a halter  or  bridle  on.  Go  to  him  and  gentle  him  a little;  take 
hold  of  the  halter  and  turn  him  towards  you,  at  the  same  time 
touching  him  lightly  over  the  hips  with  a long  whip.  Lead  him 
the  length  of  the  stable,  rubbing  him  on  the  neck,  saying,  in  a 
steady  tone  of  voice,  as  you  lead  him,  “Come  along,  my  boy  !” 
or,  use  his  name  instead  of  “my  boy,”  if  you  choose.  Every  time 
you  turn,  touch  him  slightly  with  the  whip,  to  make  him  step 
close  up  to  you,  and  then  caress  him  with  your  hand.  He  will 
soon  learn  to  hurry  up  to  escape  the  whip,  and  be  caressed,  and 
you  can  make  him  follow  you  around  without  taking  hold  of 
the  halter.  If  he  should  stop  and  turn  from  you,  give  him  a 
few  sharp  cuts  about  the  hind  legs,  and  he  will  soon  turn  his 
head  towards  you,  when  you  must  always  caress  him.  A few 
lessons  of  this  kind  will  make  him  run  after  you,  when  he  sees 
the  motion  of  the  whip — in  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  he  will 
follow  you  around  the  stable.  After  you  have  given  him  two 
or  three  lessons  in  the  stable,  take  him  in  a small  lot  and  train 
him;  and  from  thence  you  can  take  him  into  the  road,  and 
make  him  follow  you  anywhere,  and  run  after  you. 


THE  HORSE. 


165 


To  Make  a Horse  Stand  Without  Holding. — After  you  have 
well  broken  him  to  follow  you,  stand  him  in  the  center  of  the 
stable,  begin  at  the  head  to  caress  him,  and  gradually  work 
backwards.  If  he  moves,  give  him  a cut  with  the  whip,  and 
put  him  back  to  the  same  spot  from  where  he  started.  If  he 
stands,  caress  him  as  before,  and  continue  gentling  him  in  this 
way  until  you  can  get  around  him  without  making  him  move. 
Keep  walking  round  him,  increasing  your  pace,  and  only  touch 
him  occasionally.  Enlarge  your  circle  as  you  walk  around, 
and  if  he  then  moves,  give  him  another  cut  with  the  whip,  and 
put  him  back  to  his  place.  If  he  stands,  go  to  him  frequently 
and  caress  him,  and  then  walk  round  him  again.  Do  not  keep 
him  in  one  position  too  long  at  a time,  but  make  him  come  to 
you  occasionally,  and  follow  you  around  the  stable.  Then 
stand  him  in  another  place,  and  proceed  as  before.  You  should 
not  train  him  more  than  half  an  hour  at  a time. 

To  Prevent  a Horse  From  Scaring. — This  process  is  very 
simple.  Whenever  a horse  scares  at  objects  on  going  along 
the  road,  always  stop  him,  and  let  him  face  the  object.  Lead 
him  slowly  towards  it,  and  let  him  touch  it  with  his  nose.  Take 
the  pains  to  do  this  on  every  occasion,  and  it  will  soon  break 
him  entirely.  If  your  horse  is  frightened  at  an  umbrella,  you 
can  soon  teach  him  to  be  used  to  that.  Go  into  the  stable  with 
him,  and  first  let  him  look  at  the  umbrella  before  it  is  opened 
— let  him  touch  it  with  his  nose.  Open  it  a little  way,  and 
then  let  him  see  it,  and,  finally,  open  it  wide.  By  ordinary 
patience  you  can  soon  teach  the  horse  to  have  the  umbrella 
opened  suddenly  in  his  face,  without  his  being  afraid  of  it.  By 
a similar  treatment  you  can  break  any  horse  from  scaring  at 
almost  anything  that  may  look  frightful  to  him.  If  you  wish 
to  make  a trial  of  this  theory,  just  take  a horse  into  the  stable, 
and  let  him  examine  the  frightful  object  a few  minutes,  after 
his  mode  of  examining  things,  and  you  will  be  perfectly  satis- 
fied. There  is  a singular  fact  connected  with  taming  the  horse 
that  I would  have  never  believed  if  I had  not  tried  it.  If  you 
accustom  him  to  any  particular  object  by  showing  it  to  him  on 
one  side  only,  he  will  not  be  afraid  when  he  sees  it  with  the 
eye  on  that  side,  but  he  will  be  afraid  if  you  approach  him 
with  it  on  the  other  side.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  pacify 
him  on  both  sides  in  all  cases.  After  you  have  accustomed 
him  to  the  umbrella,  or  whatever  you  may  wish  to  make  him 
familiar  with,  on  his  right  side,  repeat  the  operation  on  the  left 
side  in  the  same  manner  as  if  you  had  not  approached  him  at  all. 

Blinds  or  Blinkers. — All  my  experience  with  and  observa- 
tion of  horses,  proves  clearly  to  me  that  blinkers  should  never 
be  used,  and  that  the  sight  of  the  horse,  for  many  reasons, 
should  not  be  interfered  with  in  any  way.  Horses  are  only 


166 


THE  HORSE. 


fearful  of  objects  which  they  do  not  understand,  or  are  not 
familiar  with,  and  the  eye  is  one  of  the  principal  mediums  by 
which  this  understanding  and  this  familiarity  are  brought  about. 
The  horse,  on  account  of  his  very  amiable  nature,  can  be  made, 
in  the  course  of  time,  to  bear  almost  anything  in  any  shape; 
but  there  is  a quicker  process  of  reaching  his  intelligence  than 
that  of  wearing  it  into  him  through  his  skin  and  bones.  How- 
ever wild  and  nervous  a horse  may  be,  he  can  be  taught  in  a 
very  short  time  to  understand  and  not  to  fear  an  object,  how- 
ever frightful  in  appearance.  Horses  can  be  broken  in  less 
time,  and  better,  without  blinkers;  but  horses  that  have 
always  worn  them  will  notice  the  sudden  change,  and  must  be 
treated  carefully  the  first  drive.  After  that  they  will  drive  bet- 
ter without  the  blinkers  than  with.  I have  proved  by  my  own 
experiments,  that  a horse  broken  without  blinkers  can  be  driven 
past  any  omnibus,  cab  or  carriage,  on  a parallel  line  as  close  as 
it  is  possible  for  him  to  go,  without  ever  wavering  or  showing 
any  disposition  to  dodge.  I have  not,  in  the  last  eight  or  ten 
years,  constantly  handling  horses,  both  wild  and  nervous,  ever 
put  blinkers  on  any  of  them,  and  in  no  case  have  they  ever 
shied  at  passing  objects. 

The  horse’s  eye  is  the  life  and  beauty  of  the  animal,  as  well 
as  the  index  of  all  his  emotions.  It  tells  the  driver,  in  the  most 
impressive  characters,  what  the  horse’s  feelings  are.  By  it  he 
can  tell  the  first  approach  of  fear  in  time  to  meet  any  difficulty; 
he  can  tell  if  he  is  happy  or  sad,  hungry  or  weary.  The  horse, 
too,  when  permitted  to  see,  uses  his  eyes  with  great  judgment. 
He  sees  better  than  we  do.  He  can  measure  distances  with 
eyes  better  than  we  can,  and,  if  allowed  free  use  of  them,  would 
often  save  himself,  by  the  quickness  of  his  sight,  from  collis- 
ions, when  the  driver  would  fail  to  do  so  by  a timely  pull  of 
the  reins.  It  would  also  save  many  accidents  to  pedestrians  in 
the  streets,  as  no  horse  will  run  on  to  any  person  that  he  can 
see.  Blinkers  are  rapidly  going  out  of  use  in  the  United  States, 
and  I have  yet  to  find  the  man  who,  having  once  left  them  off, 
could  ever  be  persuaded  to  put  them  on  again.  They  are  an 
unnecessary  and  injurious  incumbrance  to  the  horse,  and  in 
years  hence  will  be  a thing  to  be  read  of  as  one  of  the  follies 
happily  reformed  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Rules  for  Purchasing  a Horse. — When  you  are  looking  to 
purchase  a horse,  first  examine  the  eyes  well.  The  best  judges 
are  sometimes  deceived  in  the  eyes,  therefore,  you  cannot  be 
too  careful.  Clearness  of  the  eyes  is  a sure  indication  of  their 
goodness;  but  this  is  not  all  that  should  be  attended  to;  the 
eye-lids,  eyebrows,  and  all  the  other  parts,  must  also  be  consid- 
ered; for  many  horses,  whose  eyes  appear  clear  and  brilliant, 
go  blind  at  seven  or  eight  years  old.  Therefore,  be  careful  to 


THE  HORSE. 


167 


observe,  whether  the  parts  between  the  eyelids  and  the  eye- 
brows are  free  from  bunches,  and  whether  the  parts  round  the 
under  eyelids  be  full,  or  swelled;  for  these  are  indications 
that  the  eyes  will  not  last.  When  the  eyes  are  remarkably  flat, 
or  sunk  within  their  orbits,  it  is  a bad  sign;  also,  when  they  look 
dead  and  lifeless.  The  iris,  or  circle  that  surrounds  the  sight 
of  the  eye,  should  be  distinct,  and  of  a pale,  variegated,  cinna- 
mon color,  for  this  is  always  a sure  sign  of  a good  eye,  and  it  adds 
beauty  to  the  appearance  of  the  animal. 

In  the  next  place,  examine  the  teeth,  as  you  would  not  wish 
to  purchase  an  old  horse,  nor  a very  young  one  for  service. 

The  feet  should  next  be  regarded;  for  a horse  with  bad 
feet  is  like  a house  wit-h  a weak  foundation,  and  will  do  little 
service.  The  feet  should  be  smooth  and  tough,  of  a middle 
size,  without  wrinkles,  and  neither  too  hard  and  brittle,  nor 
too  soft;  the  heels  should  be  firm,  and  not  spongy  and  rotten; 
the  frogs  horny  and  dry;  the  soles  somewhat  hollow,  like  the 
inside  of  a dish  or  a bowl.  Such  feet  will  never  disappoint 
your  expectations,  and  such  only  should  be  chosen. 

Particular  regard  should  be  paid  to  the  shoulders;  they 
should  not  be  too  much  loaded,  for  a horse  with  heavy  shoulders 
can  never  move  well;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  one  that  has 
very  thin  shoulders,  and  a narrow  chest,  though  he  may  move 
briskly  so  long  as  he  is  sound,  yet  he  is  generally  weak,  and 
easily  lamed  in  the  shoulders;  a medium  should  therefore  be 
chosen. 

The  body,  or  carcass,  should  be  neither  too  small  nor  too 
large.  The  back  should  be  straight,  or  have  only  a moderate 
sinking  below  the  withers;  for  when  the  back  of  a horse  is 
low,  or  higher  behind  than  before,  it  is  both  very  ugly  and  a 
sign  of  weakness.  The  back  should  also  be  a proper  length. 
The  ribs  should  be  large,  the  flanks  smooth  and  full,  and  the 
hind  parts,  or  uppermost  haunches,  not  higher  than  the 
shoulders.  When  the  horse  trots  before  you,  observe  if  his 
haunches  cover  his  fore-knees.  A horse  with  short  hind- 
quarters does  not  look  well. 

The  next  thing  to  be  regarded  in  a horse  is  his  wind,  which 
may  be  easily  judged  by  the  motion  of  his  flanks.  A broken- 
winded  horse  also  pinches  in  his  flanks,  with  a slow  motion,  and 
drops  them  suddenly,  which  may  be  easily  perceived.  Many 
horses  breathe  thick  that  are  not  broken-winded;  indeed,  any 
horse  will  in  foggy  weather,  or  if  foul  fed,  without  sufficient 
exercise;  but,  if  a horse  has  been  in  good  keeping,  and  had 
proper  exercise,  and  yet  had  these  symptoms,  there  is  some 
defect,  either  natural  or  accidental,  such  as  a narrow  chest,  or 
some  cold  that  has  affected  the  lungs. 

There  are  other  particulars  that  should  be  observed  in 


168 


THE  HORSE. 


choosing  a horse.  If  his  head  be  large  and  fleshy,  and  his 
neck  thick  and  gross,  he  will  always  go  heavy  on  the  hand, 
and,  therefore,  such  should  never  be  chosen.  A horse  that  has 
his  hocks  very  wide,  seldom  moves  well,  and  one  that  has  them 
too  near,  will  chafe  and  cut  his  legs  by  crossing  them.  Fleshy- 
legged  horses  are  generally  subject  to  the  grease,  and  other 
infirmities  of  that  kind,  and,  therefore,  should  not  be  chosen. 

The  temper  of  a horse  should  be  particularly  attended  to. 
Avoid  a fearful  horse,  which  you  may  know  at  first  sight  by 
his  starting,  crouching,  or  creeping,  if  you  approach  him.  A 
hot  and  fretful  horse  is  also  to  be  avoided,  but  the  buyer  should 
be  careful  to  distinguish  between  a hot,  fretful  horse,  and  one 
that  is  eager  and  craving.  The  former  begins  to  fret  the 
moment  he  is  out  of  the  stable,  and  continues  in  that  humor  till 
he  has  quite  fatigued  himself;  and  the  latter  only  endeavors  to 
be  foremost  in  the  field,  and  is  truly  valuable;  he  has  those 
qualities  that  resemble  prudence  and  courage;  the  other  those 
of  intemperate  heat  and  rashness. 

A horse  that  goes  with  his  fore  feet  very  low,  is  apt  to  stumble; 
and  there  are  some  that  go  so  near  the  ground  that  they  stumble 
most  on  even  roads;  and  the  dealers,  to  remedy  this,  put  heavy 
shoes  on  thnr  feet;  for,  the  heavier  a horse’s  shoes  are,  the 
higher  he  lifts  his  feet.  Care  also  should  be  taken  that  the 
horse  does  not  cut  one  leg  with  the  other.  A horse  that  goes 
near  the  ground  will  cut  the  low  side  of  the  fetlock  joint,  but 
one  that  goes  high  cuts  below  the  knee,  which  is  called  the 
speedy  cut.  A horse  that  lifts  his  feet  high  generally  trots 
fast,  but  is  not  the  easiest  for  the  rider.  Some  horses  cut  with 
the  spurn  of  the  foot,  and  some  with  the  heel;  but  this  you  may 
soon  perceive  by  their  standing;  for,  if  a horse  points  the  front 
of  his  foot  inward,  he  cuts  with  the  spurn,  and  if  outward, 
with  the  heel. 

These  tew  instructions  may  be  of  use  in  purchasing  horses; 
but  I advise  every  one  to  get  some  experimental  knowledge  of 
them  before  he  trusts  to  his  judgment,  for  the  dealers  have  so 
many  arts  to  hide  the  defects  of  their  horses,  that  the  best 
judges  are  often  deceived. 

SOUND  OR  UNSOUND,  ACCORDING  TO  LAW. 

The  definition  of  unsoundness  is,  “the  existence  of  disease 
or  alteration  of  structure,  which  does  or  will  impair  the  horse’s 
natural  usefulness.”  Vice  also  may  be  defined,  on  a similar 
principle,  as  “ the  prevalence  of  a habit  which  interferes  with 
the  horse’s  natural  usefulness.”  But  these  definitions  must  be 
taken  with  some  modifications,  for  there  is  not  one  horse  in  a 
hundred  which  does  not  possess  some  disease  or  vice  likely  to 
impair  his  general  usefulness  to  some  slight  extent;  indeed, 


THE  HORSE. 


169 


the  proportion  of  strictly  sound  horses  may  be  considered  to 
be  much  smaller  even  than  this.  A bad  feeder  is  generally  so 
from  a disordered  state  of  stomach,  and  such  a horse  cannot 
stand  work  like  one  which  will  consume  double  the  quantity 
of  corn,  yet  he  would  not  be  considered  unsound;  nor  would 
a horse  be  returnable  as  vicious  if  he  showed  the  usual  symp- 
toms of  being  “fresh,”  though  they  might  impair  his  useful- 
ness in  carrying  a timid  rider.  But,  subject  to  such  modifica- 
tions, the  above  definitions  may  be  accepted  as  sufficient  to 
make  intelligible  the  terms,  “ unsoundness  ” and  “vice.” 

The  following  diseases  and  accidents  are  generally  con- 
sidered not  to  render  their  possessors  unsound: 

Bog- Spavin,  in  a slight  degree  only. 

A Broken  Knee,  unless  the  joint  is  injured  so  as  to  impair 
its  functions,  is  not  considered  to  be  unsoundness. 

Capped  Hocks  and  Elbows  do  not  produce  any  lameness, 
nor  do  they  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  joints  to 
which  they  are  adjacent. 

Contraction  of  the  foot  is  no  evidence  of  disease,  and, 
taken  by  itself,  is  not  sufficient  to  prove  it  to  be  unsound. 

Crib-biting  was  decided,  in  the  case  of  Broennenbury  vs. 
Haycock  and  Scolefield  vs.  Robb,  not  to  be  unsoundness;  but 
Baron  Parker  ruled  in  the  latter  that  it  came  within  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word  “vice.”  Undoubtedly  this  is  a habit  which  is 
generally  attended  by  impaired  digestion,  and,  as  such,  it  comes 
strictly  within  the  definition  given  above,  but  the  law  is  as  I 
have  stated  it. 

Curby  hocks,  though  experience  may  tell  us  they  are  likely 
to  be  attended  by  curbs,  are  decided  not  to  be  unsoundness. 
In  Brown  vs.  Elkington,  the  attention  of  the  vendor  was  directed 
to  the  hocks  by  the  purchaser  before  the  sale,  as  likely  to 
spring  curbs;  but  in  the  action  on  the  warranty  it  was  held  by 
Lord  Abinger  that  a “ defect  in  the  formation  of  the  horse, 
which  had  not  occasioned  lameness  at  the  time  of  sale,  though 
it  might  render  the  animal  more  liable  to  be  lame  at  some 
future  time,  was  no  breach  of  warranty;”  and  the  Court  of 
Exchequer  confirmed  this  view  of  the  law,  by  refusing  a rule 
for  a new  trial. 

Cutting,  on  the  same  principle,  is  no  breach  of  warranty, 
unless  the  horse  is  lame  from  it  at  the  time  of  sale. 

A splint  is  not,  in  itself,  evidence  of  unsoundness;  but  if 
it  is  so  situated  as  necessarily  to  interfere  with  the  suspensory 
ligament  or  tendons,  or  if  it  is  has  already  produced  lameness, 
it  is  to  be  accepted  as  a mark  of  unsoundness. 

Thoroughpin,  when  existing  to  a moderate  extent,  is  not 
sufficient  to  render  the  horse  unsound;  but  this  will  always  be 
a question  of  opinion,  and  a horse  with  a thoroughpin  is,  there* 
fore  not  to  be  warranted  with  safety, 


THE  HORSE. 


170 


Thrush,  occurring  from  mismanagement  only,  and  not 
from  any  defect  in  the  horse,  is  clearly  not  to  be  considered  as 
unsoundness. 

Soreness  of  the  joints  from  work,  as  it  soon  goes  off  after 
a short  rest,  is  not  accepted  as  unsoundness. 

Windgalls  are  also  only  evidence  of  work,  and  do  not 
usually  cause  lameness.  When  this  co-exists,  it  is  sufficient  to 
produce  unsoundness,  without  resorting  to  the  windgalls. 

The  following  list  comprises  the  diseases  and  injuries  which 
have  been  settled  as  sufficient  to  entitle  the  purchaser  to  return 
a horse  warranted  sound: 

Bog-spavin,  when  it  is  so  severe  as  clearly  to  interfere  with 
the  action  of  the  joint;  and  blood-spavin,  as  making  an  ag- 
gravated form  of  the  same  disease. 

Breaking  down,  even  though  the  horse  is  restored  so  as 
to  run  without  lameness. 

Broken  wind. 

Cataract,  in  any  degree. 

Corns,  unless  very  trifling;  but  they  should  be  discovered 
within  a few  days  of  the  sale,  or  it  may  be  alleged  that  they 
have  been  produced  by  subsequent  mismanagement. 

Cough,  as  long  as  it  lasts.  A horse  with  chronic  cough 
is  clearly  returnable. 

Curbs  constitute  unsoundness;  but  they  must  be  shown  to 
exist  at  the  time  of  purchase,  for  a horse  may  throw  out  one 
immediately  after  he  is  transferred  to  the  purchaser. 

Diseases  of  the  organic  kind  in  any  of  the  internal  viscera. 

Farcy. 

Founder,  orlaminitis,  whether  it  produce  lameness  or  not, 
if  it  manifestly  has  existed,  is  to  be  accepted  as  unsoundness; 
for  when  there  is  evidence  of  its  previous  occurrence,  the 
laminae  are  injured  so  much  as  inevitably  to  lead  to  lameness 
when  the  horse  is  put  to  work. 

Grease,  and  glanders. 

Mange. 

Megrams,  when  the  attack  comes  on  subsequently  to  the 
sale,  and  can  be  shown  to  have  occured  before  it. 

A nerved  horse  is  unsound  from  the  existence  of  the  dis- 
ease for  which  the  operation  has  been  performed,  as  well  as 
from  the  division  of  the  nerves. 

Ophthalmia,  if  it  can  be  proved  to  have  previously  existed, 
and  comes  on  soon  after  the  purchase,  is  to  be  received  as 
unsoundnefs.  So,  also,  when  any  of  the  evidences  of  its  pre- 
vious presence  can  be  detected,  and  are  proved  by  a veterinary 
surgeon,  the  horse  is  returnable. 

Ossification  of  any  of  the  structures  adjacent  to  tJjg 


THE  HORSE. 


171 


joints  is  unsoundness,  and  hence  ossification  of  the  lateral 
cartilages  will  be  considered  so,  without  doubt. 

Pumiced  foot,  as  evidence  of  laminitis. 

Quidding. 

QuiTOk. 

Ringbones  and  sidebones,  whether  large  or  small,  are 
undoubtedly  sufficient  to  constitute  a horse  unsound. 

Roaring,  whisling,  &c.,  as  evidence  of  contraction  of  the 
rima  glottidis,  and  therefore  interfering  with  respiration. 

Ruptures  of  all  kinds. 

Spavin  (bone),  although  it  may  not  have  occasioned  lame- 
ness, if  it  is  clearly  the  disease  so  named. 

Stringhalt  has  been  decided  to  be  unsoundness.  (Thomp- 
son vs.  Patterson). 

Thick  wind,  as  marking  some  impediment  to  respiration. 

Thrush,  when  it  is  in  one  of  the  severe  forms,  and  not 
caused  by  mismanagement. 

'Thickening  of  the  back  sinews,  or  suspensory  ligament, 
when  existing  to  any  extent  easily  appreciable,  is  to  be  received 
as  a proof  of  unsoundness. 

Returnable  vices  are  comprehended  in  the  following  list  : 

Biting,  when  carried  to  any  unusual  extent. 

Bolting  or  running  away. 

Crib-biting. 

Kicking,  when  more  than  usual. 

Restiveness,  or  refusal  to  proceed  in  the  desired  direction. 

Rearing. 

Shying,  when  marked. 

Weaving  in  the  stable. 

When  a horse  is  purchased  with  the  conditions  that  he  is 
warranted  sound,  or  free  from  vice,  or  quiet  to  ride  and  drive, 
the  warranty  must  either  be  in  writing,  or  given  in  the  presence 
of  a disinterested  third  person.  The  form  of  warranty  is  as 
follows,  and  it  is  better  that  it  should  be  on  the  same  paper  as 
the  stamped  receipt,  though  this  is  not  absolutely  necessary  if 
it  is  shown  that  the  receipt  is  properly  given: 

Date. 

Received  of  A.  B.  C.  $250  for  a bay  gelding,  by  Small- 
hopes,  warra?ited  five  years  old,  sound,  free  from  vice,  and  quiet 
to  ride  and  drive. 

$250.  X Y.  Z. 

Any  one  or  more  of  these  points  may  be  omitted,  or  the 
horse  may  simply  be  warranted  “a  good  hack,”  in  which  case 
he  must  fairly  answer  that  description.  The  terms  “has  been 
hunted,”  or  ‘‘has  carried  a lady,”  are  not  to  be  trusted,  as  it  is 
only  necessary  to  prove  in  defence  that  the  horse  has  seep, 
hounds,  and  had  a woman  on  his  back. 


172 


THE  HORSE. 


Whether  the  horse  under  examination  is  to  be  warranted  or 
not,  the  intended  purchaser  should  never  omit  to  look  over 
every  point  where  unsoundness  is  likely  to  occur.  To  do  this 
effectually,  it  should  be  done  regularly,  by  which  there  is  less 
chance  of  passing  over  any  serious  defect.  The  usual  mode  of 
proceeding  is  as  follows:  Under  no  circumstances,  if  it  can 
possibly  be  avoided,  should  he  be  looked  at  immediately  after 
having  been  out  of  doors,  and,  if  he  is  of  necessity  brought  to 
the  purchaser,  let  him  be  put  in  the  stable  and  quietly  rested 
for  one  or  two  hours  at  least,  by  which  time  the  effects  of  most 
of  the  “coping”  tricks  will  have  gone  off. 

Before  the  horse  passes  the  stable  dooj,  stop  him  with  his 
head  just  inside,  and  in  that  position  carefully  examine  his 
eyes.  The  light  is  exactly  suited  to  this,  and  the  sensibility  of 
the  iris  may  well  be  judged  of.  Any  specks  or  opacities  are 
also  here  readily  seen.  Then  let  him  be  led  to  a level  surface, 
and  then  proceed  to  look  over  every  part,  beginning  with  that 
nearest  the  one  already  inspected,  namely,  the  mouth.  Then 
“cough”  him  by  tightly  grasping  the  larynx,  by  which  some 
idea  may  be  formed  of  the  state  of  his  respiratory  organs,  after 
which  the  usual  manuoeuvre  with  the  stick  may  be  practised  if 
there  is  no  opportunity  of  examining  into  his  freedom  from 
rearing  in  the  saddle.  When  these  points  are  satisfactorily  dis- 
posed of,  look  to  the  position  of  the  fore  legs,  that  is,  whether 
they  are  turned  in  or  out,  and,  if  the  latter,  feel  the  elbows, 
and  see  if  they  are  confined  or  “tied,”  that  is,  too  close  to  the 
ribs,  also  look  for  marks  of  cutting  or  speedy  cutting.  Pass 
the  hand  down  the  back  sinews  and  suspensory  ligaments, 
examine  the  knees  for  any  marks,  and  then  carefully  feel  the 
coronets  and  heels  for  any  marks  of  oxostosis  or  ossification. 
Lastly,  take  a good  look  at  the  front  of  the  foot,  and,  then  lift- 
ing it,  inspect  the  frog,  heels  and  sole.  This  will  complete  the 
front  half  of  the  body,  after  which  the  form  of  the  middle  and 
loins  should  be  regarded,  and  then,  lifting  the  tail,  the  open- 
ness, or  otherwise,  of  the  space  around  the  anus,  will  give  some 
idea  of  the  strength  of  constitution,  while  the  resistance  afforded 
by  the  dock  will  be  a sign  of  the  muscular  strength  of  the  back. 
Then  look  carefully  at  the  hocks,  examine  the  spavin  and  curb 
places,  and  finish  the  whole  by  passing  the  hand  down  the  hind 
cannon  bones  to  the  fetlocks,  and  feel  them  in  the  same  order 
as  in  the  fore  legs.  Now  let  the  horse  rest  a minute,  if  his 
groom  will  let  him,  with  his  head  quite  at  liberty,  and  you  will 
be  able  to  judge  of  his  ordinary  habit  of  standing,  when  un- 
excited. At  the  conclusion  of  this  careful  examination,  while 
at  rest,  the  action  must  be  minutely  investigated,  by  first  having 
the  horse  walked  with  a loose  rein,  and  then  trotted  in  the 
same  way  slowly,  when,  if  he  is  sound*  he  will  put  his  feet  down 


THE  HORSE. 


173 


regularly  and  firmly.  Grooms,  when  they  want  to  conceal  de- 
fects, will  not  let  the  head  be  loose,  nor  will  they  trot  slowly, 
but  bustle  the  horse  along,  with  their  hands  as  close  as  possible 
to  the  mouth,  so  as  to  prevent  any  nodding  of  the  head  as  much 
as  they  can.  A very  good  judge  will  be  perhaps  able  to  select 
a pleasant  pack  or  hai  less  horse  by  seeing  him  thus  run,  and 
afterwards  ridden,  but  a far  better  test  is  to  ride  or  drive  him 
yourself,  when  his  freedom  from  vice,  or  disease,  may  be  ascer- 
tained, as  well  as  his  manners,  and  the  ease  of  his  various  paces. 
No  trouble  should  be  spared  to  get  this  real  trial,  which  is 
worth  ten  per  cent,  on  the  purchase  money,  for  many  a horse 
that  looks  to  go  well,  does  not  feel  so,  and  it  is  well  worth  that 
sum,  to  be  saved  the  trouble  attending  upon  the  possession  of 
a horse  which  does  not  suit.  When,  however,  after  such  a care- 
ful examination  by  a competent  judge,  and  subsequent  trial  in 
the  saddle  or  in  harness,  the  horse  is  found  to  be  really  likely 
to  answer  all  the  purposes  for  which  he  is  wanted,  a few  dol- 
lars should  never  prevent  his  being  obtained. 


VICTORIA,”  A TYPICAL  DAIRY  SHORTHORN, 


CATTLE 


1 The  upper  jaw-bone.  2.  The  nasal  bone,  or  bone  of  the  nose.  3.  The  lachrymal 
bone.  4.  The  malar,  or  cheek  bone.  5.  The  frontal  bone,  or  bone  of  the  forehead. 
6.  The  horns,  being  processes  or  continuations  of  the  frontal.  7.  The  temporal 
bone.  8.  The  parietal  bone,  low  in  the  temporal  fossa.  9.  The  occipital  bone,  deeply 
depressed  below  the  crest  or  ridge  of  the  head.  10.  The  lower  jaw.  11.  The  grind- 
ers. 12.  The  nippers,  found  on  the  lower  jaw  alone.  13.  The  ligament  of  the  neck, 
and  its  attachments.  14.  The  atlas.  It).  The  dentata.  17.  The  orbits  of  the  eye.  18. 
The  vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  neck.  19.  The  bones  of  the  back.  20.  The  bones  of 
the  loins.  21.  The  sacrum.  22.  The  bones  of  the  tail.  23.  The  haunch  and  pelvis. 
24.  The  eight  true  ribs.  25  The  false  ribs,  with  their  cartilages.  26.  The  sternum. 
27.  The  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade.  28.  The  humerus,  or  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder. 
29.  The  radius,  or  principal  bone  of  the  arm.  40.  The  ulna,  its  upper  part  forming 
the  elbow.  41.  The  small  bones  of  the  knee.  42.  The  large  metacarpal  or  shank 
bone.  43.  The  smaller  or  splint  bone.  44.  The  sessamoid  bones.  45.  The  bifurca- 
tion at  the  pasterns,  *and  the  two  larger  pasterns  to  each  foot.  46.  The  two  smaller 
pasterns  to  each  foot.  47.  The  two  coffin  bones  to  each  foot.  48.  Thenavicular 
bones.  49.  The  thigh  bone.  50.  The  patella,  or  bone  of  the  knee.  51.  The  tibia,  or. 
proper  leg  bone.  52.  The  point  of  the  hock.  53.  The  small  bones  of  the  hock.  54 
The  metatarsals,  or  larger  bones  of  the  hind  leg.  55.  The  pasterns  and  feet. 


176 


CATTLE. 


Next  to  the  horse,  the  cow  is  justly  valued  as  the  most  use- 
ful animal  which  man  has  been  able  to  domesticate  and  retain 
permanently  in  his  service.  The  ox  tribe,  of  which  it  is  the 
female,  belongs  to  the  order  Ruminantia,  in  the  class  Mammalia; 
these  terms  implying  that  the  animals  ruminate  or  chew  their 
food  a second  time,  and  have  mammas  or  teats  with  which  they 
suckle  their  young.  In  the  ox  tribe  there  are  different  genera 
and  species,  all  more  or  less  differing  from  each  other. 

The  wild  breed,  from  being  untamable,  can  only  be  kept 
within  walls  or  good  fences;  consequently  very  few  of  them 
are  now  to  be  met  with,  except  in  the  parks  of  some  English 
gentlemen,  who  keep  them  for  ornament  and  as  a curiosity. 
Their  color  is  invariably  of  a creamy  white;  muzzle  black;  the 
whole  of  the  inside  of  the  ear,  and  about  one-third  of  the  out- 
side from  the  tip  downward,  red;  horn  white,  with  black  tips 
very  fine,  and  bent  upward;  some  of  the  bulls  have  a thin 
upright  mane  about  four  or  five  inches  long.  The  weight  of 
the  oxen  is  from  450  to  550  lbs.  and  the  cows  from  280  to  450 
lbs.  The  beef  is  finely  marbled  and  of  excellent  flavor. 

The  domesticated  species  of  oxen  is,  in  all  its  varieties, 
materially  altered  from  its  wild  parentage.  Influenced  by 
climate,  peculiar  feeding,  and  training  in  a state  of  subjection, 
its  bony  structure  is  diminished  in  bulk  and  power,  its  ferocity 
tamed,  and  its  tractability  greatly  improved.  Our  observations 
will  refer  chiefly  to  the  cow,  on  which  very  great  changes 
have  been  effected  by  domestication;  the  most  remarkable  of 
these  alterations  has  been  in  the  capacity  for  giving  milk.  In 
a wild  state,  the  udder  is  small,  and  sinks  into  an  insignificant 
compass  when  the  duty  of  suckling  is  over;  but  when  domes- 
ticated for  the  sake  of  its  milk,  and  that  liquid  is  drawn 
copiously  from  it  by  artificial  means,  the  lacteal,  or  milk- 
secreting  vessels  enlarge,  and  the  udder  expands  so  as  to  become 
a prominent  feature  in  the  animal.  In  this  manner,  by  constant 
exercise,  the  economy  of  the  cultivated  species  of  cows  has  been 
permanently  altered,  and  rendered  suitable  to  the  demands 
which  are  constantly  made  on  it.  Yet  it  is*  important  to' 
remark  that  those  milk-yielding  powers  are  not  equal  in  the 
different  varieties  or  breeds  of  cows.  Some  breeds,  from  the 
influence  of  circumstances,  give  a large  quantity  of  milk,  but  of 


CATTLE. 


177 


a thin  or  poor  quality,  while  others  yield  less  milk,  but  of  a 
good  or  rich  quality.  Whether,  then,  the  cow-keeper  wish 
quantity  or  quality,  is  the  question  for  him  to  solve  in  making 
a selection  of  stock.  In  general,  near  large  towns,  where  the 
demand  for  milk  is  considerable,  the  object  of  dairymen  is  to 
keep  cows  which  will  give  a large  quantity  of  milk,  no  matter 
of  what  sort.  Private  families  in  the  country  are  usually 
regardful  of  the  quality  of  the  article;  they  wish  a little  milk 
which  is  good,  some  fine  cream,  and  perhaps,  also,  some  sweet 
butter  and  cheese;  and  on  that  account  are  more  careful  in 
their  choice  of  their  cows. 

Breeds  of  Cattle. — The  breeds  of  cattle  vary  in  different 
districts,  from  the  small  hardy  varieties  of  the  north  High- 
lands, to  the  bulky  and  handsome  breeds  of  the  southern  parts 
of  England.  It  has  been  customary  to  classify  the  whole 
according  to  the  comparative  length  of  the  horns — as  the  long- 
horned, short-horned,  middle-horned,  crumpled-horned,  and 
hornless  or  polled  breeds.  Besides  these,  there  are  many 
intermixed  breeds.  The  middle-horned  cows,  which  are  found 
in  the  north  of  Devon,  the  east  of  Sussex,  Herefordshire,  and 
Gloucestershire,  in  England,  are  among  the  most  valuable  and 
beautiful  varieties  of  the  animal. 

Whatever  be  the  breed,  there  are  certain -conformations 
which  are  indispensable  to  the  thriving,  valuable  ox  or  cow.  If 
there  is  one  part  of  the  frame,  the  form  of  which,  more  than  of 
any  other,  renders  the  animal  valuable,  it  is  the  chest.  There 
must  be  room  enough  for  the  heart  to  beat  and  the  lungs  to 
play,  or  sufficient  blood  for  the  purposes  of  nutriment  and 
strength  will  not  be  circulated;  nor  will  it  thoroughly  under- 
go that  vital  change  which  is  essential  to  the  proper  dis- 
charge of  every  function.  We  look,  therefore,  first  of  all,  to 
the  wide  and  deep  girth  about  the  heart  and  lungs.  We  must 
have  both;  the  proportion  in  which  the  one  or  the  other  may 
preponderate  will  depend  on  the  service  we  require  from  the 
animal;  we  can  excuse  a slight  degree  of  flatness  on  the  sides, 
for  he  will  be  lighter  in  the  forehand,  and  more  active;  but 
the  grazier  must  have  width  as  well  as  depth.  And  not  only 
about  the  heart  and  lungs,  but  over  the  whole  of  the  ribs,  must 
we  have  both  length  and  roundness;  the  hooped  as  well  as  the 
10 


m 


cattlM. 

deep  barrel  is  essential;  there  must  be  room  for  the  capaci- 
ous paunch — room  for  the  material  from  which  the  blood  is  to 
be  provided.  The  beast  should  also  be  ribbed  home;  there 
should  be  little  space  between  the  ribs  and  the  hips.  This 
seems  to  be  indispensable  in  the  ox,  as  it  regards  a good 
healthy  constitution  and  a propensity  to  fatten;  but,  alargness 
| and  drooping  of  the  belly,  notwithstanding  that  the  symmetry 
| of  the  animal  is  not  improved,  are  considered  advantageous  in 
the  cow,  because  room  is  thus  left  for  the  udder;  and  if  these 
qualities  are  accompanied  by  swelling  milk  veins,  her  value  in 
the  dairy  is  generally  increased.  This  roundness  and  depth  of 
the  barrel,  however,  are  most  advantageous  in  proportion  as 
found  behind  the  point  of  the  elbow,  more  than  between  the 
shoulder  and  legs;  or  low  down  between  the  legs,  rather  than 
upward  toward  the  withers;  for,  the  heaviness  before,  and  the 
comparative  bulk  of  the  coarser  parts  of  the  animal,  are  thus 
diminished,  which  is  always  a very  great  consideration.  The 
loins  should  be  wide.  Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt,  for  they 
are  the  prime  parts;  they  should  seem  to  extend  far  along  the 
back;  and,  although  the  belly  should  not  hang  down,  the  flanks 
should  be  round  and  deep.  Of  the  lips,  it  is  superfluous  to  say 
that,  without  being  ragged,  they  should  be  large,  round,  rather 
than  wide,  and  presenting,  when  handled,  plenty  of  muscle  and 
fat.  The  thighs  should  be  full  and  long,  close  together  when 
viewed  from  behind,  and  the  farther  down  they  continue  close, 
the  better.  The  legs  may  occasionally  vary  in  length,  accord- 
ing to  the  destination  of  the  animal;  but,  shortness  is  a good 
general  rule,  for  there  is  an  almost  inseparable  connection 
between  length  of  leg  and  lightness  of  carcass,  and  shortness  of 
leg  and  propensity  to  fatten.  The  bones  of  the  legs  (and  they 
are  taken  as  a sample  of  the  bony  structure  of  the  frame  gen- 
erally) should  be  small,  but  not  too  small — small  enough  for 
the  well-known  accompaniment,  a propensity  to  fatten — small 
enough  to  please  the  consumer;  but  not  so  small  as  to  indicate 
delicacy  of  constitution  and  liability  to  disease.  Lastly,  the 
hide — the  most  important  thing  of  all — should  be  thin,  but  not 
so  thin  as  to  indicate  that  the  animal  can  endure  no  hardship; 
movable,  mellow,  but  not  too  loose,  and  particularly  well 
covered  with  fine  and  soft  hair. 


CATTLE. 


179 


Of  the  various  breeds  and  cross-breeds  of  cows  now  in  use, 
there  are  a few  which  enjoy  the  best  reputation. 

Native  Cattle. — This  is  a favorite  term  with  Americans, 
and  comprehends  everything  in  the  country,  excepting  such  as 
are  of  a pure  and  distinct  breed.  It  embraces  some  pf  the 
best,  some  of  the  worst,  and  some  of  almost  every  variety, 
shape,  color  and  character  of  the  bovine  race.  The  designa- 
tion has  no  farther  meaning  than  that  they  are  indigenous  to 
the  soil,  and  do  not  belong  to  any  well  defined  or  distinct 
variety.  The  best  native  cattle  of  the  Union  are  undoubtedly 
to  be  found  in  the  north-eastern  States.  Most  of  the  early 
emigrant  cattle  in  that  section  were  from  the  southern  part  of 
England,  and,  though  not  bearing  a close  resemblance  to  any 
particular  English  breed,  unless  it  has  been  impressed  upon 
them  by  more  recent  importations,  yet  a large  number  have 
that  general  approximation  in  character,  features  and  color, 
which  entitles  them  to  claim  a kindred  with  one  or  another  of 
the  better  breeds  there.  They  have  been  so  promiscuously 
interbred  that  most  of  their  original  characteristics  are  los.t, 
and  an  amalgamation  of  their  good,  bad  or  indifferent  qualities 
have  become  diffused  into  their  present  condition 

Of  the  native  cattle  we  need  not  further  speak;  they  abound 
everywhere,  and  their  various  qualities  are  well  known; but, as 
they  evidently  need  improvement  by  an  infusion  of  better,  and 
foreign  distinct  breeds  among  them,  the  principal  varieties  of 
those  introduced  here  for  that  purpose  will  be  named. 

The  Devons. — This  beautiful  race  is  claimed,  in  England, 
their  native  country,  where  only  in  Europe  they  are  bred  in 
any  considerable  numbers,  to  be  aboriginal  in  blood,  being 
known  there  before  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion,  in  the 
early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  They  are  of  medium  size, 
red  in  color,  symmetrical  in  shape,  and  of  great  beauty  in  ap- 
pearance, combining  almost  every  good  quality  demanded  in 
the  bovine  race.  They  have  been  kept  and  cultivated  for 
many  centuries  in  the  south-western  counties  of  England — 
more  in  Devonshire  than  elsewhere — and  much  improved  in 
form  and  early  ripeness  within  the  last  century.  They  were 
brought  into  America  probably  among  the  early  importations 
of  cattle  by  the  Massachusetts  colonies.  We  have  no  accounts 


180 


CATTLE. 


of  their  having  been  distinctly  bred  by  themselves,  and  they 
became  soon  lost  in  the  miscellaneous  admixtures  which  pre- 
vailed among  all  the  early  importations.  Yet  their  blood  and 
characteristics  were  strong,  and  they  gave  tone  and  style  to 
many  of  the  predominating  herds  in  various  sections  of  the 
country,  where  their  taking  appearance  made  them  favorites  as 
working  oxen. 

They  are  fine  in  the  bone,  round  and  long  in  the  carcass, 
wide  in  the  hips,  short  in  the  leg,  straight  and  broad  in  the 
back,  fine  in  the  head  and  neck,  deep  in  the  chest  and  brisket, 
prominent  in  the  eye,  high  and  spreading  in  the  horn,  and  yel- 
low in  the  muzzle — taken  altogether,  of  most  graceful  and 
blood-like  appearance.  They  are  naturally  excellent  milkers, 
giving  a medium  quantity,  and  of  remarkably  good  quality, 
yielding  the  richest  butter.  It  is  but  just  to  say,  however,  that 
the  English  breeders  of  them,  within  the  last  century,  have 
bred  them  more  with  a view  to  flesh  and  early  maturity  as  beef 
cattle  than  for  the  dairy,  in  which  symmetry  in  form,  early 
ripeness,  and  choicer  meat  has  been  obtained  at  the  expense  of 
their  dairy  qualities.  Yet  among  the  thorough-bred  herds  in 
the  United  States,  where  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  milk 
development,  they  have  proved  well  in  that  particular. 

A few  small  herds  of  pure  Devons  were  imported  into  the 
United  States  early  in  the  present  century.  Those  have  since 
been  added  to  by  several  new  imputations  into  several  of  the 
eastern  States,  down  to  a quite  recent  date,  and  been  bred  in 
their  purity,  and  of  a quality  quite  equal,  probably,  to  their 
original  ancestry  in  England.  Their  beef  is  of  the  best  quality, 
and  for  working  oxen  they  excel  almost  any  others,  being 
quick  and  sprightly  in  action,  docile  in  temper,  easily  matched 
in  color  and  movement.  Yet  with  all  their  good  qualities, 
they  have  not,  of  late,  been  so  generally  sought  and  appreciated 
as  their  merits  demand,  as  tastes  and  fashions  change,  in  cattle, 
as  in  some  other  commodities.  But,  for  hilly  and  medium 
soils,  no  cattle  are  better  fitted,  as  a profitable  stock,  for  the 
farmer.  We  decidedly  recommend  them,  from  long  experience 
in  their  keeping,  as  a valuable  and  profitable  race. 

The  Herefords. — This  is  another  valuable  breed,  of  great 
antiquity  in  some  of  the  western  counties  of  England,  border- 


CATTLE. 


181 


ing  on  Wales,  of  which  Herefordshire  is  the  chief,  and  from 
which  the  cattle  take  their  name.  They  have  been  bred  there, 
time  immemorial,  with  a distinctive  character  altogether  their 
own,  and  are  claimed,  by  their  breeders  and  advocates,  to  have 
an  origin  as  distinct  and  pure  as  any  other  breed.  In  England 
they  are  highly  esteemed  as  among  the  best  of  the  beef  pro- 
ducing breeds,  in  early  maturity,  and  a profitable  carcass,  and 
hold  a sharp  competition  and  rivalry  with  even  the  best  of 
other  breeds  for  the  shambles.  As  working  oxen  they  are  un- 
surpassed. As  a dairy  cow,  the  Hereford  is  less  esteemed,  not 
running  to  milk  so  well  as  the  Devons,  and  some  of  the  other 
more  common  dairy  breeds. 

They  were  probably  early  imported,  with  other  cattle,  to 
America,  but,  like  them,  became  lost  in  the  general  diffusion  of 
their  blood  with  them.  Their  size  is  large,  their  color  red, 
with  white  or  mottled  faces,  sometimes  white  backs  and  bellies, 
and  occasionally  a deep  roan  of  red  and  white  intermixed  on 
their  bodies.  In  general  shape  they  are  much  like  the  Devons, 
a fourth  larger  in  size,  somewhat  coarser  in  the  bone,  and 
hardly  so  refined  and  graceful  in  the  outline.  Their  horns  are 
high  and  spreading.  So  far  . as  tried  in  America,  as  a beef 
animal  they  mature  early,  as  at  three  to  four  years  they  are  well 
grown  for  fattening.'  As  a working  ox,  no  beast  can  be  better, 
being  large,  strong,  readily  matched,  decile,  and  cf  great 
strength; — taken  altogether,  the  best  of  working  cattle. 

Several  herds  of  pure  Herefords  have  been  imported  here 
within  thirty  years  past ; successfully  bred,  and  scattered. 
They  have  been  well  approved,  as  a grazier’s  beast,  fitted  to 
our  medium  soils,  and  profitable.  . Several  good  herds  now 
exist  among  us,  but,  we  regret  to  say,  they  are  not  sought  by 
our  leading  cattle  breeders  with  the  avidity  to  which,  by  their 
actual  merits,  they  are  entitled. 

The  Ayrshires. — This  is,  perhaps,  the  most  popular  breed 
of  mdeh  cows  now  in  Scotland,  taking  their  name  from  the 
county  of  Ayr,  where  they  were  first  originated  and  bred,  and 
obtained  their  celebrity.  Their  origin  is  of  recent  date,  being 
within  the  last  hundred  years,  and  made  up  from  the  original 
Scotch  Kyloe  cow,  by  a cross  of  bulls  obtained  from  the  north- 
eastern  counties  of  England,  mainly,  so  far  our  investign* 


182 


CATTLE. 


tions  have  proved,  the  Shorthorns,  the  older  original  families 
of  which  were  known  as  excellent  milkers.  The  history  of 
these  various  crosses  is  too  much  involved  in  obscurity  to  trace 
it  thoroughly  within  our  limited  pages;  but,  as  they  are  now,  a 
well  established  breed  of  great  merit  in  their  lacteal  qualities, 
and  widely  disseminated  in  Scotland,  England  and  America  as 
dairy  cattle,  their  history  is  of  less  consequence  than  the  fact 
of  their  decided  excellence  for  the  pail.  They  may  now  be 
considered  as  an  established  dairy  breed,  capable  of  perpet- 
uating, in  their  own  blood  alone,  their  excellent  qualities.  As 
such,  they  are  now  bred,  cherished  and  valued. 

In  size  they  are  medium,  compared  with  our  native  cattle; 
in  color,  dark  red,  or  brown  and  white,  occasionally  inclining  to 
roan,  sometimes  flecked  or  spotted,  the  red  and  white  variously 
intermingling.  Their  shape  is  usually  good,  being  squarely 
built,  short  in  the  leg,  broader  behind  than  before,  as  all  good 
milkers  should  be,  straight  in  the  back,  wide  across  the  hips, 
finely  shaped  udder,  with  the  milk  marks  well  developed,  and 
bounteous  milkers.  Their  heads  are  small,  the  horns  short  and 
well  set,  the  eye  bright,  the  nose  either  dark  or  yellow,  but  the 
dark  usually  prevailing, — altogether  a satisfactory  dairy  cow. 

They  were  first  imported  into  America  in  the  year  1822, 
and  many  more  about  1830,  when  they  readily  established  a 
good  reputation  as  milkers.  Frequent  importations,  and  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  have  since  been  made,  and  they  have  been 
bred  and  multiplied  with  a care  evincing  the  value  accorded  to 
them  by  those  who  best  knew  their  good  properties.  They  are 
fitted  to  our  medium  soils  and  rougher  lands,  being  active  in 
movement,  docile  in  temper,  and  grazing  where  some  of  the 
heavier  and  more  sluggish  breeds  would  not  so  well  flourish. 

As  a beef  or  laboring  animal,  they  have  been  but  little 
sought  or  tried.  That  the  quality  of  their  flesh  may  be  good — 
equal,  perhaps,  to  others — we  have  no  reason  to  doubt,  although 
our  opportunities  to  judge  them  have  been  limited.  As  a 
laboring  ox  they  have  really  had  no  trial.  Their  ^ .and, 

hitherto,  for  breeding  purposes,  has  been  too  active  ,0  : it  of 

thorough  trials  for  either  flesh  or  labor. 

The  Polled  Cattle,  or  Galloways— Of  Scotland,  have  been 
recently  introduced  into  Upper  Canada  (now  Ontario)  by 


CATTLE. 


183 


several  of  the  Scotch  farmers  there.  They  are  a beef  animal 
chiefly,  the  cows  having  little  reputation  in  their  native  land  as 
milkers.  They  are  of  medium  size  only,  mostly  black  in  color, 
although  occasionally  red.  dun,  or  Dlack  and  red  brindled,  com- 
pact in  shape,  and  hornless.  They  are  hardy,  easy  keepers, 
early  matured,  and  of  excellent  quality  for  flesh.  They  thrive 
well  on  rough  soils  and  in  a severe  climate,  and  may,  on  some 
of  our  leaner  lands,  yet  obtain  a considerable  celebrity.  Some 
of  their  partial  breeders  and  advocates  contend  that  they  are 
good  milkers,  but  such  is  not  their  usual  reputation.  For  the 
lighter  labor  uses  they  have  proved  good  working  oxen. 

The  Short-horns. — This  is  the  most  universally  popular 
foreign  breed  in  our  country.  Their  large  size,  full  develop- 
ment, and  excellent  general  qualities,  have  made  them  universal 
favorites  on  all  good  soils  where  abundant  grasses  prevail. 
They  have  great  size,  great  length,  breadth,  and  depth  of 
carcass, ’small  in  bone,  fine  in  symmetery,  attractive  in  color, 
which  is  red  and  white,  wholly,  or  of  those  colors  in  patches, 
or  agreeably  intermingling  through  all  degrees  and  shades  of 
roan.  They  are  fine  in  the  head,  clean  in  the  neck,  with  yellow 
noses,  bright  eyes,  small,  short,  curved  horns,  and  of  elegant, 
imposing  contour.  They  mature  early,  at  three  to  four  years 
old,  and  make  a quick  and  profitable  return  of  their  food  in 
either  milk,  or  beef,  for  either  of  which  purposes  they  may  be 
profitably  bred  and  used,  as  selections  are  made,  or  these 
qualities  are  required.  As  working  oxen  exclusively,  we  do  not 
recommend  them,  as  they  are  heavier  and  slower  in  movement 
than  some  of  the  other  breeds,  or  even  our  native  cattle. 

They  are  of  ahcient  origin,  and  until  early  in  the  present 
century  never  known,  to  any  extent,  only  in  a few  of  the  north- 
eastern counties  of  England.  In  their  present  improved  con- 
dition they  were  imported  to  America,  only  so  late  as  the 
earlier  years:  of  the  present  century.  But  since  their  good 
qualities  have  become  more  known  and  approved,  frequent  and 
valuable  importations  have  been  made  of  the  best  blood,  and 
they  have  been  bred  and  scattered  throughout  the  country, 
with  an  assiduity  pertaining  to  no  other  foreign  breed  and 
promising  a popularity  among  our  cattle  breeders  and  farmers, 
QP  the  richer  soils,  which  is  likely  to  become  permanent. 


184 


CATTLE. 


When  bred  for  that  purpose,  they  have  proved  excellent 
milkers,  and  for  quantity  of  flesh  to  the  carcass  they  are  supe- 
rior as  a beef  producing  animal.  Yet,  in  their  pure  blood,  and 
kept  solely  for  breeding,  they  require  good  care  to  keep  them 
up  to  their  best  condition,  in  quality  and  appearance,  as, 
indeed,  do  all  other  good  cattle,  of  any  established  breeds. 

The  Alderney s,  or  Jerseys — Are  a choice,  small  race, 
giving  a moderate  quantity  of  very  rich,  creamy  milk,  much 
prized  by  families  who  choose  to  indulge  in  the  rarest  luxury  of 
its  kind.  They  are  natives  of  the  Channel  Islands  of  Britain, 
lying  off  the  coast  of  Normandy,  in  France,  where  they  are 
reared  and  kept  in  the  highest  perfection.  In  size  they  are 
small,  and  in  shape  lean,  ragged,  and  angular,  as  compared 
with  the  Devons  or  Short-horns.  Their  heads  are  small,  yet 
symmetrical,  with  black  muzzles,  mealy  faces,  bright,  promi- 
nent eyes,  dishing  or  slightly  concave  forehead,  light,  short, 
crooked  horns,  and  thin  necks.  Their  shoulders  are  high  and 
narrow;  they  are  thin  in  the  chest,  large  in  the  belly,  somewhat 
depressed  in  the  back,  high  and  well  spread  in  the  hips,  thin  in 
the  thighs.  The  udder  and  teats  are  well  shaped  and  delicate, 
giving  a moderate  quantity — say  eight  to  twelve  quarts  a day — 
of  the  richest,  yellowest  milk,  and  yielding  more  butter  to  a 
given  quantity  than  any  other  race  of  cows  known.  Their 
colors  are  usually  fawn  and  white,  or  “ squirrel  grey,”  prettily 
blended,  and  sometimes  a smoky,  or  deep  brown  hue,  and 
occasionally  black  and  white  mottled.  They  have  a peculiarly 
blood-like  appearance,  and  of  distinct  characteristics  from  any 
other  breed.  They  are  docile  in  disposition,  not  so  hardy  to 
withstand  the  severe  vicissitudes  of  our  climate  as  some  others, 
yet  great  favorites  with  those  who  properly  appreciate  and 
carefully  use  them.  They  are  rapidly  increasing  in  popularity, 
particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of  our  large  towns  and  cities. 
Indeed,  some  of  our  tasteful  lovers  of  this  race  of  bovines, 
jocularly  assert  that  the  ownership  of  one  or  more  Alderneys  is 
necessary  to  constitute  a finished  “ country  gentleman.’ 

As  a beef  producing,  or  working  ox,  the  Alderney  is  in  little 
request,  their  forms  not  being  fitted  to  excel  in  the  one,  nor 
fheir  muscular  form  sufficient  for  the  strength  of  the  other, 


CATTLE. 


185 


Still  they  are  a most  useful  and  desirable  breed  for  the  pur- 
poses to  which  they  -are  applied. 

Points  of  Cattle. — In  adverting  briefly  to  the  properties  ot 
cattle,  it  will  be  advisable  to  describe  the  points  by  which  they 
are  characterized* 

1.  The  nose  or  muzzle,  in  the  Devon,  Hereford,  and  Sussex,  the  muzzle  is  pre- 
ferred when  of  a clear  golden  color.  When  brown  or  dark,  it  is  an  indication  that 
this  breed  has  been  crossed  with  some  of  the  Welsh  or  other  breeds. 

2.  The  forehead  should  neither  be  narrow  nor  very  broad— the  eye  prominent, 
The  nostril  between  the  eye  and  muzzle  should  be  thin,  which  is  particularly  the 
case  in  the  best  breeds  of  Devon  cattle. 

3.  The  horns  should  be  thin,  projecting  horizontally  from  the  head,  and  turning 
up  at  the  tips,  as  in  the  breeds  of  the  Devon,  Sussex,  and  Hereford. 

4.  The  neck  should  be  neither  long  nor  short,  full  at  the  sides,  and  not  too  deep 
in  the  throat,  coming  out  from  the  shoulders  nearly  level  with  the  chin,  with  a thin 

dewlap. 

5.  The  top  of  the  plate  bones  should  not  be  too  wide,  but  rising  upon  a level 
with  the  chine,  and  well  thrown  back,  so  that  there  may  be  no  hollowness  behind; 
this  point  gives  facility  to  the  walk.  From  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  top  of 
the  plate  bones  should  be  rather  full  outside,  to  admit  the  ribs  to  bow. 

6.  The  shoulder  point  should  lay  flat  with  the  ribs  without  any  projection. 
When  the  shoulder  point  projects  outward,  the  beast  seldom  fattens  well  about  the 
shoulder  vein. 

7.  The  breast  should  be  wide  and  open,  projecting  forward. 

8.  The  chine  should  lie  straight,  and  well  covered  with  flesh. 

9.  The  loin  should  be  flat  and  wide,  the  side  tying  parallel,  and  nearly  as  high  as 
the  chine — almost  as  wide  at  the  fore  as  at  the  hinder  part;  being  an  indication  of 
the  ribs  bowing  out,  which  is  desirable. 

10.  The  hip  or  huckle  bones  should  be  wide  apart,  coming  upon  a level  with  the 
chine,  to  the  first  touch  or  setting  on  of  the  tail. 

11.  The  first  touch  or  tip  of  the  rump  should  be  tolerably  wide,  so  that  the  tail 
drop  in  a level  between  the  two  points.  The  tail  should  come  out  broad  as  an 
indication  of  a flat  chine. 

12.  The  thtyh  should  not  be  too  full  outside  or  behind,  which  is  always  an 
Indication  of  bully  flesh,  but  the  inside  or  twist  should  be  full. 

13.  The  hock  or  hough  should  be  flat  and  rather  thin,  not  coarse  and  gummy, 
which  indicates  coarseness  in  the  animal. 

14.  The  hind  leg  should  be  flat  and  thin.  The  legs  of  a medium  length,  and  the 
hock  or  hough  rather  turning  out. 

15.  The  feet  or  claws  not  too  broad. 

16.  The  flank  should  be  full  and  heavy  when  the  animal  is  fat,  indicative  of 
being  fat  inside. 

17.  The  belly  should  not  drop  below  the  breast,  but  in  a horizontal  line  with  it. 

18.  The  shoulder  should  be  rather  flat,  not  projecting. 

19.  The  foreleg  should  also  be  flat  ancl  upright,  but  not  fleshy. 

20.  The  round  or  pot-bone  should  not  project,  but  lie  flat  with  the  outside  of 

the  thigh.  ] 

21.  The  under  jaw.  The  jaws  should  be  rather  wide,  particularly  for  beasts  in- 
tended for  working,  as  it  affords  them  greater  liberty  to  breathe. 

22.  The  chap  snould  be  fine,  indicating  a disposition  to  feed. 

23.  The  ribs  should  spring  nearly  horizontally  from  the  chine,  the  sides  round, 
forming  a circle;  in  which  case  the  animal  will  never  drop  in  the  belly,  and  will 
lay  its  meat  on  the  prime  parts.  The  great  objection  to  the  Sussex  breeu  "of  cattle  is 
that  they  are  too  sharp  in  the  chine,  and  the  ribs  too  flat.  When  this  is  the  case,  the 
animal  will  always  drop  in  the  belly,  and  seldom  lay  its  meat  on  the  prime  joints. 

Remarks  on  Breeds. — We  have  thus  briefly  treated  of  some 
of  the  many  breeds  of  cattle  considered  valuable  as  dairy  stock 
in  Britain;  but  we  pretend  not  to  give  any  decided  opinion  as 
to  which  is  best.  The  merits  of  each  kind  have  been  vigor- 
ously contested  by  their  respective  advocates,  and  it  would  be 
extremely  difficult  to  decide  between  them.  Upon  the  form 
and  qualifications  of  a perfect  cow,  it  ought  to  be  observed,  that 
whatever  breed  is  selected,  there  is  a wide  difference  between 


m 


CATTLE. 


tile  form  of  one  meant  for  fattening  and  that  intended  for  the 
dairy.  The  first  should  resemble  the  ox  as  nearly  as  possible; 
while  the  latter  should  be  long  and  thin  on  the  head,  with  a 
brisk,  quiet  eye,  lank  in  the  neck,  narrow  across  the  shoulders, 
but  broad  at  the  haunches;  and  there  should  be  no  tendency 
to  become  fat.  The  udder  should  be  large  and  full  looking, 
but  not  protruding  too  far  behind;  the  teats  all  pointing  out 
and  downward,  equal  in  size  and  rather  long  and  tapering; 
all  corresponding  with  the  signs  or  escutcheons.  A cow  with  a 
high  back-bone,  large  head,  small  udder,  and  showing  an  in- 
clination to  become  fat,  will  be  found  to  be  a bad  milker. 
This  description  applies  to  all  breeds;  and,  of  course,  the  dif- 
ference between  a cow  for  fattening  and  one  for  yielding  milk 
will  be  comparative. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  qualities  of  the  dairy 
cow:  Tameness  and  docility  of  temper  greatly  enhance  its 
value.  One  that  is  quiet  and  contented  feeds  at  ease,  does  not 
break  over  fences,  or  hurt  herself  or  other  cattle,  will  always 
yield  more  milk  than  those  who  are  of  a turbulent  disposition. 
To  render  them  docile,  they  ought  to  be  gently  treated,  fre- 
quently handled  when  young,  and  never  struck  or  frightened. 
Some  degree  of  hardiness,  however,  a sound  constitution,  and 
a moderate  degree  of  life  and  spirits,  are  qualities  to  be  wished 
for  in  a milch  cow,  and  what  those  of  Ayrshire  generally  pos- 
sess. Some  have  thought  that  a cow  living  on  a small  quantity 
of  food  was  a valuable  quality,  but  that  will  depend  upon  the 
quantity  of  milk  given  by  the  cow  that  eats  little  compared  with 
those  that  eat  much.  If  the  cow  that  eats  little  gives  as  much 
milk  as  the  one  that  eats  more,  it  certainly  is  a valuable  quality; 
but  of  this  I entertain  doubts,  which  forty  years’  experience 
and  observation  have  served  to  confirm.  Speculative  writers 
affirm  that  some  cows  will  fatten  as  well,  and  yield  as  much 
milk,  when  fed  on  coarse  as  others  will  do  on  rich  food.  Cows 
that  have  been  reared  and  fed  on  coarse  pasture  will  yield  some 
milk  of  a good  quality,  and  from  which  the  best  butter  may  be 
extracted;  while  a cow  that  has  been  reared  and  fed  on  much 
better  pasture,  would,  if  turned  on  that  which  is  bad,  give 
scarcely  any  milk.  With  persons  living  in  towns  and  villages, 
and  keeping  but  a single  cow,  with  opportunity  of  grazing  on 


CATTLE. 


187 


the  commons,  and  depending  mainly  on  them  for  food,  a good 
rule  is  to  get  their  cow,  not  over  the  middle  size;  and  from  a 
poorer  district  of  country.  If  she  comes  from  rich,  fertile  pas- 
tures, she  will  fall  off  in  her  milk,  below  the  quantity  which  he 
was  assured  she  had  been  accustomed  to  give,  and  thus  disap- 
point him.  If  from  a poorer  district,  with  the  addition  of  the 
“slop”  from  the  house  and  kitchen,  and  the  external  signs  here 
laid  down,  she  will  be  sure  to  improve.  But  if  a cow  that  has 
been  accustomed  to  feed  on  bad  pasture,  be  put  on  that  which 
is  better,  she  will  greatly  increase  in  milk,  and  fatten  much 
faster.  If  two  cows  of  the  same  age  and  condition,  and  which 
have  been  reared  and  fed  on  food  of  equal  quality,  are  put,  the 
one  on  bad  food,  and  the  other  on  that  which  is  good,  the  latter 
will  yield  four  times  the  milk,  and  fatten  four  times  faster  than 
the  former.  A cow  need  not  always  be  fed  on  green  clover, 
cabbages,  and  cauliflower;  but  she  will  neither  fatten  nor  yield 
milk  if  she  gets  no  better  fare  than  rushes,  bent,  and  sage  grass. 

To  ensure  the  perpetuation  of  valuable  qualities  in  cows,  it 
is  necessary  to  breed  from  good  bulls  of  a similar  variety  to 
the  cows.  The  heifer  or  young  cow,  if  properly  pastured, 
should  begin  to  breed  at  two  years,  or  not  beyond  two  and  a 
half  years  old.  The  cow  is  at  her  prime  at  from  four  to  six 
years,  and  declines  into  old  age  at  ten  or  eleven  years,  when  it 
is  customary  to  fatten  her  for  market.  Dairymen,  in  selecting 
cows,  prefer  those  which  have  had  their  third  or  fourth  calf 
when  they  have  attained  their  fifth  or  sixth  year.  The  bull  is 
in.  his  prime  at  three  years,  and  should  not  be  used  after  eight 
or  nine  years  old. 

Calving. — The  cow  goes  with  young  nine  calendar  months, 
or  270  days,  but  this  length  of  time  is  liable  to  variation,  from 
the  effect  of  circumstances.  A calf  is  most  likely  to  survive 
and  be  healthy  which  has  gone  exactly  the  nine  months.  Cows 
come  into  season  at  different  periods  of  the  year,  in  which  state 
they  remain  for  a few  days,  after  which  the  affection  ceases, 
but  it  afterward  returns  in  three  or  four  weeks.  The  farmer 
watches  the  periods,  and  permits  the  company  of  the  bull  at 
such  a time  as  will  produce  the  young  at  the  time  of  the  year 
when  grass  is  plentiful  for  the  nourishment  of  the  mother. 
This  should  be  an  advanced  period  of  spring,  for  the  cow  will 


188 


CATTLE. 


require  nourishing  diet  some  time  before  shw  diop*  cab  as 
well  as  afterwards. 

A cow  may  be  kept  in  milk  up  to  the  Line  of  her  calving,  by 
daily  taking  a quantity  from  her;  but  this  is  most  injurious  to 
the  foetus,  and  the  excitement  of  the  new  upon  the  old  milk  is 
apt  to  produce  local  inflammation.  In  towns,  where  dairymen 
care  nothing  for  the  calf,  and  muss  have  milk  at  all  risks,  cows 
are  often  maltreated  by  being  milked  to  the  last;  but  no  one 
who  conducts  a dairy  on  proper  principles  will  be  guilty  of  this 
inhumanity.  The  best  plar.  is  to  allow  the  cow  to  gradually 
dry,  and  not  milk  her  at  all  for  six  or  eight  weeks  before  calv- 
ing. This  will  keep  he)  in  a reasonably  good  condition,  and 
save  extra  food,  which  it  is  not  advantageous  to  give  on  a 
luxuriant  scale,  because  high  feeding  at  this  period  may  induce 
inflammation  and  fever  at  calving. 

No  animal  is  so  liable  to  abortion  as  the  cow;  it  takes  place 
at  uncertain  periods  during  the  pregnancy; sometimes  it  occurs 
from  fright,  teazing  by  other  cattle  in  the  field,  or  over-high 
condition;  but  also  not  unfrequently  from  from  some  bad  habit 
acquired  by  the  animal.  It  has  been  found  that  the  habit  is 
infectious;  and,  when  once  it  has  got  among  a parcel  of  cows, 
it  can  be  banished  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  In  all 
cases  the  aborted  foetus  should  be  buried  deep  and  far  from 
the  cow  pasture;  the  cow  physickeb,  and  its  parts  washed  with 
chloride  of  lime;  the  cow-house  thoroughly  lime-washed  and 
otherwise  purified;  and,  lastly,  the  cow  fattened  and  sent  to 
market. 

If  in  a state  of  health,  no  difficulty  will  occur  at  the  partu- 
rition; but,  should  the  case  be  otherwise,  we  prefer  leaving  the 
cow-keeper  to  ask  assistance  from  a person  of  practical  skill, 
or  veterinary  surgeon,  than  to  offer  any  speculative  advice  on 
die  subject.  With  respect  to  the  treatment  after  calving,  we 
quote  the  following  directions:  “Parturition  having  been 
accomplished,  the  cow  should  be  left  quietly  with  the  calf;  the 
licking  and  cleaning  of  which,  and  the  eating  of  the  placenta, 
if  it  is  soon  discharged,  will  employ  and  amuse  her.  It  is  a 
cruel  thing  to  separate  the  mother  from  the  young  so  soon;  the 
cow  will  pine,  and  will  be  deprived  of  that  medicine  which 
nature  designed  for  her  in  the  moisture  which  hangs  about  the 


CATTLE. 


189 


calf,  and  even  in  the  placenta  itself;  and  the  calf  will  lose  that 
gentle  friction  and  motion  which  help  to  give  it  the  immediate 
use  of  all  its  limbs,  and  which  increases  the  languid  circulation 
of  the  blood,  and  produces  a genial  warmth  in  the  half- 
exhausted  and  chilled  little  animal.  A warm  mash  should  be 
put  before  her,  and  warm  gruel,  or  water  from  which  some  of 
the  coldness  has  been  taken  off.  Two  or  three  hours  after- 
ward, it  will  be  prudent  to  give  an  aperient  drink,  consisting 
of  a pound  of  epsom  salts  and  two  drachms  of  ginger.  This 
may  tend  to  prevent  milk  fever  and  garget  in  the  udder.  At- 
tention should  likewise  be  paid  to  the  state  of  the  udder.  If 
the  teats  are  sore,  and  the  bag  generally  hard  and  tender,  she 
should  be  gently  but  carefully  milked  three  or  four  times  every 
day.  The  natural  and  the  effectual  preventive  of  this,  how- 
ever, is  to  let  the  calf  suck  her  at  least  three  times  in  a day, 
if  it  is  tied  up  in  the  cow-house,  or  to  run  with  her  in  the  pas- 
ture, and  take  the  teat  when  it  pleases.  The  tendency  to  in- 
flammation of  the  udder  is  much  diminished  by  the  calf  fre- 
quently sucking;  or,  should  the  cow  be  feverish,  nothing 
soothes  or  quiets  her  so  much  as  the  presence  of  the  little 
one.” 

CALVING  TABLE. 


Day  balled. 

Will  calve. 

Day  bulled. 

Will  calve. 

Day  bulled. 

Will  calve. 

Jan. 

1 

....Oct. 

8 

May 

7 

Feb. 

11 

Sept. 

7 

15 

44 

7 

44 

14 

44 

14 

44 

18 

14.... 

44 

22 

44 

14 

44 

21 

44 

21 

44 

25 

44 

21 ... . 

44 

29 

44 

21 

44 

28 

44 

2^ 

. ..  .Mar. 

4 

44 

28.... 

6 

44 

28 

4 

44 

31 

44 

7 

44 

30.... 

il 

8 

44 

31 

44 

7 

June 

1 

44 

8 

Oct. 

1.... 

44 

9 

Feb. 

1 

44 

8 

44 

7 

44 

14 

44 

7.... 

44 

15 

44 

7 

44 

14 

44 

14 

44 

21 

44 

14.... 

44 

22 

44 

14 

44 

21 

44 

21 . . . . 

44 

28 

44 

21 ... . 

44 

22 

44 

21 

44 

28 

44 

28 

April 

4 

44 

28.... 

Aug. 

5 

44 

28 

Dec. 

5 

44 

30 

6 

44 

31  ... 

8 

Mar. 

1 

44 

6 

July 

1 

44 

7 

Nov. 

1.... 

44 

9 

44 

7 

44 

12 

7 .... 

44 

13 

44 

7.... 

44 

15 

44 

14 

44 

19 

44 

14  .... 

44 

20 

44 

14.... 

44 

21 

(4 

21 

44 

26 

44 

21 

44 

28 

44 

21... 

44 

29 

* 

28 

2 

44 

28 

May 

4 

44 

28.... 

5 

44 

31 

44 

5 

44 

31 

44 

8 

44 

30.... 

7 

April 

1 

44 

44 

6 

12 

Aug. 

1 

7 

44 

44 

9 

15 

Dec. 

1. ... 
7.... 

44 

44 

8 

21 

44 

14 

44 

19 

44 

14.  ... 

44 

22 

44 

14  .. 

44 

21 

•4 

21 

44 

26 

44 

21 

44 

29 

44 

21.... 

44 

28 

44 

28 

....Feb. 

2 

44 

28 

Juue 

5 

44 

28.... 

..  ..Oct. 

5 

44 

30 

44 

4 

44 

31 

44 

8 

44 

31 ... . 

44 

8 

May 

1 

5 

Sept. 

1 

“ 

9 

The  Calf. — The  calf,  when  first  dropped,  is  generally 
cleansed  by  the  tongue  of  its  dam  from  the  slimy  matter  which 


190 


CATTLE. 


always  adheres  to  the  skin  of  the  animal.  Sometimes  it  hap- 
pens that  the  cow  will  not  at  first  recognize  her  offspring;  but, 
upon  a small  quantity  of  salt  being  strewn  over  it,  to  which  all 
neat  cattle  are  particularly  partial,  she  commences  the  motherly 
duties  by  licking  the  skin.  The  first  milk  appears  to  be  calcu- 
lated to  nourish  the  calf,  which  it  should  be  allowed  to  suck 
plentifully  before  the  cow  is  milked.  It  is  the  practice  with 
some,  as  soon  as  the  calf  has  sucked  as  much  as  it  pleases,  to 
milk  the  remainder,  so  as  to  cleanly  drain  the  udder,  and  give 
it  to  the  cow  as  nourishment. 

The  treatment  of  calves  in  rearing  varies  materially  in  dif- 
ferent countries,  and  even  in  districts.  In  Sussex,  England, 
the  calf  is  by  many  not  allowed  to  take  all  the  milk  of  the  cow, 
but  is  shut  up  from  her  in  the  morning  and  evening,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  brail  or  ground  oats  given  in  a trough,  and 
not  suffered  to  suck  till  the  maid  comes  to  milking,  when  she 
milks  two  speens,  while  the  calf  sucks  the  other  two;  after 
which,  when  the  girl  has  got  all  the  milk  she  can,  the  calf  is 
left  with  the  cow  a short  time,  to  draw  the  udder  as  clean  as 
possible;  and  if  there  be  any  lumps  occasioned  by  the  pours 
being  stopped,  through  which  the  milk  flows  to  the  speens,  the 
calf,  by  sucking,  will  disperse  them  better  than  by  any  other 
means.  Cows  are  frequently  injured  in  their  milk  by  not  hav- 
ing their  udders  thoroughly  cleansed  for  the  first  fortnight  or 
three  weeks  after  calving.  When  the  calf  is  about  a month 
old,  it  is  suffered  to  run  with  the  cow  in  the  day,  and  kept 
from  her  in  the  night.  A portion  of  the  milk  is  taken  from  the 
cow,  and  the  remainder  is  left  for  the  calf,  which  is  again  per 
mitted  to  remain  with  her  during  the  day;  this  practice  is  fol- 
lowed by  some  till  the  calf  is  weaned.  Some  let  the  calves  go 
with  the  cows  when  three  or  four  weeks  old,  at  which,  time  the 
cow  has  not  a greater  supply  than  sufficient  for  the  calf  alone; 
| after  which  it  is  allowed  to  run  with  the  cow  till  about  twelve 
weeks,  when  it  is  weaned,  and  put  in  a confined  place  out  of 
sight  and  hearing,  to  prevent  the  cow  from  being  made  uneasy 
from  hearing  her  calf.  The  calf  is  then  fed  on  cut  grass,  clover, 
or  other  green  food,  with  hay  and  bran,  till  such  time  as  it  for- 
gets its  dam.  It  should  then  be  turned  out  upon  good  pasture; 
for,  unless  the  calf  be  well  fed  at  an  early  age,  it  will  become 


CATTLE. 


191 


stinted  in  its  growth,  and  when  arrived  at  maturity,  will  not 
fatten  so  readily  as  if  proper  attention  had  been  paid  to  it  while 

young. 

In  many  dairy  districts  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  de- 
prive the  calf  of  the  greater  portion  of  milk;  which  has  been 
accomplished  by  its  being  taught  to  drink  skimmed  milk  in  a 
lukewarm  state,  by  the  following  means:  When  the  animal  has 
fasted  two  or  three  hours,  the  first  and  second  fingers  of  the 
right  hand  are  presented  to  its  mouth;  of  these  it  readily  takes 
hold,  sucking  very  eagerly;  in  the  meantime  a vessel  of  luke- 
warm milk  is  placed  and  supported  by  the  left  hand  under  the 
calf’s  mouth;  and,  while  it  is  sucking,  the  right  hand  is  gradu- 
ally sunk  a little  way  into  the  milk,  so  that  it  may  draw  in  a 
sufficient  quantity  without  stopping  the  nostrils.  Should,  how- 
ever, either  from  accident  or  from  too  sudden  precipitation  of 
the  hand  into  the  milk,  the  calf  let  go  its  hold,  the  attempt 
must  be  repeatedly  renewed  till  crowned  with  success.  For 
the  space  of  three  or  four  weeks,  they  are  usually  fed  with  luke- 
warm milk  and  water.  A small  quantity  of  hay,  ground  oats, 
or  bran,  and  sometimes  oil-cake,  is  then  placed  within  their 
reach,  which  induces  them  to  eat.  Toward  the  end  of  May 
they  are  turned  out  to  grass,  being  taken  in  for  a few  nights, 
when  they  have  tepid  milk  and  water  given  them;  which  is 
usually  continued,  though  gradually,  in  smaller  proportions  dur- 
ing the  last  month,  till  they  are  able  to  feed  themselves,  when 
they  totally  disregard  it.  It  is  then  advisable  to  turn  them  into 
pastures  where  the  grass  is  short  and  sweet. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  rear  calves  by  artificial 
means,  which  by  some  is  said  to  have  answered  very  well  where 
the  animal  has  been  confined  and  shut  up  in  the  dark;  this 
practice  has  been  proved  to  be  injurious,  and  especially  if  the 
calves  are  intended  for  stock.  We  certainly  have  no  practice 
which  can  answer  so  well  as  that  where  the  laws  of  nature  are 
strictly  attended  to,  and  the  calf  is  supplied  with  nourishment 
such  as  nature  dictates. 

The  greatest  attention  in  fattening  calves  should  be  paid  to 
cleanliness,  without  which  neither  will  the  calf  fatten  quickly, 
nor  will  the  fat  be  of  good  color;  much  risk  will  also  follow  in 
losing  the  calf  from  fever,  or  from  scouring.  Chalk  should  be 


192 


CATTLE. 


always  before  them  to  lick,  to  counteract  the  acidity  always 
found  in  great  abundance  in  the  stomach  of  the  calf  when  feed- 
ing on  milk. 

It  is  advisable  in  fattening  calves  to  keep  them  quiet,  and 
to  allow  them  to  suck  the  cow  night  and  morning,  taking  the 
last  of  the  milk,  which  is  considered  to  be  the  most  rich  and 
nourishing.  By  this  treatment  the  calf  will  gradually  become 
sufficiently  fat  in  seven  or  eight  weeks;  and,  when  so,  it  is  no 
advantage  to  keep  it  a day  longer — as  small  veal,  if  fat,  is  pre- 
ferable to  large. 

It  is  by  some  a practice  to  bleed  calves  weekly,  after  they 
are  four  or  five  weeks  old,  and  always  a short  time  before  they 
are  killed — by  which  course  the  veal  is  rendered  whiter. 

As  castrating  calves  is  an  operation  which  ought  not  to  be 
performed  but  by  skillful  practitioners,  we  shall  refrain  from 
giving  any  directions — recommending  the  operation  to  be  per- 
formed at  the  age  of  eight  or  ten  weeks,  as  at  that  age  the 
danger  is  considerably  lessened.  The  animals  should  be  kept 
quiet  and  warm  after  the  operation;  and  if,  on  the  following 
day,  the  scrotum  should  be  much  swollen  and  inflamed,  the 
wound  may  be  opened,  and  coagulated  blood  removed. 

Whether  calves  are  kept  for  veal  or  for  stock,  they  are  begun 
to  be  fed  in  the  same  manner,  by  sucking  milk  from  a dish. 
As  they  naturally  seek  for  the  teat  when  their  nose  is  put  to  the 
dish,  the  fingers  of  the  attendant  may  be  put  into  their  mouth 
when  in  the  milk,  and  this  will  set  them  going  in  the  art  of  arti- 
ficial sucking.  The  milk  should  be  given  to  them  sparingly  at 
first,  to  render  their  appetite  more  keen,  and  prevent  them  from 
loathing  at  their  food.  For  the  first  two  weeks  they  should  be 
fed  on  the  milk  first  drawn  from  the  cow,  locally  termed  the 
forebroads,  which  abounds  with  serum;  and,  as  they  grow  up, 
the  quantity  of  milk  is  gradually  increased  to  as  much  as  the 
calves  can  be  made  to  drink.  After  the  first  two  or  three 
weeks,  by  all  means  give  them  plenty  of  milk,  warm  from  their 
mother;  and  let  it  be  that  which  is  last  drawn  from  the  cow, 
locally  termed  afterings,  which  are  much  richer.  Keep  abund- 
ance of  dry  litter  under  them.  Have  them  in  a place  that  is 
well  aired,  and  of  a uniform  temperature,  neither  too  hot  nor 
too  cold;  let  the  apartment  be  quite  dark,  excepting  when  the 


CATTLE. 


193 


door  is  opened  to  give  them  food.  If  they  enjoy  the  light 
they  become  too  sportive  and  will  not  fatten.  Take  care  that 
they  are  fastened  to  the  wall  in  such  a way,  by  “swivels,”  that 
they  cannot  hang  themselves.  Never  - let  them  make  their  es- 
cape at  the  door,  or,  by  their  running  and  jumping,  they  will 
do  more  injury  to  themselves  in  three  minutes  than  a week’s 
feeding  will  make  up.  Don’t  keep  them  till  they  become  too 
old,  because,  when  they  begin  to  grow  to  the  bone,  they  require 
more  milk  than  the  manse  can  generally  produce  ; and,  when- 
ever they  cease  to  advance  in  the  fattening  process,  they  begin 
to  recede,  and  the  milk  for  a week  or  two  is  lost.  They  should 
be  kept  from  four  to  seven  weeks,  according  as  milk  may  be 
abundant  and  rich.  If  a calf  be  kept  long,  during  the  last  two 
or  three  weeks,  it  will  require  the  richest  part  of  the  milk  of  at 
least  two  or  three  cows  to  bring  it  to  the  highest  pitch  of  fat- 
ness. When  the  milk  begins  to  fall  short  of  the  calf’s  appetite 
some  mix  eggs  and  others  peas-meal  into  their  food;  others  try 
infusions  of  hay,  oil-cake  and  linseed  ; but  none  of  these  addi- 
tions are  approved  of  by  those  who  feed  calves  to  the  greatest 
perfection.  Meal  is  understopd  to  darken  the  flesh,  web  and 
lights  of  the  animal ; but  sago  has  of  late  years  been  almost 
from  the  first  two  or  three  weeks,  boiled  and  mixed  in  its  liquid 
state  with  the  milk,  and  to  great  advantage.  Begin  with  a 
saucerful  of  it  or  so,  and1  gradually  increase  the  quantity. 
Calves  are  very  fond  of  chalk,  and  they  also  feel  the  want  of 
salt. 

Formation  of  Teeth. — It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  be 
able  to  judge  of  the  age  of  a cow.  Few  farmers  wish  to  pur- 
chase a cow  for  the  dairy  after  she  passed  her  prime,  which 
will  ordinarily  be  at  the  age  of  nine  or  ten  years,  varying,  of 
course,  according  to  care,  feeding,  &c.,  in  the  earlier  part  of 
her  life. 

The  common  method  of  forming  an  estimate  of  the  age  of 
cattle  is  by  an  examination  of  the  horn.  At  three  years  old,  as 
a general  rule,  the  horns  are  perfectly  smooth;  after  this,  a 
ring  appears  near  the  nob,  and  annually  afterward  a new  one  is 
formed,  so  that,  by  adding  two  years  to  the  first  ring,  the  age 
is  calculated.  This  is  a very  uncertain  mode  of  judging.  The 
rings  are  distinct  only  in  the  cow,  and  it  is  well  known  that  if 
U 


i&i 


CATTLE. 


a heifer  goes  tobull  when  she  is  two  years  old,  or  a little  before 
or  after  that  time,  a change  takes  place  in  the  horn,  and  the 
first  ring  appears  ; so  that  a real  three-year-old  would  carry 
the  mark  of  a four-year-old. 

The  rings  on  the  horns  of  a bull  are  either  not  seen  until 
five,  or  they  cannot  be  traced  at  all;  while  in  the  ox  they  do 
not  appear  till  he  is  five  years  old,  and  then  are  often  very  in- 
distinct. In  addition  to  this,  it  is  by  no  means  an  uncommon 
practice  to  file  the  horns,  so  as  to  make  them  smooth,  and  to 
give  the  animal  the  appearance  of  being  much  younger  than  it 
really  is.  This  is,  therefore,  an  exceedingly  fallacious  guide, 
and  cannot  be  relied  upon  by  any  one  with  the  degree  of  con- 
fidence desired. 

The  surest  indication  of  the  age  in  cattle,  as  in  the  horse, 
is  given  by  the  teeth. 


The  calf,  at  birth,  will  usually  have  two  incisor  or  front 
teeth — in  some  cases  just  appearing  through  the  gums  ; in 
others,  fully  set,  varying  as  the  cow  falls  short  of,  or  exeeeds, 
her  regular  time  of  calving.  If  she  overruns  several  days,  the 
teeth  will  have  set  and  attained  considerable  size,  as  appears 
in  the  cut  representing  teeth  at  birth.  During  the  second  week 
a tooth  will  usually  be  added  on  each  side,  and  the  mouth  will 
generally  appear  as  in  the  next  cut;  and  before  the  end  of  the 
third  week,  the  animal  will  generally  have  six  incisor  teeth,  as 
denoted  in  the  cut  representing  teeth  at  the  third  week;  and 


CATTLE. 


166 


in  a week  from  that  time  the  full  number  of  incisors  will  have 
appeared,  as  seen  in  the  next  cut. 


These  teeth  are  temporary,  and  are  often  called  milk-teeth. 
Their  edge  is  very  sharp;  and,  as  the  animal  begins  to  live  upon 
more  solid  food,  this  edge  becomes  worn,  showing  the  bony 
part  of  the  tooth  beneath,  and  indicates  with  considerable  pre- 


cision the  length  of  time  they  have  been  used.  The  centre,  or 
oldest  teeth  show  the  marks  of  age  first,  and  often  become 
somewhat  worn  before  the  corner  teeth  appear.  At  eight 
weeks,  the  four  inner  teeth  are  nearly  as  sharp  as  before.  They 
appear  worn  not  so  much  on  the  outer  edge  or  line  of  the 


196 


CATTLE. 


tooth,  as  inside  this  line  ; but,  after  this,  the  edge  begins 
gradually  to  lose  its  sharpness,  and  to  present  a more  flattened 


surface;  while  the  next  outer  teeth  wear  down  like  the  four 
central  ones;  and,  at  three  months,  this  wearing  off  is  very 
apparent,  till  at  four  months  all  the  incisor  teeth  appear  worn, 


EIGHTEEN  MONTHS. 


but  the  inner  ones  the  most.  Now  the  teeth  begin  slowly  to 
diminish  in  size  by  a kind  of  contraction,  as  well  as  wearing 
down,  and  the  distance  apart  becomes  more  and  more  apparent. 

From  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  month,  the  inner  teeth  will 
usually  appear  as  in  the  cut  of  the  teeth  at  that  time;  and 
at  ten  months  this  change  shows  more  clearly,  as  represented’in 


CATTLE. 


19? 


the  next  cut,  and  the  spaces  between  them  begin  to  show  very 
plainly,  till  at  a year  old  they  ordinarily  present  the  appearance 
of  the  particular  cut;  and,  at  the  age  of  fifteen  months,  that 


shown  in  the  next,  where  the  corner  teeth  are  not  more  than 
half  the  original  size,  and  the  centre  ones  still  smaller. 

The  permanent  teeth  are  now  rapidly  growing,  and  prepar- 
ing to  take  the  place  of  the  milk  teeth,  which  are  gradually 


absorbed  till  they  disappear,  or  are  pushed  out  to  give  place  to 
the  two  permanent  central  incisors,  which,  at  a year  and  a half, 
will  generally  present  the  appearance  indicated  in  the  cut, 
which  shows  the  internal  structure  of  the  lower  jaw  at  this 


198 


CATTLE. 


time,  with  the  cells  of  the  teeth,  the  two  central  ones  pro- 
truding into  the  mouth,  the  next  two  pushing  up,  but  not  quite 
grown  to  the  surface,  with  the  third  pair  just  perceptible. 
These  changes  require  time;  and  at  two  years  past  the  jaw  will 
usually  appear  as  in  the  cut,  where  four  of  the  permanent  cen- 
tral incisors  are  seen.  After  this  the  other  milk-teeth  decrease 
rapidly,  but  are  slow  to  disappear;  and.  at  three  years  old,  the 
third  pair  of  permanent  teeth  are  but  formed,  as  represented  in 
the  cut;  and  at  four  years  the  last  pair  of  incisors  will  be  up, 
as  in  the  cut  of  that  age;  but  the  outside  ones  are  not  yet 
fully  grown,  and  the  beast  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  full-mouthed 
till  the  age  of  five  years.  But  before  this  age,  or  at  the  age  of 
four  years,  the  two  inner  pairs  of  permanent  teeth  are  beginning 
to  wear  at  the  edges,  as  shown  in  the  cut;  while  at  five  years 
old  the  whole  set  becomes  somewhat  worn  dow*n  at  the  top, 
and  on  the  centre  ones  a dark  line ' appears  in  the  middle, 
along  a line  of  harder  bone,  as  appears  in  the  appropriate  cut. 

Now  will  come  a year  or  two,  and  sometimes  three,  when 
the  teeth  do  not  so  clearly  indicate  the  exact  age,  and  the 
judgment  must  be  guided  by  the  extent  to  which  the  dark  mid- 
dle lines  are  worn.  This  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the 
exposure  and  feeding  of  the  animal;  but  at  seven  years  these 
lines  extend  over  all  the  teeth.  At  eight  years,  another  change 
begins,  which  cannot  be  mistaken.  A kind  of  absorption 
begins  with  the  two  central  incisors — slow  at  first,  but  percep- 
tible— and  these  two  teeth  become  smaller  than  the  rest,  while 
the  dark  lines  are  worn  into  one  in  all  but  the  corner  teeth,  till, 
at  ten  years,  four  of  the  central  incisors  have  become  smaller 
in  size,  with  a smaller  and  fainter  mark,  as  indicated  in  the 
proper  cut.  At  eleven,  the  six  inner  teeth  are  smaller  than  the 
corner  ones;  and,  at  twelve,  all  become  smaller  than  they  were, 
while  the  dark  lines  are  nearly  gone,  except  in  the  corner 
teeth,  and  the  inner  edge  is  worn  to  the  gum. 

Cow-House. — The  cow-house  should  be  airy  and  well  ven- 
tilated; of  moderate  temperature,  and  kept  very  clean.  The 
stalls  for  the  cows  should  be  paved  with  smooth  stones,  slope 
gently  toward  the  foot,  where  there  should  be  a clear  run  of  a 
gutter  to  carry  off  the  urine  to  a pit  outside.  The  stalls  must 

daily  scraped  and  swept,  and  all  refuse  carried  out  to  th« 


CATTLE. 


199 


dung-heap.  In  general,  far  too  little  litter  is  allowed.  The 
cow  should  have  plenty  of  straw  bedding,  kept  in  a cleanly 
condition;  and  this,  when  soiled,  is  to  be  mixed  with  the  dung 
for  manure.  The  only  fastening  for  the  cow  should  be  a chain 
to  go  round  the  neck,  with  the  other  end  round  an  upright 
post,  but  easily  movable  up  and  down,  and  allowing  room  for 
the  animal  shifting  its  position.  The  feeding  manger  or  stone 
trough  is  on  the  ground,  and  ought  to  be  kept  free  of  all 
impurities;  for,  though  the  cow  is  not  so  nice  as  the  horse,  it 
has  a disinclination  for  food  not  fresh  and  cleanly. 

Except  in  dairies  of  a high  order,  it  is  customary  to  keep 
cows  in  a shamefully  unclean  condition.  The  floor  of  their 
habitation  is  filthy,  the  walls  ragged  and  full  of  vermin,  and  the 
hides  of  the  animals  dusty  or  darkened  with  dirt.  Persons  who 
keep  cows  are  not  aware  of  the  loss  they  incur  from  allowing 
them  to  live  in  this  uncleanly  state.  Some  people  seem  to  think 
that  they  do  quite  enough  for  their  cows  if  they  give  them  food 
and  shelter;  but  besides  this  they  require  to  be  kept  very 
cleanly,  though  seldom  indulged  in  that  luxury.  The  cow 
should  be  curried  daily  like  the  horse;  its  hide  should  be  freed 
from  all  impurities,  and  relieved  from  everything  that  causes 
uneasiness.  When  you  see  a cow  rubbing  itself  against  a post, 
you  may  depend  on  it  that  the  animal  is  ill  kept,  and  requires 
a good  scrubbing.  Irritation  of  the  skin  from  impurities  also 
causes  them  to  lick  themselves,  a habit  which  is  injurious,  for 
the  hairs  taken  into  the  stomach  form  a compact  round  mass, 
which  may  destroy  the  animal.  If  well  curried,  any  danger 
from  this  catastrophe  is  avoided,  the  health  is  generally 
improved,  and  this  improves  the  quality  of  the  milk,  besides 
increasing  the  quantity. 

Feeding. — The  cow  requires  to  be  supplied  with  an  abund- 
ance of  food,  not  to  make  her  fat,  which  is  not  desirable,  but 
keep  up  a regular  secretion  of  milk  in  the  system.  The 
feeding  must  be  regular,  from  early  morning  to  night,  and  pure 
water  must  also  be  offered  at  proper  intervals,  if  the  cow  has 
not  the  liberty  of  going  to  the  water  herself. 

Regarding  the  nature  of  the  food  of  cows,  although  soiling, 
or  artificial  feeding  in  the  house,  is  at  all  times  economical,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  best  milk  and  butter  are  produced  by 


200 


CATTLE. 


cows  fed  on  natural  pasture;  and,  although  the  quantity  of 
milk  is  not  so  great,  yet  the  butter  has  a sweeter  taste,  never  to 
be  discovered  in  the  produce  of  soiled  cows.  On  well-enclosed 
farms,  it  is  the  custom  of  many  to  keep  their  cows  out,  both 
night  and  day,  from  May  till  the  end  of  October,  so  long  as  a 
full  bite  can  be  obtained;  and  some  bring  them  into  the  house 
twice  a day  to  be  milked.  Soiling,  or  feeding  entirely  in  the 
house  or  court-yard,  is  but  seldom  practiced,  except  by  some 
farmers  in  arable  districts.  Although  complete  soiling  is  only 
occasionally  resorted  to,  yet  a considerable  quantity  of  rich, 
green . food  is  served  out  to  the  dairy  stock  in  their  stalls  at 
night,  and  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  by  such  farmers  as  bring 
their  cows  into  the  house  at  these  times.  This  mode  of  feed- 
ing is  more  especially  followed  when  the  pasture  begins  to  fail; 
the  second  crops  of  clover  and  tares,  cabbages,  coleworts,  and 
other  garden  produce,  are  all  given  to  the  cows  in  the  house  at 
this  period.  Dairy  cows  are  allowed  to  be  much  injured  by 
being  denied  a due  supply  of  salt,  which  is  said  to  improve 
the  quality  and  increase  the  quantity  of  milk.  In  the  best 
managed  dairies  in  Scotland,  when  the  cows  are  taken  in  for 
the  winter,  they  are  never  put  out  to  the  fields  until  spring, 
when  the  grass  has  risen  so  much  as  to  afford  a full  bite.  In 
the  moorish  districts,  however,  they  are  put  out  to  the  fields  for 
some  hours  every  day  when  the  weather  will  permit.  In  these 
districts,  the  winter  food  is  turnips  with  marsh  meadow  hay — 
occasionally  straw  and  boiled  chaff 

In  the  richer  districts,  turnips  and  straw  are  given,  and 
occasionally  some  clover  hay  in  the  spring  or  when  the  cows 
have  calved.  Upon  this  subject  nothing  need  be  added,  but 
that  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk  will  be  in  proportion 
to  the  nourishment  in  the  food.  White  turnips  afford  a good 
quantity  of  milk,  but  they  impart  a very  disagreeable  taste, 
which  may  be  removed,  however,  by  steaming  or  boiling  the 
turnips,  or  by  putting  a small  quantity  of  dissolved  saltpetre 
into  the  milk  when  new  drawn.  The  quality  of  the  milk 
depends  a great  deal  upon  the  cow;  influenced,  however,  by 
the  food  she  eats.  Linseed,  peas  and  oat-meal  produce  rich 
milk;  and  a mixture  of  bran  and  grains  has  been  recommended 
as  food  in  winter.  Brewers’  grains  are  said  to  produce  a large 


CATTLE. 


201 


quantity  of  milk,  but  very  thin — the  quality  being  somewhat 
similar  to  that  sold  in  large  towns,  yielding  neither  good  cream 
nor  butter.  It  has  been  found  of  some  importance  to  feed 
cows  frequently — three  or  four  times  a day  in  summer,  and  five 
or  six  in  winter — and  to  give  them  no  more  at  a time  than  they 
can  eat  cleanly. 

What  has  been  stated  regarding  the  feeding  of  cows  applies 
principally  to  those  kept  on  dairy  farms.  In  establishments 
for  the  supplying  of  large  towns  with  milk,  the  method  of 
feeding  is  somewhat  different;  there  the  practice  is  to  feed 
them  chiefly  on  distillers’  wash,  brewers’  grains,  and  every  sort 
of  liquid  stuff  that  will  produce  a large  quantity  of  milk,  with- 
out reference  to  the  quality. 

The  following  is  an  improved  mode  of  feeding  milch  cows 
in  Surrey:  “ Go  to  the  cow-stall  at  six  o’clock  in  the  morning, 
winter  and  summer;  give  each  cow  half  a bushel  of  the  man- 
gel-wurzel, carrots,  turnips  or  potatoes  cut;  at  seven  o’clock, 
the  hour  the  dairy  maid  comes  to  milk  them,  give  each  some 
hay,  and  let  them  feed  till  they  are  all  milked.  If  any  cow 
refuses  hay,  give  her  something  she  will  eat — such  as  grain,  car- 
rots, etc.,  during  the  time  she  is  milking,  as  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  the  cow  should  feed  while  milking.  As  soon  as  the 
woman  has  finished  milking  in  the  morning,  turn  the  cows  into 
the  airing  grounds,  and  let  there  be  plenty  of  fresh  water  in  the 
troughs;  at  nine  o’clock  give,  each  cow  three  gallons  of  the 
mixture  (as  under — to  eight  gallons  of  grains,  add  four  gallons 
of  bran  or  pollard);  when  they  have  eaten  that,  put  some  hay 
into  the  cribs;  at  twelve  o’clock,  give  each  three  gallons  of  the 
mixture,  as  before.  If  any  cow  looks  for  more,  give  her  another 
gallon.  On  the  contrary,  if  she  will  not  eat  what  you  gave 
her,  take  it  out  of  the  manger;  for  never,  at  onetime  let  a cow 
have  more  than  she  will  eat  up  clean.  Mind  and  keep  your 
mangers  cleaTn,  that  they  do  not  get  sour.  At  two  o’clock,  give 
each  cow  half  a bushel  of  carrots,  mangel  wurzel,  or  turnips; 
look  the  turnips,  etc.,  over  well,  before  you  give  them  to  the 
cows — as  one  rotten  turnip,  etc.,  will  give  a bad  taste  to  the 
milk,  and  most  likely  spoil  a whole  dairy  of  butter.  At  four 
o’clock,  put  the  cows  into  the  stall  to  be  milked;  feed  them  on 
)iay  as  you  did  at  milking  time  in  the  morning,  keeping  in  mind 


202 


CATTLE. 


that  the  cow,  while  milking,  must  feed  on  something.  At  six 
.o’clock,  give  each  cow  three  gallons  of  the  mixture  as  before. 
Rack  them  up  at  eight  o’clock.  Twice  in  a week,  put  into 
each  cow’s  feed  at  noon  a quart  of  malt  dust. 

So  much  of  the  value  of  any  food  depends  on  the  condition 
in  which,  and  the  circumstances  under  which,  it  is  fed,  that  it 
is  impossible  to  make  a comparison  which  shall  at  all  times 
hold  good;  but  the  following  tables,  giving  as  they  do  the  re- 
sults of  a number  of  carefully  conducted  experiments,  will  be 
found  valuable: 


Table,  showing  the  comparitive  difference  between  good  hay  ana 
the  articles  mentioned  below,  as  food  for  stock — being  the  mean 
of  experiment  and  theory. 


100  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to 

275  lbs.  green  Indian  corn. 

4 12  “ rye  straw. 

380  “ wheat  straw. 

164  “ oat  straw. 

180  “ barley  straw. 

153  “ pea  straw. 

200  “ buckwheat  straw. 

201  “ raw  potatoes. 

175  “ boiled  “ 

339  “ mangel-wurzel. 

504  “ turnips. 

300  “ carrots. 


100  lbs.  of  hay  are  equal  to 

54  lbs.  rye. 

46  “ wheat. 

59  “ oats. 

45  “ peas  and  beans  mixed. 

64  “ buckwheat. 

57  “ Indian  corn. 

68  “ acorns. 

106  “ wheat  bran. 

109  “ rye  “ 

167  “ wheat,  pea  and  oat  chaff. 
179  “ rye  and  barley  mixed. 


Milking. — Cows  arc  milked  twice  or  thrice  a day,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  If  twice,  morning  and  night;  if  thrice, 
morning,  noon  and  night.  They  should  not  go  too  long  un- 
milked, for,  independently  of  the  uneasiness  to  the  poor 
animal,  it  is  severely  injurious. 

The  act  of  milking  is  one  which  requires  great  caution; 
for,  if  not  carefully  and  properly  done,  the  quantity  of  the  milk 
will  be  diminished,  and  the  quality  inferior,  the-  milk  which 
comes  last  out  of  the  udder  being  always  the  richest.  It  should, 
therefore,  be  thoroughly  drawn  from  the  cows  until  not  a drop 
more  can  be  obtained,  both  to  ensue  a continuance  of  the 
usual  supply  of  milk,  and,  also,  to  get  the  richest  which  the 
cows  afford.  Cows  should  be  soothed  by  mild  usage,  especially 
when  young;  for  to  a person  whom  they  dislike,  they  never 
give  their  milk  freely.  The  teats  should  always  be  clean 
washed  before  milking,  and,  when  tender,  they  ought  to  be 
fomented  with  warm  water.  The  milking  and  management  of 
the  cow  should,  in  these  circumstances,  be  only  entrusted  t9 


CATTLE. 


203 


servants  of  character,  on  whom  the  utmost  reliance  can  be 
placed.  In  some  places,  it  is  a common  practice  to  employ 
men  to  milk  the  cows,  an  operation  which  seems  better  fitted 
for  females,  who  are  likely  to  do  the  work  in  a more  gentle 
and  cleanly  manner,  which  is  of  essential  importance. 

A writer  gives  the  following  explicit  directions  to  the  dairy- 
maid in  regard  to  milking:  “Go  to  the  cow-stall  at  seven 
o’clock;  take  with  you  cold  water  and  a sponge,  and  wash 
each  cow’s  udder  clean  before  milking;  dowse  the  udder  well 
with  cold  water,  winter  and  summer,  as  it  braces  and  repels 
heats.  Keep  your  hands  and  arms  clean.  Milk  each  cow  as 
dry  as  you  can,  morning  and  evening,  and  when  you  have 
milked  each  cow  as  you  suppose  dry,  begin  again  with  the  cow 
you  first  milked,  and  drip  them  each;  for  the  principal  reason  . 
of  cows  failing  in  their  milk  is,  from  negligence  in  not  milking 
the  cow  dry,  particularly  at  the  time  the  calf  is  taken  from  the 
cow.  Suffer  no  one  to  milk  a cow  but  yourself,  and  have  no 
gossiping  in  the  stall.  Every  Saturday  night  give  in  an  exact 
account  of  the  quantity  of  milk  each  cow  has  given,  in  the 
week.” 

The  Dairy,  and  Dairy  Produce.— The  dairy  should  be 
cool,  airy,  dry,  and  free  from  vermin  of  all  kinds.  To  prevent 
the  intrusion  of  flies,  the  windows  or  ventilators  ought  to  be 
covered  with  a fine  wire  gauze.  The  floor  should  be  laid  with 
smooth  glazed  tiles,  and  also  the  lower  part  of  the  walls;  the 
benches  on  which  the  milk  pans  are  to  be  placed  are  best  when 
made  of  stone  or  slate,  and  about  thirty  inches  broad.  The 
ceiling  should  be  at  least  eight  feet  from  the  floor,  and  finished 
in  every  respect  like  that  of  an  ordinary  dwelling  house.  A 
slite  roof  is  preferable  to  one  of  tile,  as  it  tends  to  keep  the 
temperature  more  equable.  Cleanliness  is  of  the  most  essential 
consequence  in  dairy  management,  and,  if  not  strictly  looked 
after,  may  cause  considerable  loss.  It  is  this  which  has  raised 
the  produce  of  the  dairies  of  Holland  so  much  in  public  esti- 
mation. Every  article  in  which  milk  is  placed,  more  especially 
when  made  of  wood,  ought  to  be  washed  in  boiling  water,  with 
a little  soda  or  lime  dissolved  in  it.  If  milk  should  happen  to 
sour  in  any  dish,  the  acid  thus  generated  will  injure  any  which 
may  be  afterward  put  into  it;  but,  if  washed  in  water  in  whieh 
ua  alkali  has  been  dissolved)  the  add  will  be  destroyed. 


204 


CATTLE. 


The  utensils  of  a dairy  are  very  numerous.  The  principal 
are  milk-pails,  shallow  coolers  for  holding  the  milk,  sieves  for 
straining  it  through  after  it  is  taken  from  the  cow,  dishes  for 
skimming  the  cream,  churns  for  making  the  butter,  scales, 
weights,  &c.  For  making  cheese,  there  are  likewise  ladders, 
vats,  tubs,  curd-breakers  and  presses;  and  various  other  arti- 
cles will  be  required,  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  enumerate. 
The  majority  of  them  are  made  of  wood;  but  in  some  of  the 
best  dairies  in  England  and  Scotland,  it  is  now  the  practice 
to  have  the  coolers  made  of  cast-iron,  wood  lined  with  tin  in 
the  inside,  or  glazed  earthenware.  Maple  is  the  wood  gener- 
ally used  in  England  for  the  manufacture  of  these  dishes;  both 
from  its  lightness  and  being  easily  cut,  it  can  be  finished  in  a 
neater  style.  In  Holland  the  milk-dishes  are  very  commonly 
made  of  brass;  and  certainly  brass  or  iron  is  to  be  preferred  to 
wood,  because  the  dishes  made  from  either  of  these  materials 
are  more  durable,  and  can  be  easier  cleaned.  It  has  been 
objected  to  earthenware  vessels,  that,  being  glazed  with  lead, 
the  acid  of  the  milk  acting  upon  the  glaze,  forms  a very  nox- 
ious poison.  This,  however,  is  scarcely  correct;  it  would  re- 
quire a much  stronger  acid  than  that  of  milk  to  decompose  the 
glaze.  Zinc  pans  are  now  coming  into  use,  and  they  can  be 
safely  recommended  for  their  cool  and  cleanly  qualities,  besides 
being  economical.  We  have  seen  it  stated  that  cream  rises 
best  in  zinc  pans. 

Churning  is  now,  in  all  large  dairy  establishments,  performed 
by  machinery,  worked  either  by  horse  or  water  power.  Churns 
vary  in  size  from  ten  to  fifty,  and  even  one  hundred,  gallons, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  establishment.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  to  wash  churns  thoroughly  with  boiling  water, 
both  immediately  after  they  have  been  used,  and  before 
they  are  again  to  be  put  in  operation  ; and  those  churns 
which  admit  of  being  easily  cleaned  are  always  to  be  recoim 
mended,  even  although  they  should  not  be  so  elegant  in  com 
struction. 

Milk. — Milk  consists  of  three  materials  blended  together 
which  can  be  separated  by  artificial  means,  so  as  to  form  butter, 
the  milk  called  buttermilk,  and  serum  or  whey.  The  whey  is 
little  else  than  water*  slightly  saline,  and  is  generally  the  ehief 


CATTLE. 


205 


ingredient  in  the  milk.  When  taken  from  the  cow,  milk  should 
be  removed  to  the  dairy  or  milk-house,  and,  after  being  sieved, 
placed  in  shallow  pans,  to  throw  up  the  butteraceous  matter 
termed  cream,  which,  being  lightest,  floats  on  the  top. 

The  following  observations  on  milk  and  its  management  are 
worthy  of  the  consideration  of  cow-keepers: 

“Of  the  milk  drawn  from  any  cow  at  one  time,  that  part 
which  comes  off  at  the  first  is  always  thinner,  and  of  a much 
worse  quality  for  making  butter,  than  that  afterward  obtained; 
and  this  richness  continues  to  increase  progressively  to  the 
very  last  drop  that  can  be  obtained  from  the  udder. 

“If  milk  be  put  into  a dish,  and  allowed  to  stand  till  it 
throws  up  cream,  the  portion  of  cream  rising  first  to  the  surface 
is  richer  in  quality  and  greater  in  quantity  than  that  which  rises 
in  a second  equal  space  of  time;  and  the  cream  which  rises  in 
the  second  interval  of  time  is  greater  in  quantity  and  richer  in 
quality  than  that  which  rises  in  a third  equal  space  of  time; 
that  of  the  third  is  greater  than  that  of  the  fourth,  and  so  of 
the  rest;  the  cream  that  rises  continuing  progressively  to 
decrease  in  quantity,  and  to  decline  in  quality,  so  long  as  any 
rises  to  the  surface. 

“Thick  milk  always  throws  up  a much  smaller  proportion 
of  the  cream  which  it  actually  contains  than  milk  that  is  thin- 
ner; but  the  cream  is  of  a richer  quality;  and,  if  water  be 
added  to  that  thick  milk,  it  will  afford  a considerably  greater 
quantity  of  cream,  and  consequently  more  butter,  that  it  would 
have  done  if  allowed  to  remain  pure;  but  its  quality  is,  at  the 
same  time,  greatly  debased. 

Milk  which  is  put  into  a bucket  or  other  proper  vessel,  and 
carried  in  it  to  a considerable  distance,  so  as  to  be  much  agi- 
tated, and  in  part  cooled,  before  it.be  put  into  the  milk-pans  to 
settle  for  cream,  never  throws  up  so  much  or  so  rich  cream  as 
if  the  same  milk  had  been  put  into  the  milk-pans  directly  after 
it  was  milked. 

“From  these  fundamental  facts,  the  reflecting  dairist  will 
derive  many  important  practical  rules.  Some  cf  these  we  shall 
enumerate,  and  leave  the  rest  to  be  discovered.  Cows  should 
be  milked  as  near  the  dairy  as  possible,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
necessity  of  carrying  and  cooling  the  milk  before  it  is  put  into 


206 


CATTLE. 


the  creaming  dishes.  Every  cow’s  milk  should  be  kept  sepa- 
rate  till  the  peculiar  properties  of  each  are  so  well  known  as  to 
admit  of  their  being  classed,  when  those  that  are  most  nearly 
allied  may  be  mixed  together.  When  it  is  intended  to  make 
butter  of  a very  fine  quality,  reject  entirely  the  milk  of  all  those 
cows  which  yield  cream  of  a bad  quality,  and  also  keep  the 
milk  that  is  first  drawn  from  the  cow  at  each-milking  entirely 
separate  from  that  which  is  last  obtained,  as  the  quality  of  the 
butter  must  otherwise  be  greatly  debased,  without  materially 
augmenting  its  quantity.  For  the  same  purpose,  take  only  the 
cream  that  is  first  separated  from  the  first  drawn  milk.  Butter 
of  the  very  best  quality  can  only  be  economically  made  in  those 
dairies  where  cheese  is  also  made;  because  in  them  the  best 
part  of  each  cow’s  milk  can  be  set  apart  for  throwing  up  cream 
— the  best  part  of  this  cream  can  be  taken  in  order  to  be  made 
into  butter — and  the  remainder  or  all  the  rest  of  the  milk  and 
cream  of  the  dairy  can  be  turned  into  cheese.  The  spontane- 
ous separation  of  cream,  and  the  production  of  butter,  are 
never  effected  but  in  consequence  of  the  production  of  acid  in 
the  milk.  Hence  it  is  that,  where  the  whole  milk  is  set  apart 
for  the  separation  of  cream,  and  the  whole  of  the  cream  is 
separated,  the  milk  must  necessarily  have  turned  sour  before  it 
is  made  into  cheese;  and  no  very  excellent  cheese  can  be  made 
from  milk  which  has  once  attained  that  state.” 

Butter. — Butter  is  made  of  cream,  freed  from  its  milky  and 
serous  properties.  This  is  effected  by  churning.  Some  imagine 
that  no  butter  can  be  good  except  such  as  is  made  from  fresh 
cream;  but  this  is  a mistake,  as  cream  requires  to  have  a little 
acidity  before  the  butter  will  form.  The  length  of  time  which 
the  cream  should  stand  before  churning  has  never  been  clearly 
ascertained;  from  three  to  seven  days,  however,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  proper  period.  A more  important  matter  than 
the  length  of  time  which  cream  requires  to  stand,  is  the  degree 
of  temperature  at  which  the  cream  will  turn  into  butter.  This 
has  been  ascertained  from  experiment  to  be  from  45  to  75 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit.  The  best  quality  of  butter  is  obtained 
at  a temperature  of  5 1 degrees,  according  to  experiments,  and 
the  greatest  quantity  at  a temperature  of  56  degrees.  During 
the  process  of  churning,  the  agitation  will  increase  the  heat  to 


CATTLE. 


207 


about  five  degrees  more  than  it  was  when  the  cream  was  put 
into  the  churn. 

In  some  of  the  dairies  in  the  neighborhood  of  Edinburg1  , 
and  in  all  those  near  Glasgow,  the  butter  is  made  by  churning 
the  cream  and  milk  together.  This  is  done  in  order  to  obtain 
the  buttermilk,  the  demand  for  which  is  always  great  in  large 
cities.  When  the  milk  and  cream  are  to  be  churned  together, 
the  milk  is  kept  in  the  coolers  for  from  twelve  to  twenty-four 
hours,  and  then  poured  into  a milk-tub.  It  remains  here  until 
required  for  churning;  and  will,  during  this  time,  have  coagu- 
lated. L a certain  quantity  of  milk  is  put  into  the  milk-tub, 
and  has  coagulated  before  any  more  has  creamed,  the  coagu- 
lated milk  must  in  no  way  be  disturbed,  or,  if  the  two  quanti- 
ties are  mixed  together,  loo  much  fermentation  may  be  the  con- 
sequence. The  milk  is  not  churned  till  it  has  become  acid;  and, 
when  once  coagulation  has  taken  place-,  it  should  be  churned 
as  early  as  convenient.  If  the  milk  has  not  fermented  before 
churning,  the  buttermilk  will  keep  for  a much  longer  time,  will 
have  an  agreeable  taste,  and  will  bear  to  be  mixed  with  a little 
water.  When  the  milk  has  fermented  before  being  churned, 
the  buttermilk  will  never  be  so  good  nor  will  it  keep  for  such 
a length  of  time  as  the  former. 

The  operation  of  churning,  whether  it  be  of  cream  alone,  or 
cream  and  milk,  is  performed  in  the  same  manner.  The  milk 
requires  more  time  than  cream  to  complete  the  process,  from 
two  to  three  hours  being  considered  necessary,  while  cream 
alone  may  be  effectually  churned  in  an  hour  and  a half.  It  is 
necessary  that  the  operation  should  be  slow  in  warm  weather; 
for,  if  done  too  hastily,  the  butter  will  be  soft  and  white.  If 
the  cream  is  at  too  high  a temperature,  the  churn  should  be 
cooled  with  cold  spring  water,  to  reduce  it  to  the  proper  degree 
of  heat.  In  winter,  again,  the  operation  of  churning  should  be 
done  as  quickly  as  possible,  the  action  being  regular;  and  the 
churn  should  be  warmed,  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  milk 
or  cream.  The  air  which  is  generated  in  the  churn  should  be 
allowed  to  escape,  or  it  will  impede  the  process  by  the  froth 
which  it  creates. 

After  the  churning  is  performed,  the  butter  should  be 
washed  in  cold  spring  water,  with  a little  salt  in  it,  two  or  three 


208 


CATTLE. 


times,  to  extract  all  the  milk  which  may  be  lodged  about  the 
mass.  It  is  said  by  some  that  the  butter  retains  its  sweetness 
much  longer  when  no  water  is  used;  and  ethers  affirm  that  the 
washing  improves  the  flavor.  The  extraction  of  the  milk  from 
butter  will  reduce  its  weight;  but  it  appears  from  the  experi- 
ments upon  the  temperature  of  the  cream,  that  the  less  milk 
which  is  in  the  butter  its  quality  is  proportionately  improved. 
Kneading  and  beating  the  butter  too  much  render  it  tough  and 
gluey.  After  the  milk  has  been  carefully  extracted,  if  the  but- 
ter is  to  be  salted,  it  should  be  mixed  with  the  finest  salt,  in 
the  proportion  of  ten  ounces  to  fourteen  pounds,  more  or  less, 
according  to  the  time  the  butter  is  to  be  preserved.  The  butter 
and  salt  should  be  well  mixed  together  with  the  hand;  and  in 
Ireland  it  is  customary  to  add  a little  saltpetre.  A compound 
of  one  part  of  sugar,  one  part  nitre,  and  two  parts  of  the  best 
Spanish  salt,  finely  powdered  together,  has  been  highly  recom- 
mended for  preserving  butter.  It  is  used  in  the  proportion  of 
one  ounce  to  the  pound;  and  it  is  said  to  give  a flavor  to  the 
butter  which  no  other  kind  ever  acquires. 

For  making  butter  casks  or  kegs,  the  wood  of  trees  con- 
taining no  acid  is  recommended.  When  wood  contains  acid  it 
acts  powerfully  upon  the  salt  in  the  butter,  converting  it  into 
brine.  Any  wood  will  answer  if  boiled  for  a few  hours,  for  by 
this  process  the  pyrolignous  acid  will  be  entirely  taken  out. 

In  salting,  the  butter  should  never  be  put  into  the  firkins  in 
layers;  but  the  surface  should  be  left  every  day  rough  and 
broken,  so  as  to  unite  better  with  that  of  the  succeeding  churn- 
ing. The  quality  may  likewise  be  better  preserved  by  covering 
it  over  with  a clean  linen  cloth  dipped  in  pickle,  and  placing 
it  in  a cool  situation. 

Marketing. — Marketing  butter  by  many  is  thought  to  be 
the  easiest  part  of  the  whole  process,  or  the  least  important, 
judging  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  done.  But  marketing  it 
in  the  proper  manner,  or  to  make  it  the  quickest  selling,  is  half 
the  battle.  It  should  be  put  into  the  most  inviting  form  to  gain 
the  best  price.  If  the  maker  is  near  a market,  and  is  about  to 
retail  it,  or  sell  it  to  those  who  are  to  retail  it,  it  should  be  put 
into  half-pound  or  pound  lumps,  and  printed  or  stamped  with 
some  emblematic  device,  such  as  a sheaf  of  wheat,  a cow,  bee- 


CATTLE. 


209 


hive,  or  the  maker’s  initials.  After  the  final  working,  the  scales 
are  placed  handy,  and  with  the  clapper  a lump  is  cut  off,  placed 
upon  the  scales,  and  either  added  to  or  taken  from,  always  be- 
ing sure  to  give  rather  over  than  under  a pound.  It  is  then 
taken  from  the  scale  by  one  clapper,  in  the  right  hand,  and 
with  the  other  clapper  in  the  left,  it  is  worked  over  into  a ball 
by  a few  expert  touches;  and,  while  held  on  the  left-hand  clap- 
per, the  right-hand  one  having  been  exchanged  for  the  stamp- 
mould,  the  mould  is  dipped  in  cold  water  to  prevent  its  stick- 
ing to  the  lump,  and  then  pressed  firmly  upon  it,  then  with- 
drawn, leaving  a beautiful  raised  impression  of  the  stamp  upon 
it,  and  adding  to  its  attractions.  The  fashion  is  now  becoming 
prevalent  of  making  the  lumps  square,  which  is  more  conven- 
ient for  use  and  for  packing  in  the  market  tray.  It  is  also  more 
convenient  for  the  butter-maker,  as  it  is  done  by  a machine 
which  squares  and  prints  it  at  one  operation,  and  also  marks  it, 
so  that  the  consumer  cuts  it  in  four  parts,  of  about  the  right 
size  for  table,  each  piece  being  nicely  stamped. 

When  it  is  all  stamped,  it  is  set.  aside  in  a cold  place  to 
thoroughly  harden;  in  a tray  in  the  spring-house  water  is  best. 
When  about  to  market  it,  each  pound  or  roll  is  wrapped  in  a 
linen  cloth  taken  out  of  ice-water  or  cold  spring-water,  and  laid 
upon  the  shelf  of  the  tray  or  tub.  Some  market  men  have  a 
square  box  made  with  a sliding  lid  and  several  shelves.  On 
these  shelves  the  pounds  of  butter  are  placed,  the  lid  is  dropped 
down  in  its  grooves,  as  the  box  stands  upright  on  one  end,  with 
a handle  to  carry  it  by  on  the  other.  This  is  very  nice  for 
winter  use,  when  the  butter  will  keep  hard  until  sold;  but  for 
summer  use  there  is  provided  a large  tub  made  of  cedar,  with 
an  inner  tin  vessel,  with  a well  in  each  end  for  broken  ice,  and 
shelves  on  each  side  of  them,  one  above  the  other,  on  which 
the  butter  is  placed,  and  is  removed  as  it  is  sold.  The  shelves 
are  made  of  thin  wood,  and  rest  upon  tin  projections  on  the 
side  about  three  inches  apart.  The  wooden  tub  is  cooled  in 
ice  or  spring-water  while  the  tin  vessel  is  being  filled  with  the 
ice  and  butter.  The  tin  is  then  set  into  the  wooden  vessel,  the 
lid  closed,  and  the  whole  enveloped  in  a padded  carpet  cover- 
ing made  to  fit,  and  again  enclosed  in  an  oil-cloth  covering.  It 
is  thus  effectually  shielded  from  hot  air  and  dust,  and  is  opened 


m 


CATTLE. 


out  to  the  customer  firm,  cool  and  golden,  and  brings  readily 
in  cities  its  seventy-five  cents  to  one  dollar  and  twenty-five 
cents  per  pound,  thus  well  paying  for  the  extra  care.  Many 
put  up  their  butter  in  rolls  of  five  or  ten  or  more  pounds,  and 
sell  it  so,  sometimes  wrapped  in  muslin,  sometimes  not;  but, 
either  way,  it  never  looks  so  nice  and  attractive  as  the  nicely- 
\ stamped  pound  lumps,  and,  of  course,  does  not  bring  so  good 
I a price. 

In  general  terms,  it  may  safely  be  said  that  the  less  possi- 
bility there  is  of  interfering  with  the  condition  of  the  butter, 
from  the  time  it  leaves  the  dairy  till  it  reaches  the  larder,  the 
better  for  both  producer  and  consumer.  To  alter  the  condi- 
tion of  butter  by  redressing,  or  repacking,  is  commercially  cul- 
pable, whilst  the  introduction  of  any  other  substance,  however 
innocuous,  is  fraudulent  adulteration.  To  prevent  both  effec- 
tively, is  to  pack  the  butter,  at  the  dairy,  in  the  several  quan- 
tities to  suit  the  requirements  of  larger  or  smaller  households 
or  dealers.  These  packages  ought  only  to  be  opened  for  ex- 
amination as  to  quality;  the  butter  would  in  such  a way  be 
fully  protected  from  injury,  and  as  it  left  the  dairy  so  it  reaches 
the  larder. 

Packing  and  Shipping. — Packing  of  the  butter  for  ship- 
ping should  be  done  not  later  than  the  third  day.  Be  careful 
before  packing  there  is  no  milky  water  runs  from  it,  for,  as  sure 
as  it  is  packed  with  the  least  drop  in  the  butter,  you  will  hear 
from  it  next  March  or  April.  Pack  it  down  solid  in  stone  jars, 
if  for  your  own  winter  use,  or  in  firkins,  if'  for  shipping. 
Sprinkle  a little  salt  on  the  surface,  and,  covering  it  with  a 
thick,  fine  cloth,  put  on  the  lid  and  place  the  jar  in  a dry,  cool 
place.  It  is  better  to  fill  the  vessel  with  one  churning;  but,  if 
not  able  to  do  so,  pack  in  each  churning  solid,  and  exclude 
the  air  until  it  is  full,  by  pouring  over  it  a strong  brine,  to  be 
poured  off  when  ready  to  be  filled.  If  it  is  to  be  kept  a long 
while,  or  sent  to  sea,  pour  a little  melted  butter  over  the  top  of 
the  jar  before  you  put  on  the  cloth.  Butter  put  down  this  way 
in  September  or  October,  when  the^  weather  is  cool  and  the 
quality  of  food  is  best,  will  keep  till  next  June  as  good  as 
newly-churned  butter. 

When  exposed  for  sale,  it  is  often  found  that  the  lower  por- 


CATTLE. 


211 


tion  of  the  contents  of  the  tub  is  the  poorest,  and  the  discov- 
ery of  this  fact  causes  not  only  a diminution  of  price  on  the 
whole  package,  but  also  suspicion  of  intended  deception.  Yet 
no  deception  has  been  intended.  The  difference  in  quality 
has  arisen  from  improper  management  of  the  lower  layers,  the 
upper  layer  having  been  kept  in  good  condition  by  carefully 
covering  it  with  salt  when  placed  in  the  tub.  When  forwarded 
to  market,  in  warm  weather,  this  imperfectly  packed  butter  is 
placed  in  the  low  temperature  of  an  ice-car,  and,  on  its  arrival 
at  the  city  depot,  it  is  often  unloaded  and  carted  under  a broil- 
ing sun. 

It  is  very  important  that  it  should  be  kept  from  the  air,  as 
an  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  will  spoil  the  best  butter  that 
ever  was  made  in  a very  short  time.  For  this  reason  wooden 
tubs  are  not  desirable  to  pack  in,  unless  for  a short  time,  as 
they  are  not  sufficient  protection  against  the  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  often  of  themselves  destroy  the  flavor  of  that  por- 
tion of  butter  which  comes  in  contact  with  them  to  the  depth 
of  an  inch  or  more.  When  they  are  used,  they  should  be  of 
hemlock  or  of  oak,  filled  with  boiling  water,  to  remain  till  cool, 
then  soaked  in  brine  for  two  or  three  days,  and,  after  the  brine 
is  poured  out,  the  sides  and  bottom  must  be  rubbed  with  fine 
salt. 

Makers  of  large  quantities  of  butter,  who  store  it  and  ship 
it  when  the  market  price  is  highest,  after  preparing  the  firkins 
as  before  described,  pack  the  firkin  full  of  butter,  spread  a 
cloth  over  the  top,  do  not  let  the  cloth  expand  over  the  sides, 
put  a layer  of  coarse  Turk’s  Island  salt,  washed  clean,  upon 
the  cloth,  and  put  on  temporary  tops  of  round  flat  stones,  as 
they  keep  the  temperature  cooler  and  more  even  than  any 
other  cover.  The  firkins  are  then  stored  in  a cool  place,  bet- 
ter on  open  joists  where  the  air  can  pass  underneath  them. 
When  they  are  shipped  for  market,  the  cloth,  with  the  salt,  is 
lifted  off,  the  firkin  is  turned  down  to  let  the  brine  drain  off, 
the  cloth,  wrung  out  in  brine,  is  replaced,  and  they  are 
headed  for  market,  where  they  arrive  in  sweet  nice  order. 

Butter  from  Whey. — Excellent  butter,  fit  for  the  table,  is 
said  to  have  been  made  from  whey,  and  sold  in  the  New  York 
market,  bringing  the  best  price.  The  following  are  two  recipes 


m 


CATTLE. 


for  making  it,  but  we  doubt  whether  it  will  pay  well,  and,  if  so, 
only  at  the  factories,  if  properly  managed: 

I.  The  Heating  Process. — After  separating  the  whey 
from  the  curd,  place  it  in  a tin  vat  and  add  a liquid  acid,  the 
vat  with  copper  bottom  and  tin  sides,  about  twelve  feet  long, 
three  feet  wide  and  twenty  inches  deep,  or  about  these  propor- 
tions; set  over  a brick  arch;  one  gallon  to  the  whey  of  fifty 
gallons  of  milk,  if  the  Avhey  is  sweet,  but  less  quantity  .if 
changed.  Then  bring  it  to  a heat  of  210  deg.  When  the  cream 
rises  and  is  skimmed  off,  and  placed  in  a cool  place,  let  it  stand 
till  next  day.  Then  churn  at  a temperature  of  56  deg.  to  68 
deg.,  depending  on  the  weather;  work  and  salt  it  as  usual.  It 
will  produce  about  one  pound  of  butter  from  the  whey  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  milk.  The  acid  is  made  by  taking 
any  quantity  of  whey  at  boiling  heat,  after  the  cream  is  ex- 
tracted, adding  one  gallon  of  strictly  sour  whey,  when  all  the 
caseine  remaining  in  the  whey  is  collected  together  in  one  mass, 
and  is  skimmed  off.  After  the  whey  is  allowed  to  stand  from 
twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours,  it  is  ready  for  use  as  acid. 
This  process  is  repeated  as  often  as  necessity  requires 

II.  The  Cooling  Process. — Take  a vessel  made  of  zinc, 
or  at  least  with  a zinc  bottom,  about  fifteen  inches  high,  three 
feet  wide  and  as  long  as  desired;  set  the  vessel  in  cold  water 
and  put  in  the  whey,  with  a handful  of  salt  to  every  ten  gallons 
of  whey.  During  the  first  two  hours  stir  it  up  thoroughly 
from  the  bottom  every  fifteen  minutes;  afterwards  let  it  stand 
quiet  for  about  twenty  hours,  and  then  skim  it;  then  churn 
the  cream,  keeping  it  at  about  58  deg.  If  above  60  deg.,  cool 
it;  if  below  56  deg.,  warm  it.  Churn  it  till  the  butter  becomes 
granulated  about  the  size  of  kernels  of  buckwheat.  Let  it 
stand  about  five  minutes,  then  let  the  buttermilk  run  off;  then 
throw  on  cold  water.  If  not  hard  enough,  let  it  stand  until  it 
becomes  so  before  it  is  stirred  much.  Then  rinse  with  cold 
water  until  it  runs  off  clear;  then  churn  together  or  “gather” 
it ; press  the  water  out,  salt  it,  one  pound  to  eighteen  or  twenty, 
and  let  it  stand  till  next  day;  then  work  it  until  it  becomes 
perfectly  even  in  color.  Get  it  ready  for  market. 

Comparative  Profits  of  Butter  Making1.— Of  the  four  ways 
of  realizing  from  milk — butter  cheese  condensed  milk  and 


CATTLE. 


213 


milk  for  family  use — butter,  if  properly  made,  is  the  most 
profitable.  In  the  form  of  condensed  milk,  at  prices  hitherto 
obtained,  a quart  of  milk  reduced  by  evaporation  to  one- 
fourth  its  bulk  yields  about  half  a pound  in  weight  and 
realizes  fifteen  cents,  at  the  rate  of  three  dollars  and  fifty 
cents  per  dozen  for  pound  cans;  from  which  deduct  one-third 
for  cans  and  manufacturing,  leaving  ten  cents  per  quart  for  the 
milk.  At  fifteen  cents  for  cheese,  requiring  four  and  a half 
quarts  for  a pound,  and  forty-five  cents  for  butter,  requiring 
eleven  quarts,  the  product  would  realize  four  cents  per  quart 
for  cheese  and  four  and  a half  for  butter,  less  cost  of  making; 
and,  if  butter  and  skim-cheese  are  made,  it  will  show  five  cents 
per  quart.  Where  the  milk  is  sold  and  the  butter  is  sold,  both 
being  near  good  markets,  and  both  of  good  quality,  butter  at 
fifty  cents  pays  a better  profit,  equal  to  ten  per  cent.  The 
superior  manner  in  which  cheese  has  been  made  of  late  years 
has  more  than  trebled  the  foreign  and  home  demand  for  it, 
and,  consequently,  as  the  increase  of  the  manufacture  of  butter 
has  not  increased  with  the  population,  there  is  a scarcity  of 
butter,  and  the  prices  have  risen  proportionately. 

The  following  averages  of  milk  required  for  one  pound  of 
butter  are  tile  results  of  careful  tests  made  during  one  week 
in  each  month  from  March,  1871,  to  January,  1872,  inclusive. 
Herd  of  high-grade  short-horns: 


March . . 

12.5  quarts. 

July 

November. . 

April. . . 

12.4  “ 

August 

. . .^5  “ 

December. . 

...9.8  “ 

May 

12  “ 

September. .. 

,...12  “ 

January 

..10  “ 

June 

13  3 ic 

October 

....11.7  “ 

Buttermilk. — This  is  the  liquid  which  remains  in  the  churn 
after  removing  the  butter.  If  skimmed  milk  lias  been  em- 
ployed for  churning,  the  buttermilk  is  thin,  poor,  and  easily 
sours;  but  if  from  the  churning  of  the  entire  milk,  the  butter- 
milk is  more  thick  and  rich,  and  is  considered  by  many  a 
delicious  beverage.  Good  buttermilk  is,  at  all  events, 
exceedingly  wholesome  and  nutritious. 

Cheese. — Milk,  if  allowed  to  become  sour,  will  eventually 
curdle,  when  the  whey  is  easily  separated;  and  this  simple 
mode  was  probably  the  universal  method  of  making  cheese  in 


214 


CATTLE. 


ancient  times.  Cheese,  as  already  explained,  is  made  from 
caseine,  an  ingredient  of  milk  held  in  solution  by  means  of  an 
alkali  which  it  requires  the  presence  of  an  acid  to  neutralize. 
This,  in  modern  manufacture,  is  artificially  added  to  form  the 
curd;  but  the  acidity  of  milk,  after  standing,  acts  in  the  same 
manner  to  produce  coagulation.  This  is  due  to  the  change  of 
the  milk-sugar  into  lactic  acid. 

All  cheese  consists  essentially  of  the  curd  mixed  with  a 
certain  portion  of  the  fatty  matter,  and  of  the  sugar  of  milk. 
But  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  milk,  in  the  proportion  in 
which  the  several  constituents  of  milk  are  mixed  together,  or 
in  the  general  mode  of  dairy  management,  give  rise  to  varieties 
of  cheese  almost  without  number,.  Nearly  every  dairy  district 
produces  one  or  more  qualities  of  cheese  peculiar  to  itself.  It 
is  obvious  that  whatever  gives  rise  to  natural  differences  in  the 
quality  of  the  milk  must  affect  also  that  of  the  cheese  prepared 
from  it.  If  the  milk  be  poor  in  butter,  so  must  the  cheese  be. 
If  the  pasture  be  such  as  to  give  a milk  rich  in  cream,  the 
cheese  will  partake  of  the  same  quality.  If  the  herbage  or 
other  food  affect  the  taste  of  the  milk  or  cream,  it  will 
also  modify  the  flavor  of  the  cheese.  Still  further  differences 
are  produced  according  to  the  proportion  of  cream  which  is  left 
in  or  added  to  the  milk.  Thus,  if  cream  only  be  employed,  we 
have  the  rich  cream  cheese,  which  must  be  eaten  in  a com- 
paratively recent  state.  Or,  if  the  cream  of  the  previous 
night’s  milking  be  added  to  the  new  milk  of  the  morning,  we 
may  have  such  cheese  as  the  Stilton  of  England,  or  the  small, 
soft,  and  rich  Brie  cheeses  so  much  esteemed  in  France.  If 
the  entire  milk  only  be  used,  we  have  such  cheese  as  the 
Cheshire,  the  Double  Gloucester,  the  Cheddar,  the  Wiltshire, 
and  the  Dunlop  cheeses  of  Britain,  the  Kinnegad  cheese,  I 
believe,  of  Ireland,  and  the  Gouda  and  Edam  cheeses  of  Hol- 
land. Even  here,  however,  it  makes  a difference  whether  the 
warm  milk  from  the  cow  is  curdled  alone,  or  whether  it  is 
mixed  with  the  milk  of  the  evening  before.  Many  persons  are 
of  opinion  that  cream  which  has  once  been  separated,  can  never 
be  so  well  mixed  again  with  the  milk;  that  a portion  of  the 
fatty  matter  shall  not  flow  out  with  the  whey  and  render  the 
cheese  less  rich.  If?  again,  the  cream  of  the  evening's  milk  be 


CATTLE. 


215 


removed,  and  the  skimmed  milk  added  to  the  new  milk  of  the 
next  morning,  such  cheeses  are  of  inferior  quality.  If  the 
cream  be  taken  from  all  the  milk,  the  cheese  is  still  inferior  to 
the  last. 

Buttermilk  Cheese. — But  poor  or  butterless  cheese  will 
also  differ  in  quality  according  to  the  state  of  the  milk  from 
which  it  is  extracted.  If  the  new  milk  be  allowed  to  stand  to 
throw  up  its  cream,  and  this  be  then  removed  in  the  usual  way, 
the  ordinary  skimmed-milk  cheese  will  be  obtained  by  adding 
rennet  to  the  milk.  But  if,  instead  of  skimming,  we  allow  the 
milk  to  stand  till  it  begins  to  sour,  and  then  remove  the 
butter  by  churning  the  whole,  we  obtain  the  milk  in  a sour  state 
(buttermilk).  From  this  milk  the  curd  separates  naturally  by 
gentle  heating.  But  being  thus  prepared  from  sour  milk,  and 
without  the  use  of  rennet,  buttermilk  cheese  differs  more  or 
less  in  quality  from  that  which  is  made  from  sweet  skimmed 
milk.  The  acid  in  the  buttermilk,  especially  after  it  has  stood 
a day  or  two,  is  capable  of  coagulating  new  milk  also,  and 
thus,  by  mixing  more  or  less  sweet  milk  with  the  buttermilk, 
before  it  is  warmed,  several  other  qualities  of  mixed  butter  and 
sweet  milk  cheese  may  readily  be  manufactured.  This  article 
is,  however,  of  little  use,  only  when  fresh,  when  it  is  a healthy 
and  palatable  cheese. 

Whey  Cheese. — The  whey  separates  from  the  curd,  and 
especially  the  white  whey,  which  is  pressed  out  towards  the 
last,  contains  a portion  of  curd,  and  not  unfrequently  a con- 
siderable quantity  of  butter  also.  When  the  whey  is  heated, 
the  curd  and  butter  rise  to  the  surface,  and  are  readily  skimmed 
off.  This  curd  alone  will  often  yield  a cheese  of  excellent 
quality,  and  so  rich  in  butter  that  a very  good  imitation  of 
Stilton  cheese  may  sometimes  be  made  with  alternate  layers  of 
new  milk  curd  and  this  curd  of  whey. 

Rennet. — Rennet  is  prepared  from  the  salted  stomach  or 
intestines  of  a suckling  calf,  the  unweaned  lamb,  the  young  kid, 
or  the  young  pig.  In  general,  however,  the  stomach  of  the  calf 
is  preferred,  and  there  are  various  ways  of  curing  and  preserv- 
ing it.  The  stomach  of  the  newly  killed  animal  contains  a 
quantity  of  curd,  derived  from  th«  milk  on  which  it  has  been 


210 


CATTLE. 


fed.  In  most  districts  it  is  usual  to  remove,  by  a gentle  wash- 
ing, the  curd  and  slimy  matters  which  are  present  in  the  stom- 
ach, as  they  are  supposed  to  impart  a strong  taste  to  the  cheese. 
The  calf  should  have  a copious  draught  of  milk  shortly  before 
it  is  killed,  in  order  that  the  stomach  may  contain  a larger 
quantity  of  the  valuable  curd. 

In  the  mode  of  salting  the  stomach  similar  differences  pre- 
vail. Some  merely  put  a few  handfuls  of  salt  into  and  around 
it,  then  roll  it  together,  and  hang  it  near  the  chimney  to  dry. 
Others  salt  it  in  a pickle  for  a few  days,  and  then  hang  it  up  to 
dry;  while  others,  again,  pack  several  of  them  in  layers,  with 
much  salt  both  within  and  without,  and  preserve  them  in  a cool 
place  till  the  cheese  making  season  of  the  following  year.  They 
are  then  taken  out,  drained  from  the  brine,  spread  upon  a table, 
sprinkled  with  salt,  which  is  rolled  in  with  a wooden  roller,  and 
then  hung  up  to  dry.  In  some  foreign  countries,  again,  the 
recent  stomach  is  minced  very  fine,  mixed  with  some  spoonfuls 
of  salt  and  bread-crumb  into  a paste,  put  into  a bladder,  and 
then  dried.  In  whatever  way  the  stomach  or  intestine  of  the 
the  calf  is  prepared  and  preserved,  the  almost  universal  opinion 
seems  to  be  that  it  should  be  kept  for  ten  or  twelve  months 
before  it  is  capable  of  yielding  the  best  and  strongest  rennet. 
If  newer  than  twelve  months,  the  rennet  is  thought  to  make 
the  cheese  heave  or  swell,  and  become  full  of  eyes  or  holes. 

Making  the  Rennet. — In  making  the  rennet  different 
customs  also  prevail.  The  usual  way  is  to  take  the  entire 
stomachs,  and  pour  upon  them  from  one  to  three  quarts  of 
water  for  each  stomach,  and  to  allow  them  to  infuse  for  several 
days.  If  only  one  has  been  infused,  and  the  rennet  is  intended 
for  immediate  use,  the  infusion  requires  only  to  be  skimmed 
and  strained.  But,  if  several  be  infused,  as  many  as  have  been 
provided  for  the  whole  season,  about  two  quarts  of  water  are 
taken  for  each,  and,  after  standing  not  more  than  two  days,  the 
infusion  is  poured  off,  and  is  completely  saturated  with  salt. 
During  the  summer  it  is  constantly  skimmed,  and  fresh  salt 
added  from  time  to  time.  Or  a strong  brine  may  at  once  be 
poured  upon  the  skins,  and  the  infusion,  when  the  skins  are 
taken  out,  may  be  kept  for  a length  of  time.  Some  even  recom- 
mend that  the  liquid  rennet  should  not  be  used  until  it  is  at 


CATTLE. 


217 


least  two  months  old.  When  thus  kept,  however,  it  is  indis- 
pensable that  the  water  should  be  fully  saturated  with  salt. 

In  making  rennet,  some  use  pure  water  only;  others  prefer 
clear  whey;  others  a decoction  of  leaves,  such  as  those  of  sweet- 
briar,  the  dog-rose,  and  the  bramble,  or  of  aromatic  herbs  and 
flowers;  while  others,  again,  put  in  lemons,  cloves,  mace,  or 
whisky.  These  various  practices  are  adopted  for  the  purpose 
of  making  the  rennet  keep  better;  of  lessening  its  unpleasant 
smell;  of  preventing  any  unpleasant  taste  it  may  give  to  the 
curd;  or,  finally,  of  directly  improving  the  flavor  of  the  cheese. 
The  acidity  of  the  lemon  will,  no  doubt,  increase  also  the 
coagulating  power  of  any  rennet  to  which  it  may  be  added. 
The  rennet  thus  prepared  is  poured  into  the  milk,  previously 
raised  to  the  temperature  of  90  degrees  or  95  degrees  Fahren- 
heit, and  is  intimately  mixed  with  it.  The  quantity  which  it  is 
necessary  to  add  varies  with  the  quality  of  the  rennet,  from  a 
tablespoonful  to  half  a pint  for  thirty  or  forty  gallons  of  milk. 
The  time  necessary  for  the  complete  fixing  of  the  curd  varies 
also  from  fifteen  minutes  to  an  hour,  or  even  an  hour  and  a 
half.  The  chief  causes  of  this  variation  are  the  temperature 
of  the  milk,  and  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  rennet  em- 
ployed. 

Qualities  of  Cheese. — The  temperature  of  new  or  entire 
milk,  when  the  rennet  is  added,  should  be  raised  to  about  95 
degrees  Fahrenheit;  that  of  skimmed  milk  need  not  be  quite  so 
high.  If  the  milk  be  warmer,  the  curd  is  hard  and  tough;  if 
colder,  it  is  soft  and  difficult  to  obtain  free  from  the  whey. 
When  the  former  happens  to  be  the  case,  a portion  of  the  first 
whey  that  separates  may  be  taken  out  into  another  vessel, 
allowed  to  cool,  and  then  poured  in  again.  If  it  prove  to  have 
been  too  cool,  hot  milk  or  water  may  be  added  to  it;  or  a ves- 
sel containing  hot  water  may  be  put  into  it  before  the  curdling 
commences;  or  the  first  portion  of  the  whey  that  separates, 
may  be  heated  and  poured  again  upon  the  curd.  The  quality 
of  the  cheese,  however,  will  always  be  more  or  less  affected, 
when  it  happens  to  be  necessary  to  adopt  any  of  these  reme- 
dies. To  make  the  best  cheese,  the  true  temperature  should 
always  be  attained,  as  nearly  as  possible,  before  the  rennet  is 
added. 


218 


CATTLE. 


If,  as  is  the  case  in  many  family  dairies,  the  milk  be  warmed 
in  brass  caldrons,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  not  singed 
or  fire-fanged.  A very  slight  inattention  may  cause  this  to  be 
the  case,  and  the  taste  of  the  cheese  is  sure  to  be  more  or  less 
affected  by  it.  It  is  desirable  in  this  heating  not  to  raise  the 
temperature  higher  than  is  necessary,  as  a great  heat  is  apt  to 
give  an  oiliness  to  the  fatty  matter  of  the  milk. 

The  time  during  which  the  curd  stands  is  also  of  import- 
ance. It  should  be  broken  up  as  soon  as  the  milk  is  fully  coagu- 
lated. The  longer  it  stands  after  this,  the  harder  and  tougher 
it  will  become. 

The  quality  of  the  rennet  is  of  much  importance,  not  only 
in  regard  to  the  certainty  of  the  coagulation,  but  also  to  the 
flavor  of  the  cheese.  The  quantity  of  rennet  added  ought  to 
be  regulated  as  carefully  as  the  temperature  of  the  milk.  Too 
much  renders  the  curd  tough;  too  little  causes  the  loss  of  much 
time,  and  may  permit  a larger  portion  of  the  butter  to  separate 
itself  from  the  curd.  It  is  to  be  expected,  also,  that  when  ren- 
net is  used  in  great  excess,  a portion  of  it  will  remain  in  the 
curd,  and  will  naturally  affect  the  kind  and  rapidity  of  the 
changes  it  afterwards  undergoes.  Thus  it  is  said  to  cause  the 
cheese  to  heave  or  swell  out  from  fermentation.  It  is  probable, 
also,  that  it  will  affect  the  flavor  which  the  cheese  acquires  by 
keeping.  'Thus  it  may  be  that  the  agreeable  or  unpleasant  taste 
of  the  cheeses  of  certain  districts  or  dairies  may  be  less  due  to 
the  quality  of  the  pastures,  or  of  the  milk  itself,  than  to  the 
quantity  of  rennet  with  which  it  has  there  been  customary  to 
coagulate  the  milk. 

Treatment  of  the  Curd. — It  is  usual  in  our  best  cheese 
districts  carefully  and  slowly  to  separate  the  curd  from  the 
whey;  not  to  hasten  the  separation,  lest  a larger  portion  of  the 
fatty  matter  should  be  squeezed  out  of  the  curd,  and  the  cheese 
should  thus  be  rendered  poorer  than  usual.  But,  in  some 
places,  the  practice  prevails  of  washing  the  curd  with  hot  water 
after  the  whey  has  been  partially  separated  from  it.  The  sep- 
aration of  the  whey  is  part  of  the  process  upon  which  the  quali- 
ties of  the  cheese  in  a considerable  degree  depends.  In  making 
the  celebrated  Stilton  cheese,  the  curd  is  not  cut  or  broken  at 
fill,  but  is  pressed  gently  and  with  care  till  the  whey  gradually 


CATTLE. 


219 


drains  out.  Thus  the  butter  and  the  curd  remain  intermixed, 
and  the  rich  cheese  of  Stilton  is  the  result.  Thus,  while  it  is  of 
importance  that  all  the  whey  should  be  extracted  from 
the  curd,  yet  the  quickest  way  may  not  be  the  best.  More  time 
and  care  must  be  bestowed  in  order  to  effect  this  object,  the 
richer  the  cheese  we  wish  to  obtain.  The  quality  of  the  milk 
or  of  the  pastures  may  often  be  blamed  for  the  deficiencies  in 
the  richness  or  other  qualities  of  cheese,  which  are  in  reality 
due  to  slight  but  material  differences  of  manufacturing  it.  The 
salt  used  should  be  of  the  purest  quality. 

How  the  Salt  is  Applied. — In  making  large  cheeses,  the 
dried  curd,  for  a single  cheese  of  sixty  pounds,  is  broken  down 
fine,  and  divided  into  three  equal  portions.  One  of  these  is 
mingled  with  double  the  quantity  of  salt  added  to  the  others, 
and  this  is  so  put  into  the  cheese  vat,  as  to  form  the  central 
part  of  the  cheese.  By  this  precaution,  the  after-salting  on  the 
surface  is  sure  to  penetrate  deep  enough  to  cure  effectually  the 
less  salted  parts.  It  may  not  be  impossible  to  cause  salt  to 
penetrate  into  the  very  heart  of  a large  cheese,  but  it  cannot 
be  easy  in  this  way  to  salt  the  whole  cheese  equally,  while  the 
care  and  attetinon  required  must  be  greatly  increased.  Another 
mode  of  improving  the  quality  of  cheese  is  by  the  addition  of 
cream  to  the  dry  and  crumbled  curd.  Much  diligence,  how- 
ever, is  required  fully  to  incorporate  these,  so  that  the  cheese 
may  be  uniform  throughout.  Still  this  practice  gives  a peculiar 
character  to  the  cheese  so  manipulated. 

Size  of  the  Cheese. — From  the  same  milk  it  is  obvious 
that  cheeses  of  different  sizes,  if  treated  in  the  same  way,  will, 
at  the  end  of  a given  number  of  months,  possess  qualities  in  a 
considerable  degree  different.  Hence,  without  supposing  any 
inferiority,  either  in  the  milk  or  in  the  general  mode  of  treat- 
ment, the  size  usually  adopted  for  the  cheeses  of  a particular 
district  or  dairy,  may  be  the  cause  of  a recognized  inferiority 
in  some  quality  which  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  possess 
in  a high  degree. 

Curing. — This  has  very  much  influence  upon  the  after 
qualities  of  the  cheese.  The  care  with  which  they  were  salted, 
the  warmth  of  the  place  in  which  they  are  kept  during  the  first 
fwo  or  three  weeks?  the  temperature  and  closeness  of  the  cheese 


220 


CATTLE. 


room  in  which  they  are  afterwards  preserved,  tn*  or 

turning,  of  cleaning  from  mold,  and  rubbing  with  butter;  all 
these  circumstances  exercise  a remarkable  influence  upon  the 
after  qualities  of  the  cheese.  Indeed,  in  very  many  instances, 
the  high  reputation  of  a particular  dairy  district,  or  dairy  farm, 
is  derived  from  some  special  attention  to  one  or  another,  or  to 
all  of  the  apparently  minor  items  of  its  process. 

In  the  foregoing  remarks,  we  have  treated  the  making  of 
cheese  in  a domestic  way  chiefly,  as  a household  production. 
But  the  manufacture  of  cheese  in  our  dairy  districts  has  of  late 
assumed  such  large  proportions,  being  now  mainly  made  in 
factories,  that  the  old  time  manner  of  treating  it,  in  all  but  the 
preparation  of  the  essential  ingredients,  is  thrown  aside  for 
more  recent  improvements,  as  the  heating  caldron,  the  curd 
vats,  and  various  other  utensils  to  work  the  milk  through  its 
different  processes  into  the  perfectly  cured  cheese.  It  has  be- 
come a trade  by  itself,  requiring  skill,  experience,  and  appren- 
ticeship to  the  work,  which  few  can  obtain  outside  of  the  regu- 
lar factory. 

Fattening  Cattle  for  Market. — The  stall-feeding  or  soiling 
of  cattle  is  considered  to  possess  several  advantages  over  feed- 
ing in  the  fields.  In  field-feeding  the  animals  waste  a certain 
quantity  of  pasture  by  treading  and  lying  upon  it,  and  dropping 
their  dung — the  grass  which  grows  on  the  dung  spots  being 
ever  after  rejected;  the  animals  also  spend  time  in  seeking  for 
the  herbage  which  suits  their  fancy,  and  much  is  allowed  to  go 
to  seed  untouched.  In  stall-feeding  the  whole  time  is  devoted 
to  eating  and  ruminating,  while  no  food  is  lost,  and  the  ani- 
mals are  brought  to  a higher  condition.  Another  important 
advantage  of  soiling  is  that  it  uses  up  the  waste  straw  of  a 
farm  as  litter,  and  thus  furnishes  a plentiful  supply  of  that  in- 
dispensable article,  manure,  for  the  fields.  Some  feeders  tie 
up  their  cattle  to  the  stall  while  preparing  for  market;  but 
others  permit  them  to  roam  about  on  a thick  bed  of  straw  in 
an  enclosure  in  the  farm  yard,  with  a shed  to  retire  to  for  shel- 
ter— the  feeding  in  this  case  being  from  racks.  Unless  for  a 
period  during  the  final  process  of  fattening,  the  straw-yard 
method  is  reckoned  the  best  for  keeping  the  cattle  in  a healthy 
state,  and  consequently  for  producing  beef  of  the  finest  kind, 


CATTLE. 


221 


The  practice  of  feeding  cattle,  for  a considerable  length  of 
time,  in  darkened  stalls,  on  oil-cake,  carrots,  mangle-wurzel, 
&c.,  produces,  as  is  well  known,  a great  deposition  of  fat,  and 
swells  the  animal  to  a monstrous  size.  The  beef,  however,  of 
such  over-fed  cattle  is  never  fine.  The  fat  with  which  it  is 
loaded  easily  escapes  in  cooking,  and  leaves  lean  of  an  inferior 
quality.  The  best  sign  of  good  meat  is  its  being  marbled,  or 
the  fat  and  lean  well  mixed,  when  brought  to  the  table;  and 
this  is  not  to  be  expected  from  beef  fed  in  an  unnatural  con- 
dition. 

The  age  at  which  cattle  are  fattened  depends  upon  the 
manner  in  which  they  have  been  reared — upon  the  properties 
of  the  breed  in  regard  to  a propensity  to  fatten  earlier  or  later 
in  life — and  on  the  circumstances  of  their  being  employed  in 
breeding,  in  labor,  for  the  dairy,  or  reared  solely  for  the 
butcher.  In  the  latter  case,  the  most  improved  breeds  are  fit 
for  the  shambles  when  about  three  years  old,  and  very  few  of 
any  large  breed  are  kept  more  than  a year  longer.  As  to  cows 
and  working  oxen,  the  age  of  fattening  must  necessarily  be 
more  indefinite;  in  most  instances  the  latter  are  put  up  to  feed 
after  working  three  years,  or  in  the  seventh  or  eight  year  of 
their  age. 


Points  of  Fat  Cattle. — Whatever  theoretical  objections  may 
be  raised  against  over-fed  cattle,  and  great  as  may  be  the 
attempts  to  disparage  the  mountains  of  fat — as  highly  fed  cat- 


222 


CATTLE. 


tie  are  designated — there  is  no  doubt  of  the  practical  fact,  that 
the  best  butcher  cannot  sell  anything  but  the  best  fatted  beef; 
and,  of  whatever  age,  size  or  shape  a half  fatted  ox  may  be,  he 
is  never  selected  by  judges  as  fit  for  human  food.  Hence,  a 
well-fatted  animal  always  commands  a better  price  per  pound 
than  one  imperfectly  fed,  and  the  parts  selected  as  the  primest 
beef  are  precisely  the  parts  which  contain  the  largest  deposits 
of  fat.  The  rump,  the  crop,  and  the  sirloin,  the  very  favorite 
cuts,  which  always  command  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  per 
cent,  more  than  any  other  part  of  the  ox,  are  just  those  parts 
on  which  the  largest  quantities  of  fat  are  found;  so  that, 
instead  of  the  taste  and  fashion  of  the  age  being  against  the 
excessive  fattening  of  animals,  the  fact  is,  practically,  exactly 
the  reverse.  Where  there  is  the  most  fat,  there  is  the  best  lean; 
where  there  is  the  greatest  amount  of  muscle,  without  its  share 
of  fat,  that  part  is  counted  inferior,  and  is  used  for  a differ- 
ent purpose;  in  fact,  so  far  from  fat’s  being  a disease,  it  is 
a condition  of  muscle,  necessary  to  its  utility  as  food,  a source 
of  luxury  to  the  rich,  and  of  comfort  to  the  poor,  furnishing 
a nourishing  and  healthy  diet  for  their  families. 

Now,  there  are  several  qualities  which  are  essentially 
characteristic  of  a disposition  to  fatten.  There  have  not,  as  yet, 
been  any  book  rules  laid  down,  but  there  are,  nevertheless, 
marks  so  definite  and  well  understood,  that  they  are  compre- 
hended and  acted  upon  by  every  grazier,  although  they  are  by 
no  means  easy  to  describe.  It  is  by  skillful  acumen  that  the 
grazier  acquires  his  knowledge,  and  not  by  theoretical  rules; 
observation,  judgment,  and  experience,  powerful  perceptive 
faculties,  and  a keen  and  minute  comparison  and  discrimination, 
are  essential  to  his  success. 

The  first  indication  upon  which  he  relies  is  the  touch. 
It  is  the  absolute  criterion  of  quality,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
the  keystone  of  perfection  in  all  animals,  whether  for  the  pail 
or  the  butcher.  The  skin  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the 
internal  organs,  in  all  animals,  that  it  is  questionable  whether 
even  our  schools  of  medicine  might  not  make  more  use  of  it 
in  a diagnosis  of  disease.  Of  physiological  tendencies  in  cattle, 
however,  it  is  of  the  last  and  most  vital  importance.  It 
must  neither  be  thick  nor  hard,  nor  adhere  firmly  to  the 


CATTLE. 


223 


muscles.  If  it  is  so,  the  animal  is  a hard  grazer,  a difficult 
and  obstinate  feeder — no  skillful  man  will  purchase  it — such  a 
creature  must  go  to  a novice,  and  even  to  him  at  a price  so  low 
as  to  tempt  him  to  become  a purchaser.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  skin  must  not  be  thin,  like  paper,  nor  flaccid,  nor  loose  in 
the  hand,  nor  flabby.  This  is  the  opposite  extreme,  and  is 
indicative  of  delicateness,  bad,  flabby  flesh,  and,  possibly,  of 
inaptitude  to  retain  the  fat.  It  must  be  elastic  and  velvety, 
soft  and  pliable,  presenting  to  the  touch  a gentle  resistance 
but  so  delicate  as  to  give  pleasure  to  the  sensitive  hand — a 
skin,  in  short,  which  seems  at  first  to  give  an  indentation  from 
the  pressure  of  the  fingers,  but  which  again  rises  to  its  place  by 
a gentle  elasticity. 

The  hair  is  of  nearly  as  much  importance  as  the  skin.  A 
hard  skiti  will  have  straight  and  stiff  hair;  it  will  not  have  a 
curl,  but  be  thinly  and  lankly  distributed  equally  over  the  sur- 
face. A proper  grazing  animal  will  have  a mossy  coat,  not 
absolutely  curled,  but  having  a disposition  to  a graceful  curl,  a 
semifold,  which  presents  a waving  inequality,  but  as  different 
from  a close  and  straight  laid  coat,  as  it  is  from  one  standing 
off  the  animal  at  right  angles,  a strong  symptom  of  disease.  It 
will  also,  in  a thriving  animal,  be  licked  here  and  there  with 
its  tongue,  a proof  that  the  skin  is  duly  performing  its  func- 
tions. 

There  must  be,  also  the  full  and  goggle  eye,  bright  and 
pressed  outward  by  the  fatty  bed  below;  because,  as  this  is  a 
part  where  nature  always  provides  fat,  an  animal  capable  of 
developing  it  to  any  considerable  extent,  will  have  its  indica- 
tions here,  at  least,  when  it  exists  in  excess. 

So  much  for  feeding  qualities  in  the  animal,  and  their  con- 
formations indicative  of  this  kindly  disposition.  Next  come 
such  formations  of  the  animal  itself  as  are  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  fat,  other  things  being  equal.  There  must  be  size 
where  large  weights  are  expected.  Christmas  beef,  for  instance, 
is  expected  to  be  large  as  well  as  fat.  The  symbol  of  festivity 
should  be  capacious,  as  well  as  prime  in  quality.  But  it  is  so 
much  a matter  of  choice  and  circumstance  with  the  grazier, 
that  profit  alone  will  not  be  his  guide.  The  axiom  will  be,  how- 
ever, as  a general  rule,  that  the  better  the  grazing  soil  the  larger 


224 


CATTLE. 


the  animal  may  be;  the  poorer  the  soil,  the  smaller  the  animal. 
Small  animals  are,  unquestionably,  much  more  easily  fed,  and 
they  are  well  known  by  experienced  men  to  be  best  adapted  to 
second-rate  feeding  pastures. 

But,  beyond  this,  there  must  be  breadth  of  carcass.  This 
is  indicative  of  fattening,  perhaps,  beyond  all  other  qualifica- 
tions. If  rumps  are  favorite  joints,  and  produce  the  best  price, 
it  is  best  to  have  the  animal  which  will  grow  the  longest,  the 
broadest,  and  the  best  rump;  the  same  of  crop,  and  the  same 
of  sirloin;  and,  not  only  so,  but  breadth  is  essential  to  the  con- 
consumption  of  that  quantity  of  food  which  is  necessary  to  the 
development  of  a large  amount  of  fat  in  the  animal.  Thus,  a 
deep,  wide  chest,  favorable  for  the  respiratory  and  circulating 
functions,  enables  it  to  consume  a large  amount  of  food,  to 
take  up  the  sugary  matter  and  to  deposit  the  fatty  matter — as 
then  useless  for  respiration,  but  afterwards  to  be  prized.  A full 
level  crop  will  be  of  the  same  physiological  utility;  while  a 
broad  and  open  framework  at  the  hips  will  afford  scope  for  the 
action  of  the  liver  and  kidneys. 

There  are  other  points,  also,  of  much  importance;  the  head 
must  be  small  and  fine;  its  special  use  is  indicative  of  the  quick 
fattening  of  the  animal  so  constructed,  and  it  is  also  indicative 
of  the  bones  being  small  and  the  legs  short.  For  constitutional 
powers,  the  beast  should  fiave  his  ribs  extended  well  toward 
the  thigh-bones  or  hips,  so  as  to  leave  as  little  unprotected 
space  as  possible.  There  must  be  no  angular  or  abrupt  points; 
all  must  be  round,  and  broad,  and  parallel.  Any  depression 
in  the  lean  animal  will  give  a sufficient  deposit  of  flesh  and  fat 
at  that  point,  when  sold  to  the  butcher,  and  thus  deteriorate  its 
value;  and  hence  the  animal  must  be  round  and  full. 

But  either  fancy,  or  accident,  or  skill — it  is  unnecessary  to 
decide  which — has  associated  symmetry  with  quality  and  con- 
formation, as  a point  of  great  importance  in  animals  calculated 
for  fattening;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that,  to  a certain  extent, 
that  is  so.  The  beast  must  be  a system  of  mathematical  lines. 
To  the  advocate  of  symmetry,  the  setting-on  of  a tail  will  be 
a condemning  fault;  indeed  the  ridge  of  the  back,  like  a 
straight  line,  with  the  outline  of  the  belly  exactly  parallel, 
viewed  from  the  side,  and  a depth  and  squareness  when  viewed 


CATTLE. 


225 


from  behind — which  remind  us  of  a geometrical  cube,  rather 
than  a vital  economy — may  be  said  to  be  the  indications  of 
excellence  in  a fat  ox.  The  points  of  excellence  in  such  an 
animal  are  outlined  under  the  subsequent  head,  as  developed 
in  the  cutting  up  after  slaughter. 

Now,  those  qualities  are  inherent  in  some  breeds;  there 
may  be  cases  and  instances  in  all  the  superior  breeds,  and  in 
most  there  may  be  failures. 

Slaughtering. — Cattle  are  made  to  fast  before  slaughter. 
The  time  they  should  stand  depends  upon  their  state  on  their 
arrival  at  the  shambles.  If  they  have  been  driven  a consider- 
able distance  in  a proper  manner,  the  bowels  will  be  in  a pretty 
empty  state,  so  that  twelve  hours  may  suffice;  but  if  they  are 
full  and  just  off  their  food,  twenty-four  hours  will  be  required. 
Beasts  that  have  been  overdriven,  or  much  struck  with  sticks, 
or  in  any  degree  infuriated,  should  not  be  immediately  slaugh- 
tered, but  allowed  to  stand  on  dry  food,  such  as  hay,  until  the 
symptoms  disappear.  These  precautions  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  the  meat  may  be  preserved  in  the  best  state. 

The  mode  of  slaughtering  cattle  varies  in  different  coun- 
tries. In  the  great  slaughter-houses  at  Montmartre,  in  Paris, 
they  are  slaughtered  by  bisecting  the  spinal  cord  of  the  cerical 
verterbae;  and  this  is  accomplished  by  the  driving  of  a sharp- 
pointed  chisel  between  the  second  and  third  vertebrae,  with  a 
smart  stroke  of  a mallet  while  the  animal  is  standing,  when  it 
drops,  and  death  or  insensibility  instantly  ensues,  and  the 
blood  is  let  out  immediately  by  opening  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  neck.  The  plan  adopted  in  England  is,  first  to  bring  the 
ox  down  on  his  knees  and  place  his  under  jaw  upon  the  ground 
by  means  of  ropes  fastened  to  his  head  and  passed  through  an 
iron  ring  in  the  floor  of  the  slaughter  house.  He  is  then  stun- 
ned by  a few  blows  from  an  iron  axe  made  for  the  purpose,  on 
the  forehead,  the  bone  of  which  is  usually  driven  into  the 
brain.  The  animal  then  falls  upon  his  side,  and  the  blood  is 
let  out  by  the  neck.  Of  the  two  modes,  the  French  is  appar- 
ently the  less  cruel,  for  some  oxen  require  many  blows  to  make 
them  fall.  Some  butchers,  however,  allege  that  the  separation 
of  the  spinal  cord,  by  producing  a general  nervous  convulsion 
throughout  the  body,  prevents  the  blood  from  flowing  as 
ia 


226  CATTLE. 

rapidly  and  entirely  out  of  it  as  when  the  ox  is  stunned  in  the 
forehead.  The  skin  is  then  taken  off  to  the  knees,  when  the  legs 
are  disjointed,  and  also  off  the  head.  The  carcass  is  then  hung 
up  by  the  tendons  of  the  hough  on  a stretcher,  by  a block  and 
tackle,  worked  by  a small  winch,  which  retains  in  place  what 
rope  it  winds  up  by  means  of  a wheel  and  rachet. 

After  the  carcass  has  hung  for  twenty-four  hours,  it  should 
be  cut  down  by  the  back-bone  or  chine  into  two  sides.  This 
is  done  either  with  the  saw  or  chopper;  the  saw  making  the 
neater  job  in  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced  butcher,  though  it  is 
the  more  laborious;  and  with  the  chopper  is  the  quicker,  but 
by  no  means  the  neater,  plan,  especially  in  the  hands  of  a care- 
less workman.  In  London,  the  chine  is  equally  divided  be- 
tween both  sides;  while  in  Scotland  one  side  of  a carcass  of 
beef  has  a great  deal  more  bone  than  the  other,  all  the  spinous 
processes  of  the  vertebrae  being  left  upon  it.  The  bony  is 
called  the  lying  side  of  the  meat.  In  London,  the  divided 
processes  in  the  fore-quarters  are  broken  in  the  middle  when 
warm,  and  chopped  back  with  the  fl  it  side  of  the  chopper, 
which  has  the  effect  of  thickening  the  fore  and  middle  ribs 
considerably  when  cut  up.  The  London  butcher  also  cuts  the 
joints  above  the  hind  knee,  and,  by  making  some  incisions 
with  a sharp  knife,  cuts  the  tendons  there,  and  drops  the  flesh 
of  the  hind-quarters  on  the  flank  and  loins,  which  causes  it  to 
cut  up  thicker  than  in  the  Scotch  mode.  In  opening  the  hind- 
quarter  he  also  cuts  the  aitch  bone  or  pelvis  through  the 
centre,  which  makes  the  rump  look  better.  Some  butchers  in 
the  north  of  England  score  the  fat  of  the  closing  of  the  hind- 
quarter,  which  has  the  effect  of  making  that  part  of  both 
heifer  and  ox  look  like  the  udder  of  an  old  cow.  There  is  far 
too  much  of  this  scoring  practiced  in  Scotland,  which  prevents 
the  pieces  from  retaining — which  they  should,  as  nearly  as 
possible — their  natural  appearance. 

Cutting  Up. — In  cutting  up  a carcass  of  beef  the  London 
butcher  displays  great  expertness;  he  not  only  discriminates 
between  the  qualities  of  the  different  parts,  but  can  cut  out  any 
piece  to  gratify  the  taste  of  his  customers.  In  this  way  he 
makes  the  best  use  of  the  carcass  and  realizes  the  largest  value 
for  it,  while  he  gratifies  the  taste  of  every  grade  of  customers. 


CATTLE. 


22? 


A figure  of  the  Scotch  and  English  modes  of  cutting  up  a 
carcass  of  beef  will  at  once  show  the  difference;  and,  upon 
being  informed  where  the  valuable  pieces  lie,  an  opinion  can  be 
formed  as  to  whether  the  oxen  the  farmer  is  breeding  or  feed- 
ing possess  the  properties  which  will  enable  him  to  demand  the 
highest  price  for  them: 


SCOTCH  MODE. 


The  sirloin  is  the  principal  roasting-piece,  making  a very- 
handsome  dish,  and  is  a universal  favorite.  It  consists  of  two 
portions,  the  Scotch  and  English  sides;  the  former  is  above 
the  lumbar  bones,  and  is  somewhat  hard  in  ill-fed  cattle;  the 
latter  consists  of  the  muscles  under  these  bones,  which  are 
generally  covered  with  fine  fat,  and  are  exceedingly  tender.  The 
better  the  beast  is  fed,  the  larger  is  the  under  muscle,  better 
covered  with  fat  and  more  tender  to  eat.  The  hook-bone  and 
the  buttocks  are  cut  up  for  steaks,  beef-steak-pie,  or  minced 
collops,  and  both  these,  together  with  the  sirloin,  bring  the 
highest  price.  The  large  round  and  the  small  round  are  both 
well  known  as  excellent  pieces  for  salting  and  boiling,  and  are 
eaten  cold  with  great  relish.  The  hough  is  peculiarly  suited  for 
boiling  down  for  soup,  having  a large  proportion  of  gelatinous 
matter.  Brown  soup  is  the  principal  dish  made  of  the  hough, 
but  its  decoction  forms  an  excellent  stock  for  various  dishes, 
and  will  keep  in  a state  of  jelly  for  a considerable  time.  The 
thick  and  the  thin  flank  are  both  admirable  pieces  for  salting 
and  boiling.  The  tail,  insignificant  as  it  may  seem,  makes  a 
soup  of  a very  fine  flavor.  Hotel  keepers*  have  a trick  of 
seasoning  brown  soup,  or,  rather,  beef-tea,  with  a few  joints  of 
tail,  and  passing  it  off  for  genuine  ox-tail  soup.  These  are  all 
the  pieces  which  constitute  the  hind-quarter;  and  it  will  be 


228 


CATTLE. 


seen  that  they  are  valuable  both  for  roasting  and  boiling,  not 
containing  a single  coarse  piece 

In  the  fore-quarter  is  the  spare-rib,  the  six  ribs  of  the  back 
end  of  which  make  an  excellent  roast,  and,  when  taken  from  the 
side  opposite  the  lying  one,  being  free  of  the  bones  of  the 
spine,  it  makes  a larger  one;  and  it  also  makes  excellent  beef- 
steaks and  beefsteak-pie.  The  two  runners  and  the  nineholes 
make  excellent  salting  and  boiling  pieces,  but  of  these,  the 
nineholes  is  much  the  best,  as  it  consists  of  layers  of  fat  and 
lean  without  any  bone;  whereas  the  foreparts  of  the  runners 
have  a piece  of  shoulder-blade  in  them,  and  every  piece 
connected  with  that  bone  is  more  or  less  coarse-grained.  The 
brisket  eats  very  well  boiled  fresh  in  broth,  and  may  be  cooked 
and  eaten  with  boiled  greens  or  carrots.  The  shoulder-lyar  is 
a coarse  piece,  and  fit  only  for  boiling  fresh  to  make  into  broth 
or  beef-tea.  The  nap,  or  shin,  is  analogous  to  the  hough  of 
the  hind  leg,  but  not  so  rich  and  fine,  there  being  much  less 
gelatinous  matter  in  it.  The  neck  makes  good  broth;  and  the 
sticking-piece  is  a great  favorite  with  some  epicures,  on 
account  of  the  rich  pieces  of  fat  in  it.  It  makes  an  excellent 
stew,  as  also  sweet  barley-broth,  and  the  meat  eats  well  when 
broiled  in  it. 


These  are  all  the  pieces  of  the  fore-quarter;  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  they  consist  chiefly  of  boiling-pieces,  and  some  of 
them  none  of  the  finest — the  roasting-piece  being  confined  to 
the  six  ribs  of  the  spare  rib,  and  the  finest  boiling  piece,  corned, 
only  to  be  found  in  the  nineholes. 

The  loin  is  the  principal  roasting-piece;  the  rump  is  the 
favorite  steak-piece;  the  aitch-bone,  the  favorite  stew;  the 


CATTLE. 


229 


buttock,  the  thick  flank,  and  the  thin  flank  are  all  excellent 
boiling-pieces  when  corned;  the  hock  and  the  shin  make  soup 
and  afford  stock  for  the  various  requirements  of  the  culinary 
art;  and  the  tail  furnishes  ox-tail  soup — a favorite  English 
luncheon.  These  are  all  the  pieces  of  the  hind-quarter,  and 
they  are  valuable  of  their  respective  kinds 

In  the  fore-quarter,  the  fore-rib,  middle-rib,  and  chuckle- 
rib,  are  all  roasting  pieces,  not  alike  good;  but  in  removing  the 
part  of  the  shoulder-blade,  in  the  middle-rib,  the  spare-ribs 
below  make  a good  broil  or  roast;  the  neck  makes  soup,  being 
used  fresh,  boiled;  the  back  end  of  the  brisket  is  boiled,  corned 
or  stewed;  the  leg-of-mutton  piece  is  coarse,  but  is  as  frequently 
stewed  as  boiled;  the  shin  is  put  to  the  same  use  as  the  shin 
and  hock  of  the  hind-quarter. 

On  comparing  the  two  modes  of  cutting-up,  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  in  the  English  there  are  more  roasting-pieces  than 
in  the  Scotch,  a large  proportion  of  the  fore-quarter  being  used 
in  that  way.  The  plan,  too,  of  cutting  the  loin  between  the 
rump  and  aitch-bone  in  the  hind-quarter,  lays  open  the  steak- 
pieces  to  better  advantage  than  in  the  Scotch  bullock.  Extend- 
ing the  comparison  from  one  part  of  the  carcass  to  the  other, 
in  both  methods,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  most  valuable  pieces — 
the  roasting — occupy  its  upper,  and  the  less  valuable — the  boil- 
ing— its  lower  part.  Every  beast,  therefore,  that  lays  on  beef 
more  upon  the  upper  part  of  its  body  is  more  valuable  than 
one  that  lays  the  same  quantity  of  flesh  on  its  lower  parts. 

It  is  deemed  unnecessary  to  enter  into  details  as  to  the 
modes  of  cutting-up  most  in  vogue  in  this  country,  as  there  is  a 
needlessly  great  want  of  uniformity. 

Beef. — Beef  is  the  staple  animal  food  of  this  country,  and  it 
is  used  in  various  states — fresh,  salted,  smoked,  roasted,  and 
boiled.  When  intended  to  be  eaten  fresh,  the  ribs  will  keep 
the  best,  and  with  care  will  keep  five  or  six  days  in  summer, 
and  in  winter  ten  days.  The  middle  of  the  loin  is  the  next 
best,  and  the  rump  the  next.  The  round  will  not  keep  long, 
unless  it  is  salted.  The  brisket  is  the  worst,  and  will  not  keep 
more  than  three  days  in  summer,  and  in  winter  a week.  In 
regard  to  the  powers  of  the  stomach  to  digest  beef,  that  which 
is  eaten  boiled  with  salt  only,  is  digested  in  two  hours  and  forty- 


230 


CATTLE. 


five  minutes.  Beef,  fresh,  lean,  and  rarely  roasted,  and  a beef- 
steak broiled,  takes  three  hours  to  digest;  that  fresh,  and  dry- 
roasted,  and  boiled,  eaten  with  mustard,  is  digested  in  three 
and  a half  hours.  Lean  fresh  beef  fried,  requires  four  hours, 
and  old,  hard  salted  beef  boiled,  does  not  digest  in  less  than 
four  and  a quarter  hours.  Fresh  beef-suet  boiled,  takes  five 
and  a half  hours. 

Its  Preservation. — The  usual  mode  of  preserving  beef  is 
by  salting;  and,  when  intended  to  keep  for  a long  time,  such  as 
for  the  use  of  shipping,  it  is  always  salted  with  brine;  but  for 
family  use  it  should  be  salted  only  with  good  salt,  for  brine 
dispels  the  juice  of  meat,  and  saltpetre  only  serves  to  make  the 
meat  dry,  and  give  it  a disagreeable  and  unnatural  red  color. 
Various  experiments  have  been  made  in  curing  beef  with  salt 
otherwise  than  by  hand-rubbing,  and  in  a short  space  of  time; 
and  also  to  preserve  it  from  putrefacation  by  other  means  than 
salt.  Some  packers  put  meal  in  a copper  which  is  rendered 
air-tight,  and  an  air-pump  then  creates  a vacuum  within  it, 
thereby  extracting  all  the  air  out  of  the  meat;  then  brine  is 
pumped  in  by  pressure,  which,  entering  into  every  pore  of  the 
meat  formerly  occupied  by  the  air,  is  said  to  place  it  in  a state 
of  preservation  in  a few  minutes. 

The  Offal. — Cattle,  when  slaughtered,  are  useful  to  man  in 
various  other  ways  than  by  affording  food  from  their  flesh — 
their  offal  of  tallow,  hides,  and  horns,  forming  extensive  articles 
of  commerce.  Of  the  hide,  the  characteristics  of  a good  one 
for  strong  purposes,  are  strength  in  its  middle,  or  butt,  as  it  is 
called,  and  lightness  in  the  edges  or  offal.  A bad  hide  is  the 
opposite  of  this — thick  in  the  edges  and  thin  in  the  middle.  A 
good  hide  has  a firm  texture;  a bad  one,  loose  and  soft.  A hide 
improves  as  the  summer  advances,  and  it  continues  to  improve 
after  the  new  coat  of  hair  in  autumn  until  November  or  Decem- 
ber, when  the  coat  gets  rough  from  the  coldness  of  the  season, 
and  the  hide  is  then  in  its  best  state.  It  is  surprising  how  a hide 
improves  in  thickness  after  the  cold  weather  has  set  in.  The 
sort  of  food  does  not  seem  to  affect  the  quality  of  the  hide; 
but  the  better  it  is,  and  the  better  cattle  have  been  fed,  and 
the  longer  they  have  been  well  fed,  even  from  a calf,  the  bet- 
ter the  hide.  From  what  has  been  said  of  the  effect  of  weather 


CATTLE. 


231 


upon  the  hide,  it  seems  a natural  conclusion  that  a hide  is  bet- 
ter from  an  ox  that  has  been  fed  in  the  open  air  than  from  one 
that  has  been  kept  in  the  barn.  Dirt  adhering  to  a hide  injures 
it,  particularly  in  stall-fed  animals;  and  any  thing  that  punc- 
tures a hide,  such  as  warbles  arising  from  certain  insects,  is  also 
injurious.  The  best  hides  are  obtained  from  the  West 
Highlanders.  The  Short  Horns  produce  the  thinnest  hides, 
the  Aberdeenshire  the  next,  and  then  the  Angus.  Of  the  same 
breed,  the  ox  affords  the  strongest  hide;  but,  as  hides  are  ap- 
plied to  various  uses,  the  cow’s,  provided  it  be  large,  may  be  as 
valuable  as  that  of  the  ox.  The  bull’s  hide  is  the  least  valu- 
able. Hides  are  imported  from  Russia  and  South  America. 

Leather. — Hides,  when  deprived  of  their  hair,  are  converted 
into  leather  by  an  infusion  of  the  astringent  property  of  bark. 
The  old  plan  of  tanning  used  to  occupy  a long  time;  but,  such 
was  the  value  of  the  process,  that  the  old  tanners  used  to  pride 
themselves  upon  producing  a substantial  article — which  is  more 
than  can  be  said  in  many  instances  under  modern  improved 
modes,  which  hasten  the  process,  much  to  the  injury  of  the 
article  produced.  Strong  infusions  of  bark  make  leather  brit- 
tle; one  hundred  pounds  of  skin,  quickly  tanned  in  a strong 
infusion,  produce  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  pounds  of 
leather,  while  a weak  infusion  produces  only  one  hundred  and 
seventeen  and  a half,  the  additional  nineteen  and  a half  pounds 
serving  only  to  deteriorate  the  leather,  and  causing  it  to  con- 
tain much  less  textile  animal  solid.  Leather  thus  highly 
charged  with  tanning  is  so  spongy  as  to  allow  moisture  to  pass 
readily  through  its  pores,  to  the  great  discomfort  and  injury  of 
those  who  wear  shoes  made  of  it.  The  proper  mode  of  tanning 
lasts  a year,  or  a year  and  a half,  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  leather  wanted  and  .the  nature  of  the  hides.  A perfect 
leather  can  Be  recognized  by  its  section,  which  should  have  a 
glistening  marble  appearance,  without  any  white  streaks  in  the 
middle.  The  hair  which  is  taken  off  hides  in  tanning,  is  em- 
ployed to  mix  with  plaster,  and  is  often  surreptitiously  put  into 
hair-mattresses. 

Method  of  Ascertaining  the  Weight  of  Cattle  While  Liv- 
ing.— This  is  of  the  utmost  utility  for  all  those  who  are  not 
experienced  judges  by  the  eye;  and,  by  the  following  directions, 


232 


CATTLE. 


the  weight  can  be  ascertained  within  a mere  trifle:  Take  a 
string,  put  it  round  the  beast,  standing  square,  just  behind  the 
shoulder-blade;  measure  on  a foot-rule  the  feet  and  inches  the 
animal  is  in  circumference — this  is  called  the  girth;  then,  with 
the  string,  measure  from  the  bone  of  the  tail  which  plumbs  the 
line  with  the  hinder  part  of  the  buttock;  direct  the  line  along 
the  back  to  the  fore  part  of  the  shoulder-blade;  take  the  di- 
mensions on  the  foot  rule  as  before,  which  is  the  length,  and 
work  the  figures  in  the  following  manner:  Girth  of  the  bullock, 
6 feet,  4 inches;  length,  5 feet,  3 inches;  which,  multiplied  to- 
gether, make  31  square  superficial  feet;  that  again  multiplied 
by  23  (the  number  of  pounds  allowed  to  each  superficial  foot 
of  cattle  measuring  less  than  7 and  more  than  5 in  girth),  makes 
713  pounds;  and,  allowing  14  pounds  to  the  stone,  is  50  stone, 
13  pounds.  Where  the  animal  measures  less  than  9 and  more 
than  7 feet  in  girth,  31  is  the  number  of  pounds  to  each  super- 
ficial foot.  Again,  suppose  a pig,  or  any  small  beast,  should 
measure  2 feet  in  girth,  and  2 feet  along  the  back,  which,  mul- 
tiplied together,  make  4 square  feet;  that,  multiplied  by  11  (the 
number  of  pounds  allowed  for  each  square  foot  of  cattle  meas- 
uring less  than  3 feet  in  girth),  makes  44  pounds;  which,  divided 
by  14,  to  bring  it  to  stones,  is  3 stone,  2 pounds.  Again,  sup- 
pose a calf,  a sheep,  &c.,  should  measure  4 feet  6 inches  in 
girth,  and  3 feet  9 inches  in  length,  which,  multiplied  together, 
make  16  1-2  square  feet;  that  multiplied  by  16  (the  number  of 
pounds  allowed  to  all  cattle  measuring  less  than  5 feet,  and 
more  than  3,  in  girth),  makes  264  pounds;  which,  divided  by  14, 
to  bring  it  into  stones,  is  18  stone  12  pounds.  The  dimensions 
of  the  girth  and  length  of  black  cattle,  sheep,  calves,  or  hogs, 
may  be  as  exactly  taken  this  way,  as  is  at  all  necessary  for  any 
computation  or  valuation  of  stock,  and  will  answer  exactly  to 
the  four  quarters,  sinking  the  offal;  and  which  every  man,  who 
can  get  even  a bit  of  chalk,  can  easily  perform.  A deduction 
must  be  made  for  a half-fatted  beast,  of  1 stone  in  20,  from 
that  of  a fat  one;  and,  for  a cow  that  has  had  calves,  1 stone 
must  be  allowed,  and  another  for  not  being  properly  fat. 

Breaking  steers. — This  should  be  commenced  when  two  or 
three  years  old.  Some  begin  with  the  calf,  accustoming  him  to 
a light  yoke  and  occasional  training.  This  practice  will  do  as 


CATTLE. 


233 


a pastime  for  trustworthy  boys,  as  it  makes  them  gentle  and 
manageable  afterwards,  but  is  hardly  worth  a man’s  time.  If 
always  carefully  handled  when  young,  they  will  be  found 
tractable. 

They  should  at  first  be  placed  behind  a pair  of  well-broke 
cattle,  nor  should  they  be  put  to  hard  labor  until  quite  grown, 
strong,  and  perfectly  accustomed  to  the  yoke.  If  properly 
managed,  cattle  may  be  trained  with  all  the  docility,  intelli- 
gence, and  much  of  the  activity  of  the  horse.  That  they  are 
not,  is  more  frequently  the  fault  of  their  masters. 

Management  of  Oxen. — To  procure  perfect  working  cattle, 
it  is  necessary  to  begin  with  the  proper  breed.  Many  parts  of 
the  country  furnish  such  as  are  well  suited  to  this  purpose.  A 
strong  dash  of  Devon  or  Hereford  blood  is  desirable,  when  it 
needs  to  be  improved.  A well-formed,  compact,  muscular 
body;  clean,  sinewy  limbs;  strong,  dense  bones;  large,  well- 
formed  joints,  with  a mild,  expressive  eye,  are  essential  tor  good 
working  oxen. 

After  breaking,  they  must  be  led  along  gently,  and  taught 
before  they  are  required  to  perform  their  task;  and  never  put 
to  a load  which  they  cannot  readily  move,  nor  dulled  by  pro- 
longing exertion  beyond  that  period  when  it  becomes  irksome. 
A generous  diet  is  necessary,  to  keep  up  the  spirit  and  ability 
of  cattle,  when  there  is  hard  work  to  be  done.  The  horse  and 
mule  are  fed  with  their  daily  rations  of  grain,  when  at  hard  ser- 
vice, and,  if  the  spirit  of  the  ox  is  to  be  maintained,  he  should 
be  equally  well  fed,  when  as  fully  employed.  Great  and  per- 
manent injury  is  the  result  of  niggardly  feeding  and  severe  toil, 
exacted  from  the  uncomplaining  animal.  His  strength  declines, 
his  spirit  flags,  and,  if  this  treatment  be  continued,  he  rapidly 
becomes  the  stupid,  moping  brute,  which  is  shown  off  in  de- 
grading contrast  with  the  more  spirited  horse,  that  performs, 
it  may  be,  one-half  the  labor  on  twice  his  rations. 

The  ox  should  be  as  little  abused  by  threats  and  whipping, 
as  by  stinted  feed  and  overtasked  labor.  Loud  and  repeated 
hallooing,  or  the  severe  use  of  the  lash,  is  as  impolitic  as  it  is 
cruel  and  disgraceful.  We  never  witness  this  barbarity  with- 
out wishing  the  brutes  could  change  places,  long  enough  at 
jeast  to  teach  the  bipecl  that  humanity  by  his  own  sufferings 


234 


CATTLE. 


which  his  reason  and  sensibility  have  failed  to  inspire.  Clear 
and  intelligent,  yet  low  and  gentle  words,  are  all  that  are  neces- 
sary to  guide  the  well-trained,  spirited  ox.  The  stick,  or  whip, 
is  needed  rather  to  indicate  the  precise  movement  desired,  than 
as  a stimulant  or  means  of  punishment.  The  ox  understands  a 
moderate  tone  more  perfectly  than  a boisterous  one,  for  all 
sounds  become  indistinct  as  they  increase. 

It  is  of  great  advantage  to  have  oxen  well  trained  to  back- 
ing. They  may  soon  be  taught,  by  beginning  with  an  empty 
cart  on  a descent;  then  on  a level;  then  with  an  increasing 
load,  or  uphill,  till-  the  cattle  will  back  nearly  the  same  load 
they  will  draw. 

Some  oxen  have  a bad  trick  of  hauling  or  crowding.  Chang- 
ing to  opposite  sides,  longer  or  shorter  yokes,  and,  more  than 
all,  gentle  treatment,  are  the  only  remedies,  and  those  not  un- 
frequently  fail.  Cattle  will  seldom  contract  this  habit  in  the 
hands  of  a judicious,  careful  driver.  The  yokes  should  be 
carefully  made  and  set  easy,  and  the  bows  fitted  to  the  necks 
and  properly  attached  to  the  yoke.  Cattle  are  liable  to  sore 
necks  if  used  in  a storm;  and,  when  subject  to  this  exposure, 
they  must  be  well  rubbed  with  grease,  where  the  yoke  chafes 
them,  and  respite  from  work  should  be  allowed  till  the  necks 
heal. 

Spaying*. — The  following  description  of  the  operation  of 
spaying  cows,  its  effects  and  advantages,  is  by  the  celebrated 
French  veterinary  surgeon,  M.  Morin: 

Young  cows  ought  to  receive  that  nourishment  which  favors 
the  secretion  of  milk,  and  which  in  consequence  renders  active 
their  lactiferous  vessels.  The  cow  is  not  usually  in  full  pro- 
duction until  after  the  third  or  fourth  calf;  she  continues  to 
give  the  same  return  up  to  the  seventh  or  eight;  from  this  time 
lactation  diminishes  after  each  new  calving.  On  the  other 
hand,  from  the  moment  that  the  cow  has  received  the  bull,  and 
gradually  as  gestation  advances,  the  quantity  of  milk  progres- 
sively diminishes  in  most  breeds,  until  three  or  four  months 
before  healthy  parturition,  the  secretion  of  milk  is  almost  noth- 
ing, It  is  to  guard  against  this  loss,  and  other  inconvenience, 
that  we  lay  down  what  we  have  obtained  after  some  years’  ex- 
perience in  spaying  the  cow,  and  the  happy  results  that  >ye 
meet  with  daily 


CATTLE. 


235 


Advantages  of  this  Operation. — “The  operation  of 
spaying  in  the  cow  is  productive  of  great  advantages. 

“ i.  The  cow  spayed  a short  time  after  calving,  that  is  to 
say,  thirty  or  forty  days  afterward,  and  at  the  time  when  she 
gives  the  largest  quantity  of  milk,  continues  to  give  the  like 
quantity,  if  not  during  her  whole  lifetime,  at  least  during  many 
years,  and  at  the  time  when  the  milk  begins  to  dry  mp  the  ani- 
mal fattens.  We  are  able  to  add,  moreover,  at  this  day,  cer- 
tain facts,  the  result  of  many  years’  experiment,  that  the  milk 
of  the  spayed  cow,  although  as  abundant,  and  sometimes  more 
so,  than  before  the  operation,  is  of  a superior  quality  to  that 
from  a cow  not  spayed;  that  it  is  uniform  in  its  character,  that 
it  is  richer,  consequently  more  buttery,  and  that  the  butter  is 
always  of  a golden  color. 

“ We  belive  that  we  ought  to  remark  in  passing,  that  if  we 
feed  the  spayed  cow  too  abundantly,  lactation  diminishes,  and 
that  the  beast  promptly  fattens.  It  is  therefore  important  that 
the  feeding  should  not  be  more  than  sufficient  to  enable  us  to 
obtain  the  desired  result. 

“2.  The  spayed  cow  fattens  more  easily;  its  flesh,  age  con- 
sidered, is  better  than  that  of  the  ox;  it  is  more  tender  and 
more  juicy. 

“Indeed,  no  one  is  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  all  domestic 
animals,  females  as  well  as  males,  deprived  of  their  procreative 
organs,  fatten  more  quickly  than  those  which  retain  them; 
that  the  flesh  of  the  spayed  females  is  more  tender  and  more 
delicate  than  that  of  males.  The  same  phenomena  take  place 
among  spayed  cows  that  occur  among  other  females  that  have 
submitted  to  this  operation;  so,  besides  the  advantage  of  fur- 
nishing a long  continued  supply,  before  commencing  a course 
of  fattening,  of  abundant  mi)k,  and  butter  of  a superior  quality, 
the  cow  fattens  easily  and  completely,  and  a certain  benefit 
follows  this  course. 

“ 3.  In  spaying  decrepit  cows,  that  is  to  say  of  the  age  of 
from  six  to  seven  years,  puny,  small  ones;  those  which,  though 
fine  in  appearance,  bear  badly;  those  which  are  subject  to  mis- 
carriage; those  which  frequently  experience  difficult  calving  or 
delivery;  those  difficult  to  keep;  and,  finally,  all  those  that  are 
taurelieres,  that  is  to  say,  constantly  in  heat— >\ye  havs  in  addi* 


236 


CATTLE. 


tion  to  an  abundant  production  of  milk  and  butter,  and  a 
facility  of  fattening,  the  advantage  of  preventing  a degeneration 
of  the  species,  and,  moreover,  of  avoiding  a crowd  of  accidents 
or  maladies,  which  frequently  take  place  during  or  after  gesta- 
tion, and  of  diminishing  those  which  happen  during  the  period 
of  heat,  such  as  that  of  heavy  cows  mounting  others  or  being 
jumped  upon  by  too  heavy  bulls. 

“ Except  under  peculiar  circumstances,  we  should  take  care 
in  spaying  the  cow,  that  its  teats  have  acquired  their  complete 
development,  and  that  the  milk  has  the  proper  qualities.  The 
most  suitable  time  is  after  the  third  or  fourth  calving. 

‘‘Many  societies  of  agriculture,  impressed  with  the  important 
results  that  this  operation  effects,  fix  yearly  at  their  agricultural 
meetings,  premiums  for  the  encouragement  of  the  spaying  of 
old  cows.  We  doubt  not  that  other  societies  who  have  not  yet 
adopted  this  plan — not  being  convinced  of  its  importance — 
when  they  are,  will  imitate  their  example.  By  this  means  they 
bestow  upon  the  country  a new  source  of  products. 

“ We  have  been  engaged  for  four  years  in  researches  upon 
this  valuable  discovery;  we  believe  that  it  is  incumbent  upon 
us  to  state  the  results  that  we  have  obtained  up  to  the  present 
time.  In  the  number  of  twenty-seven  cows,  aged  from  six  to 
fifteen  years,  that  we  have  actually  spayed,  we  have  had  the 
following  results:  i.  Increase  of  milk  in  cows  of  six  years; 
2.  Constant  production  in  those  that  have  passed  that  age;  3. 
Milk  richer  than  that  of  the  cow  not  spayed,  consequently 
more  buttery,  and  the  butter  both  of  a uniformly  golden  color, 
and  having  an  aroma  and  taste  far  superior  that  of  a cow 
that  has  not  undergone  this  operation. 

“ In  July  we  obtained  as  a subject  of  experiment,  a cow 
from  Brittany,  of  the  small  kind,  twelve  years  old,  calved  about 
two  months  before,  and  which  gave,  when  we  obtained  her, 
about  six  quarts  of  milk  daily.  The  next  day  after  we  per- 
formed the  operation  of  spaying,  indeed  the  first  eight  days 
after  that,  the  secretion  of  milk  sensibly  diminished,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  light  diet  on  which  she  had  been  put;  but,  on 
the  ninth  day,  the  time  at  which  the  cure  was  complete  and  the 
cow  put  on  her  ordinary  food,  the  milk  promptly  returned  as 
to  its  former  quantity,  and  she  at  the  same  time  assumed  & 


CATTLE. 


23? 


plumpness  that  she  had  not  had  previously.  Customarily 
bringing  together,  the  yield  of  three  days  butter-making  being 
eighteen  quarts,  it  produced  constantly  two  kilograms  of 
butter  of  the  best  quality.  From  the  month  of  December  to  the 
following  March,  the  quantity  of  milk  diminished  about  one- 
third,  and  the  butter  proportionately,  the  cow  during  that  time 
having  been  put  on  dry  fodder.  Blit  so  soon  as  we  were  able 
to  turn  her  into  pasture — about  the  beginning  of  April — the 
milk,  after  eight  days  of  this  new  food,  resumed  its  former 
course,  and  the  animal  continued  daily  to  furnish  the  same 
relative  amounts  of  milk  and  butter  as  before. 

“ Three  cows,  two  of  which  were  fourteen  years  old,  and 
the  other  fifteen,  have  dried  up  two  years  after  the  operation, 
and  at  the  same  time  promptly  fattened,  without  increase  or 
change  of  food. 

“ One  cow,  eight  years  old,  plentifully  supplied  with  trefoil 
and  cabbage,  gave,  a short  time  after  the  operation,  a quantity 
of  milk  nearly  double  that  which  she  gave  before,  although  she 
was  kept  on  the  same  kind  of  food.  She  has  during  a year 
continued  to  furnish  the  same  amount,  and  has  in  addition 
fattened  so  rapidly  that  the  owner  has  been  obliged,  seeing  her 
fatness,  to  sell  her  to  the  butcher,  although  she  was  still  very 
good  for  milk. 

“ Another  fact,  no  less  worthy  of  remark,  we  must  not  pass 
over  in  silence,  and  which  goes  to  prove  the  superior  and 
unchanging  quality  of  the  milk  of  a spayed  cow.  It  is,  that  a 
proprietor  having  spayed  a cow  five  years  old,  recently  calved, 
with  the  special  intention  of  feeding  with  her  milk  a newly- 
born  infant,  the  infant  arriving  at  the  age  of  six  months,  of  a 
robust  constitution,  refused  its  pap  since  it  had  been  accident- 
ally prepared  with  milk  different  from  that  of  the  spayed  cow. 

“ The  other  cows  which  had  been  spayed  continued  to  give 
entire  satisfaction  to  their  owners,  as  well  in  respect  to  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk,  as  also  by  their  good  con- 
dition. 

“ Six  cows  manifested,  shortly  aft?r  the  operation,  and  on 
divers  occasions,  the  desire  for  copulation;  but  we  have  not 
remarked  this  peculiarity  except  among  the  younger  ones.  In 
other  respects,  the  milk  has  not  indicated  the  least  alteration  in 

quantity  or  quality. 


m 


CATTLE, 


‘ Indeed,  the  happy  results  that  are  daily  attained  from 
this  important  discovery  are  so  conclusive  and  so  well  known 
at  this  time  in  our  part  of  the  country,  that  as  we  write,  many 
proprietors  bring  us  constantly  good  milch  cows,  since  we  have 
called  upon  them  to  do  so,  for  us  to  practice  the  operation  of 
spaying  upon  them.  Every  owner  of  cattle  is  aware  that,  from 
the  time  that  the  cow  has  received  a bull,  and  in  proportion  as 
gestation  advances,  the  milk  changes  and  diminishes  pro- 
gressively, until  at  last,  two  or  three  months  before  a healthy 
parturition,  the  animal  gives  very  little  or  no  milk,  whence 
ensues  considerable  loss;  while,  at  the  same  time,  after  the  cows 
are  subjected  to  the  bull,  the  milk  and  butter  are — for  fifty 
days,  at  least — of  a bad  quality,  and  improper  to  be  exposed 
for  sale;  but,  in  addition  to  this,  breeding  cow^s  are  generally 
subjected  to  such  loss  in  winter,  and  their  keepers  find  them- 
selves, during  a great  part  of  the  year,  entirely  deprived  of  milk 
and  butter,  and  at  a time,  too,  when  they  most  need  them. 

“ By  causing  the  cows  to  undergo  this  operation,  the  owner 
will  never  fail  of  having  milk  and  butter  of  excellent  quality; 
fatten  his  animals  easily  when  they  dry  up,  and  also  will 
improve  the  race,  an  anxiety  which  is  perceived  in  many  pro- 
vinces in  France. 

“ In  general,  the  means  employed  by  farmers  to  obtain  the 
best  possible  price  for  old  cows,  beyond  being  useful,  or,  to  use 
a commercial  term,  not  merchantable,  as  to  bring  them  to  the 
bull,  intending  that  gestation  shall  give  them  more  suitable 
plumpness,  so  that  they  may  be  sold  on  more  advantageous 
terms  to  the  butcher;  but  does  this  state  of  fictitious  embon- 
point, or  fatness,  render  the  flesh  of  these  beasts  better?  As- 
suredly not.  It  is  merely  bloated,  flabby  flesh,  livid,  and  which 
easily  taints.  Broth  made  from  it  is  not  rich,  is  without  flavor, 
and  without  an  agreeable  smell;  the  lean  and  fat  are  in  a 
measure  infiltrated  with  water,  and  are  consequently  of  bad 
quality  and  difficult  sale.  These  causes  ought,  then,  to  deter- 
mine farmers  to  adopt  the  advice  we  give;  they,  as  well  as 
the  butcher  and  the  consumer,  will  derive  very  great  advantage 
from  it. 

The  Operation. — “ Having  covered  the  eyes  of  the  cow 
to  be  operated  upon,  we  place  her  against  a wall  provided 


CATTLK.  'M. 

w i Lii  five  rings,  firmly  fastened  and  placed  as  follows:  The  first 
corresponds  to  the  top  of  the  withers;  the  second  to  the  lower 
anterior  part  of  the  breast;  the  third  is  placed  a little  distance 
from  the  angle  of  the  shoulder;  the  fourth  is  opposite  to  the 
anterior  and  superior  part  of  the  lower  region;  and  the  fifth, 
which  is  behind,  answers  to  the  under  part  of  the  buttocks. 
We  place  a strong  assistant  between  the  wall  and  the  head  of 
the  animal,  who  firmly  holds  the  left  horn  in  his  left  hand,  and 
with  his  right,  the  muzzle,  which  he  elevates  a little.  This 
done,  we  pass  throhigh  and  fasten  the  end  of  a long  and  strong 
plaited  cord  in  the  ring,  which  corresponds  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  breast;  we  bring  the  free  end  of  the  cord  along  the  left 
flank,  and  pass  it  through  the  ring  which  is  below  and  in  front 
of  the  withers.  We  bring  it  down  along  the  breast  behind  the 
shoulders  and  the  angle  of  the  fore  leg  to  pass  it  through  the 
third  ring;  from  there,  we  pass  it  through  the  ring,  which  is 
at  the  top  of  the  back;  then  it  must  be  passed  around  against 
the  outer  angle  of  the  left  hip,  and  we  fasten  it,  after  having 
drawn  it  tightly  to  the  posterior  ring  by  a single  bow-knot. 

“The  cow  being  firmly  fixed  to  the  wail,  we  placed  a cord, 
fastened  by  a slip-noose  around  its  hocks  to  keep  them  together, 
in  such  a manner  that  the  animal  can  not  kick  the  operator, 
the  free  end  of  the  cord  and  the  tail  are  held  by  an  assistant. 
The  cow,  thus  secured,  can  not,  during  the  operation,  move 
forward,  nor  lie  down,  and  the  veterinary  surgeon  has  all  the 
ease  desirable,  and  is  protected  from  accident. 

M.  Levrat  advises  that  an  assistant  should  hold  a plank  or 
bar  of  wood  obliquely  under  the  teats  and  before  its  limbs  to 
ward  off  the  kicks;  but  this  method  is  not  always  without  dan- 
ger, both  to  the  operator  and  the  animal,  because,  at  the  com- 
mencement, that  is,  when  the  surgeon  makes  the  incision 
through  the  hide  and  muscles,  the  cow  makes  such  sudden 
movements  and  tries  so  frequently  to  strike  with  its  left  hind 
foot,  that  it  may  happen  that  upon  every  movement  the  plank 
or  the  bar  may  be  struck  against  the  operator’s  legs.  On  the 
other  hand,  although  the  defense  may  be  firmly  held  by  the 
assistant,  yet  it  may  happen  that,  in  spite  of  his  exertions,  he 
sometimes  may  be  thrown  against  the  operator  by  the  move- 
ments she  may  attempt,  and  there  may  be  an  uncontrollable 


240 


CATTLE. 


displacement  of  the  plank  or  bar;  and  then  it  may  happen  that 
she  becomes  wounded,  and  at  the  same  time  prevents  the  ope- 
ration, while,  by  the  mode  we  point  out,  there  is  no  fear  of 
accident,  either  to  the  operator  or  the  beast.  In  case  of  the 
want  of  a wall  provided  with  rings,  we  may  use  a strong  pali- 
sade, a solid  fence,  or  two  trees  a suitable  distance  apart,  across 
which  we  fix  two  strong  bars  of  wood,  separated  from  each 
other,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cow 

“There  is  another  means  of  confining  them  that  we  have 
employed  for  some  time  past,  where  the  cows  were  very  strong 
and  irritable,  more  simple  than  the.  preceeding,  less  fatiguing 
for  the  animal,  less  troublesome  for  the  operator,  and  which 
answers  perfectly.  It  consists:  First.  In  leaving  the  cow  almost 
free,  covering  her  eyes,  holding  her  head  by  two  strong  assist- 
ants, one  of  whom  seizes  her  nose  with  his  hand  and  strongly 
pinches  the  nostrils  whenever  the  animal  makes  any  violent 
movements  during  the  operation.  Second.  To  cause  another 
assistant  to  hold  the  two  hind  legs,  kept  together  by  means  of 
a cord  passed  above  and  beneath  the  hocks;  this  assistant  also 
holds  the  tail,  and  pulls  it  whenever  the  animal  seeks  to  change 
its  place. 

“The  cow  being  conveniently  disposed,  and  the  instruments 
and  appliances,  such  as  curved  scissors  upon  a table,  a convex 
edge  bistoury,  a straight  one,  and  one  buttoned  at  the  point, 
suture  needle  filled  with  double  thread  of  desired  length, 
pledgets  of  lint  of  appropriate  size  and  length,  a mass  of  tow 
(in  pledgets)  being  collected  in  a shallow  basket,  held  by  an 
intelligent  assistant,  we  place  ourselves  opposite  to  the  left 
flank,  our  back  turned  a little  toward  the  head  of  the  animal, 
we  cut  off  the  hair  whicn  covers  the  hide  in  the  middle  of  the 
flanks,  at  an  equal  distance  between  the  back  and  the  hip,  for 
the  space  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  centimetres  in  circumference; 
this  done,  we  take  the  convex  bistoury,  and  place  it  opened 
between  our  teeth,  the  edge  out,  the  joint  to  the  left;  then, 
with  both  hands,  we  seize  the  hide  in  the  middle  of  the  flank 
and  form  of  it  a wrinkle  of  the  requisite  elevation,  and  running 
lengthwise  of  the  body.  We  then  direct  an  assistant  to  seize 
with  his  right  hand  the  right  side  of  the  wrinkle;  we  then  take 
the  bistoury  that  we  held  in  our  teeth  and  we  cut  the  wrinkle 


CATTLE. 


241 


at  one  stroke  through  the  middle;  the  wrinkle  having  been 
suffered  to  go  down,  a separation  of  the  hide  is  presented  of 
sufficient  length  to  enable  us  to  introduce  the  hand;  thereupon 
we  separate  the  edges  of  the  hide  with  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger of  the  left  hand,  and,  in  like  manner,  we  cut  through  the 
abdominal  muscles,  the  iliax  (slightly  obliquely)  and  the 
lumbar  (across)  for  the  distance  of  a centimetre  from  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  incision  made  in  the  hide;  this  done,  armed 
with  the  straight  bistoury,  we  make  a puncture  of  the  peri- 
toneum at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  wound;  we  then  intro- 
duce the  buttoned  bistoury,  and  move  it  obliquely  from 
above  to  the  lower  part,  up  to  the  termination  of  the  incision 
made  in  the  abdominal  muscles.  The  flank  being  opened, 
we  introduce  the  right  hand  into  the  abdomen  and 
direct  it  along  the  right  side  of  the  cavity  of  the  pelvis,  behind 
the  cul  de  saurumen  (paunch)  and  underneath  the  rectum, 
where  we  find  the  cornes  de  l’uterus  (matrix);  after  we  have 
ascertained  the  position  of  these  viscera,  we  search  for  the 
ovaires  (organs  of  reproduction),  which  are  at  the  extremity  of 
the  cornes,  and  when  we  have  found  them,  we  seize  them  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  forefinger,  detach  them  completely  from 
the  ligaments  that  keep  them  in  their  place,  pull  lightly,  sep- 
arating the  cord,  and  the  vessels  (uterine  or  fallopian  tube)  at 
their  place  of  union  with  the  ovarium,  by  means  of  the  nail  of 
the  thumb  and  forefinger,  which  presents  itself  at  the  point  of 
touch;  in  fact  we  break  the  cord  and  bring  away  the  ovarium. 
We  then  introduce  again  the  hand  in  the  abdominal  cavity, 
and  we  proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  extract  the  other 
ovaria.  This  operation  terminated,  we,  by  the  assistance  of 
the  needle,  place  a suture  of  three  or  four  double  threads 
waxed  at  an  equal  distance,  and  at  two  centimetres,  or  a little 
less  from  the  lips  of  the  wound,  passing  it  through  the  divided 
tissues,  we  move  from  the  left  hand  with  the  piece  of  thread; 
having  reached  that  point,  we  fasten  with  a double  knot,  we 
place  the  seam  in  the  intervals  of  the  thread  from  the  right, 
and,  as  we  approach  the  lips  of  the  wound,  we  fasten  by  a sim- 
ple knot,  with  a bow,  being  careful  not  to  close  too  tightly  the 
lower  part  of  the  seam,  so  that  the  suppuration  which  may  be 
established  in  the  wound  may  be  able  to  escape.  This  opera- 
14 


CATTLE. 


m 


tion  effected,  we  cover  up  the  wound  with  a pledget  of  lint  kept 
in  its  place  by  three  or  four  threads  passed  through  the  stitches, 
and  all  is  completed,  and  the  cow  is  then  led  back  to  the  stable. 

“It  happens,  sometimes,  that  in  cutting  the  muscles,  of 
which  we  have  before  spoken,  we  cut  one  or  two  of  the  arteries 
which  bleed  so  much  that  there  is  necessity  for  a ligature  be- 
fore  opening  the  peritoneal  sac,  because,  if  this  precaution  be 
I omitted,  blood  will  escape  into  the  abdomen,  and  may  occasion 
the  most  serious  consequences. 

After  the  Operation. — “The  regimen  that  we  prescribe 
during  the  first  eight  days  following  the  operation,  is  a light 
diet,  and  a soothing,  lukewarm  draught;  if  the  weather  should 
be  cold,  we  cover  the  cow  with  a woollen  covering.  We  must 
prevent  the  animal  from  licking  the  wound  and  from  rubbing 
it  against  other  bodies.  The  third  day  after  the  operation,  we 
bathe  morning  and  evening  about  the  wound,  with  water  of 
mallows  lukewarm,  and  in  default  of  this,  we  annoint  it  with  a 
salve  of  hog’s  lard,  and  we  administer  an  emollient  glyster  dur- 
ing three  or  four  days. 

“Eight  days  after  the  operation  we  take  away  the  bandage, 
the  lint,  the  fastenings  and  the  threads;  the  wound  is  at  that 
time  completely  cicatrized,  as  we  have  observed  that  a reunion 
takes  place  almost  always  by  the  first  intention,  as  we  have 
only  observed  suppuration  in  three  cows,  and  then  it  was  very 
slight.  In  this  case  we  must  use  a slight  pressure  above  the 
part  where  the  suppuration  is  established,  so  as  to  cause  the 
pus  to  leave  it,  and,  if  it  continues  more  than  five  or  six  days, 
we  must  supply  emollients  by  alcolized  water,  or  chloridized, 
especially  if  it  be  in  summer.  We  then  bring  the  cow  gradu- 
ally back  to  her  ordinary  nourishment. 

We  have  remarked  in  some  cows  a swelling  of  the  body  a 
short  time  after  being  spayed,  a state  that  we  have  attributed 
to  the  introduction  of  cold  air  into  the  abdomen  during  the 
operation;  but  this  derangement  has  generally  ceased  within 
twenty-four  hours.  If  the  contrary  should  occur,  we  adminis- 
ter one  or  two  sudorific  draughts,  such  as  wine,  warm  cider,  or 
a half  glass  of  brandy,  in  a quart  of  warm  water,  treatment 
which  suffices,  in  a short  time,  to  re-establish  a healthy  state  of 
the  belly,  the  animal  at  the  same  time  being  protected  by  two 
coverings  of  wool. 


CATTLE. 


US 


“The  operation  which  we  have  been'describing  ought  to  be 
performed,  as  we  have  said  before,  thirty  to  forty  days  after 
calving,  upon  a cow  which  has  had  her  third  or  fourth  calf,  so 
that  we  may  have  a greater  abundance  of  milk.  The  only  pre- 
caution to  be  observed  before  the  operation  is  that  on  the 
preceding  evening  vve  should  not  give  so  copious  a meal  as 
usual,  and  to  operate  in  the  morning  before  the  animal  has  fed, 
so  that  the  operator  shall  not  find  any  obstacle  from  the  pri- 
mary digestive  organs,  especially  the  paunch,  which,  during 
its  state  of  ordinary  fullness,  might  prevent  operating  with 
facility. 

“From  what  has  preceded,  it  is  fixed  and  irrefutable. — i. 
That  spaying  induces  permanency  of  milk,  increase  of  quantity, 
and  improvement  of  quality;  richer,  more  buttery,  superior 
color,  finer  taste  and  flavor.  2.  The  most  suitable  age  is  six 
years,  and  after  the  third  or  fourth  calf.  3.  The  spayed  cow 
fattens  more  easily,  and  furnishes  beef  of  a better  quality.  4. 
Cows  that  are  bad  breeders  may  be  kept  as  good  milkers,  and 
the  quality  of  good  cattle  kept  up.” 

Castration. — The  period  most  commonly  selected  for  this 
operation  is  between  the  first  and  third  months.  The  nearer  it 
is  to  the  expiration  of  the  first  month,  the  less  danger  attends 
the  operation. 

Some  persons  prepare  the  animal  by  the  administration  of 
a dose  of  physic;  but  others  proceed  at  once  to  the  operation 
when  it  best  suits  their  convenience,  or  that  of  the  farmer. 
Care,  however,  should  be  taken  that  the  young  animal  is  in 
perfect  health.  The  mode  formerly  practiced  was  simple 
enough: — a piece  of  whip-cord  was  tied  as  tightly  as  possible 
around  the  scrotum.  The  supply  of  blood  being  thus  com- 
pletely cut  off,  the  bag  and  its  contents  soon  becomes  livid  and 
dead,  and  were  suffered  to  hang,  by  some  careless  operators, 
until  they  dropped  off,  or  they  were  cut  off  on  the  second  or 
third  day. 

It  is  now,  however,  the  general  practice  to  grasp  the  scrotum 
in  the  hand,  between  the  testicles  and  the  belly,  and  to  make 
an  incision  in  one  side  of  it,  near  the  bottom,  of  sufficient 
depth  to  penetrate  through  the  inner  covering  of  the  testicle, 
and  of  sufficient  length  to  admit  of  its  escape.  The  testicle 


244 


CATTLE. 


immediately  bursts  from  its  bag,  and  is  seen  hanging  by  its 
cord. 

The  careless  or  brutal  operator  now  firmly  ties  a piece  of 
small  string  around  the  cord,  and,  having  thus  stopped  the  cir- 
culation, cuts  through  the  cord,  half  an  inch  below  the  ligature, 
and  removes  the  testicle.  He,  however,  who  has  any  feeling 
for  the  poor  animal  on  which  he  is  operating,  considers  that 
the  only  use  of  the  ligature  is  to  compress  the  blood  vessels 
and  prevent  after-hemorrhage,  and,  therefore,  saves  a great  deal 
of  unnecessary  torture  by  including  them  alone  in  the  ligature, 
and  afterwards  dividing  the  rest  of  the  cord.  The  other  tes- 
ticle is  proceeded  with  in  the  same  way,  and  the  operation  is 
complete.  The  length  of  the  cord  should  be  so  contrived  that 
it  will  immediately  retract  or  be  drawn  back  into  the  scrotum, 
but  not  higher,  while  the  ends  of  the  string  hang  out  through 
the  wound.  In  the  course  of  about  a week  the  strings  will 
usually  drop  off  and  the  wounds  will  speedily  heal.  There 
will  rarely  be  any  occasion  to  make  any  application  to  the 
scrotum,  except  any  fomentation  of  it,  if  much  swelling  should 
ensue. 

A few,  whose  practice  cannot  be  justified,  seize  the  testicle 
as  soon  as  it  escapes  from  the  bag,  and,  pulling  violently,  break 
the  cord  and  tear  it  out.  It  is  certain,  that  when  a blood-vessel 
is  thus  ruptured,  it  forcibly  contracts,  and  very  little  bleeding 
follows;  but,  if  the  cord  breaks  high  up,  and  retracts  into  the 
belly,  considerable  inflammation  has  occasionally  ensued,  and 
the  beast  has  been  lost. 

The  application  of  torsion — or  the  twisting  of  the  arteries 
by  a pair  of  forceps  which  will  firmly  grasp  them — has,  in  a 
great  degree,  superseded  every  other  mode  of  castration,  both 
in  the  larger  and  smaller  domesticated  animals.  The  spermatic 
artery  is  exposed  and  seized  with  the  forceps,  which  are  then 
closed  by  a very  simple  mechanical  contrivance;  the  vessel  is 
drawn  a little  out  from  its  surrounding  tissue,  the  forceps  are 
turned  around  seven  or  eight  times,  and  the  vessel  liberated. 
It  will  be  found  to  be  perfectly  closed;  a small  knot  will  have 
formed  on  its  extremity;  it  will  retract  into  the  surrounding 
surface,  and  not  a drop  more  of  blood  will  flow  from  it;  the 
cord  may  then  be  divided  and  the  bleeding  from  any  little 


CATTLE. 


245 


vessel  arrested  in  the  same  way.  Neither  the  application  of 
the  hot  iron,  nor  of  the  wooden  clamps,  whether  with  or  with- 
out caustic,  can  be  necessary  in  the  castration  of  the  calf. 

A new  instrument  was  introduced  in  France,  some  few  years 
since,  for  this  purpose,  called  the  acraseur — so  constructed  as 
to  throw  a chain  over  the  cord,  which  is  wound  up  by  means 
of  a screw  working  upon  the  chain,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
cord  is  twisted  off.  No  bleeding  follows  this  method  of  oper- 
ating. 

The  advantages  resulting  from  the  use  of  this  instrument 
over  all  methods  are,  that  the  parts  generally  heal  within  a 
week — the  operation  is  not  so  painful  to  the  animal — it  is  less 
troublesome  to  the  operator — also  to  the  owner  of  the  animal 
— and,  lastly,  it  is  a safer  and  more  scientific  operation.  Its 
success  in  France  soon  gave  it  a reputation  in  England,  and  it 
has  been  introduced  into  this  country,  and  with  the  best  results. 

DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 

Abortion. — Symptoms. — The  cow  is,  more  than  any  other 
animal,  subject  to  abortion  or  slinking,  which  takes  place  at 
different  periods  of  pregnancy,  from  half  of  the  usual  time  to 
the  seventh  or  almost  the  eighth  month.  The  symptoms  of  the 
approach  of  abortion,  unless  the  breeder  is  very  much  among 
his  stock,  are  not  often  perceived;  or,  if  perceived,  they  are 
concealed  by  the  person  in  charge,  lest  he  should  be  accused 
of  neglect  or  improper  treatment. 

The  cow  is  somewhat  off  her  feed — rumination  ceases — she 
is  listless  and  dull — the  milk  diminishes  or  dries  up — the 
motions  of  the  foetus  become  more  feeble,  and  at  length  cease 
altogether — there  is  a slight  degree  of  enlargement  of  the  belly 
—there  is  a little  staggering  in  her  walk — when  she  is  down  she 
lies  longer  than  usual,  and  when  she  gets  up  she  stands  for  a 
longer  time  motionless. 

As  the  abortion  approaches,  a yellow  or  red  glairy  fluid  runs 
from  the  vagina  (this  is  a symptom  which  rarely  or  never 
deceives),  her  breathing  becomes  laborious  and  slightly  convul- 
sive. The  belly  has  for  several  days  lost  its  natural  rotundity, 
and  has  been  evidently  falling — she  begins  to  moan — the  pulse 
becoms  small,  wiry,  and  intermittent.  At  length  labor  comes 
on,  and  is  often  attended  with  much  difficulty  and  danger. 

If  the  abortion  has  been  caused  by  blows  or  violence, 
whether  from  brutality  or  the  animal’s  having  been  teased  by 
other  cows  in  season  or  by  oxen,  the  symptoms  are  more 
intense  The  $njt?ial  suddenly  ceases  to  eat  and  to  ruminate**-* 


246 


CATTLE. 


is  uneasy,  paws  the  ground;  rests  her  head  on  the  ma>  ger 
while  she  is  standing,  and  on  her  flank  while  she  is  lying  down 
— hemorrhage  frequently  comes  on  from  the  uterus,  or  when  this 
is  not  the  case  the  mouth  of  that  organ  is  spasmodically  con- 
tracted. The  throes  come  on,  are  distressingly  violent,  and 
continue  until  the  womb  is  ruptured.  If  all  these  circumstances 
be  not  observed,  still  the  labor  is  protracted  and  dangerous. 

Abortion  is  sometimes  singularly  frequent  in  particular 
districts  or  on  particular  farms,  appearing  to  assume  an 
epizootic  or  epidemic  form.  This  has  been  accounted  for  in 
various  ways.  Some  have  imagined  it  to  be  contagious.  It  is, 
indeed,  destructively  propagated  among  the  cows,  but  this  is 
probably  to  be  explained  on  a different  principle  from  that  of 
contagion.  The  cow  is  a considerably  imaginative  animal  and 
highly  irritable  during  the  period  of  pregnancy.  In  abortion, 
the  foetus  is  often  putrid  before  it  is  discharged;  and  the 
placenta,  or  afterbirth,  rarely  or  never  follows  it,  but  becomes 
decomposed,  and,  as  it  drops  away  in  fragments,  emits  a peculiar 
and  most  noisome  smell.  This  smell  seems  to  be  peculiarly 
annoying  to  the  other  cows;  they  sniff  at  it  and  then  run 
bellowing  about.  Some  sympathetic  influence  is  exercised  on 
their  uterine  organs,  and  in  a few  days  a greater  or  less  number 
of  those  that  had  pastured  together  likewise  abort.  Hence  arises 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  foetus  is  usually  taken  away  ar.d 
buried  deeply,  and  far  from  the  cows;  and  hence  the  more 
effectual  preventive  of  smearing  the  parts  of  the  cow  with  tar 
or  stinking  oils  in  order  to  conceal  or  subdue  the  smell;  and 
hence,  too,  the  inefficacy,  as  a preventive,  of  removing  her  to  a 
far-distant  pasture. 

The  pastures  on  which  the  blood  or  inflammatory  fever  is 
most  prevalent  are  those  on  which  the  cows  oftenest  slink 
their  calves.  Whatever  can  become  a cause  of  general  excita- 
tion and  fever,  is  likely,  during  pregnancy,  to  produce  inflam- 
mation of  the  womb;  or  whatever  would,  under  other  circum- 
stances, excite  inflammation  of  almost  any  organ,  has,  at  that 
time,  its  injurious  effect  determined  to  this  particular  one. 

Some  careful  observers  have  occasionally  attributed  abor- 
tion to  disproportion  in  size  between  the  male  and  the  female. 
Farmers  were  formerly  too  fond  of  selecting  a great  overgrown 
bull  to  serve  their  dairy  or  breeding  cows,  and  many  a heifer 
or  little  cow  was  seriously  injured;  and  she  either  cast  her  calf 
or  was  lost  in  parturition.  The  breeders  of  cattle  in  later  years 
are  beginning  to  act  more  wisely  in  this  matter. 

Cows  that  ar:  degenerating  into  consumption  are  exceed- 
ingly subject  to  abortion.  They  are  continually  in  heat;  they 
rarely  become  pregnant,  or,  if  they  do,  a great  proportion  of 
them  cast  their  calves.  Abortion,  also,  often  follows  a sudden 


CATTLE. 


247 


change  from  poor  to  lxuriant  food.  Cows  that  have  been  out 
half-starved  in  the  winter,  when  incautiously  turned  on  rich 
pasture  in  the  spring,  are  too  apt  to  cast  their  calves  from  the 
undue  general  or  local  excitation  that  is  set  up.  Hence  it  is 
that,  when  this  disposition  to  abort  first  appears  in  a herd,  it  is 
naturally  in  a cow  that  has  been  lately  purchased.  Fright, 
from  whatever  cause,  may  produce  this  trouble.  There  are 
singular  cases  on  record  of  whole  herds  of  cows  slinking  their 
calves  after  having  been  terrified  by  an  unusually  violent 
thunder  storm.  Commerce  with  the  bull  soon  after  conception 
is  also  a frequent  cause,  as  well  as  putrid  smells — other  than 
those  already  noticed — and  the  use  of  a diseased  bull.  Besides 
these  tangible  causes  of  abortion,  there  is  the  mysterious  agency 
of  the  atmosphere.  There  are  certain  seasons  when  abortion  is 
strangely  frequent  and  fatal;  while  at  other  times  it  disappears 
in  a manner  for  several  successive  years. 

The  consequences  of  premature  calving  are  frequently  of  a 
very  serious  nature;  and  even  when  the  case  is  more  favorable 
the  results  are,  nevertheless,  very  annoying.  The  animal  very 
soon  goes  again  to  heat,  but  in  a great  many  cases  she  fails  to 
become  pregnant;  she  almost  invariably  does  so,  if  she  is  put 
to  the  bull  during  the  first  heat  after  abortion.  If  she  should 
come  in  calf  again  during  that  season,  it  is  very  probable  that 
at  about  the  same  period  of  gestation,  or  a little  later,  she  will 
again  abort;  or  that,  when  she  becomes  in  calf  the  following 
year,  the  same  fatality  will  attend  her.  Some  say  that  this 
disposition  to  cast  her  young  gradually  ceases;  that,  if  she  does 
miscarry,  it  is  at  a later  and  still  later  period  of  pregnancy;  and 
that,  in  about  three  or  four  years,  she  may  be  depended  upon 
as  a tolerably  safe  breeder.  He,  however,  would  be  sadly 
inattentive  to  his  own  interests  who  keeps  a profitless  beast  so 
,on& 

The  calf  very  rarely  lives,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  is 
born  dead  or  putrid.  If  there  should  appear  to  be  any  chance 
of  saving  it,  it  should  be  washed  with  warm  water,  carefully 
dried,  and  fed  frequently  with  small  quantities  of  new  milk, 
mixed,  according  to  the  apparent  weakness  of  the  animal, 
either  with  raw  eggs  or  good  gruel;  while  the  bowels  should,  if 
occasion  requires,  be  opened  by  means  small  doses  of  castor- 
oil.  If  any  considerable  period  is  1 6 elapse  before  the  natural 
time  of  pregnancy  would  have  expired,  it  will  usually  be  nec- 
essary to  bring  up  the  little  animal  entirely  by  hand. 

The  Treatment. — The  treatment  of  abortion  differs  but 
little  from  that  of  parturition,  If  the  farmer  has  once  been 
tormented  by  this  pest  in  his  dairy,  he  should  carefully  watch 
the  approaching  symptoms  of  casting  the  calf,  and,  as  soon  as 
he  perceives  them,  should  remove  the  animal  from  the  pasture 


CATTLE. 


248 

to  a comfortable  cow-house  or  shed.  If  the  discharge  be  glairy, 
but  not  offensive,  he  may  hope  that  the  calf  is  not  dead;  he 
will  be  assured  of  this  by  the  motion  of  the  foetus,  and  then  it 
is  possible  that  the  abortion  may  still  be  avoided.  He  should 
hasten  to  bleed  her,  and  that  copiously,  in  proportion  to  her 
age,  size,  condition,  and  the  state  of  excitation  in  which  he 
may  find  her;  and  he  should  give  a dose  of  physic  immediately 
after  the  bleeding.  When  the  physic  begins  to  operate,  he 
should  administer  half  a drachm  of  opium  and  half  an  ounce 
of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre.  Unless  she  is  in  a state  of  great  debility, 
he  should  allow  nothing  but  gruel,  and  she  should  be  kept  as 
quiet  as  possible.  By  these  means  he  may  occasionally  allay 
the  general  or  local  irritation  that  precedes  or  causes  the 
abortion,  and  the  cow  may  yet  go  to  her  full  time. 

Should,  however,  the  discharge  be  fetid,  the  conclusion  will 
be  that  the  foetus  is  dead,  and  must  be  got  rid  of,  and  that  as 
speedily  as  possible.  Bleeding  may  even  then  be  requisite  if 
much  fever  exists;  or,  perhaps,  if  there  is  debility,  some  stimu- 
lating drink  may  not  be  out  of  place.  In  other  respects  the 
animal  must  be  treated  as  if  her  usual  time  of  pregnancy  had 
been  accomplished. 

Much  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  preventing  this  habit  of 
abortion  among  cows.  The  foetus  must  be  got  rid  of  immedi- 
ately. It  should  be  buried  deep  and  far  from  the  cow-pasture. 
Proper  means  should  be  taken  to  hasten  the  expulsion  of  the 
placenta.  A dose  of  physic  should  be  given;  ergot  of  rye 
administered;  the  hand  should  be  introduced,  and  an  effort 
made,  cautiously  and  gently,  to  detach  the  placenta;  all  violence, 
however,  should  be  carefully  avoided;  for  considerable  and 
fatal  hemorrhage  may  be  speedily  produced.  The  parts  of  the 
cow  should  be  well  washed  with  a solution  of  the  chloride  of 
lime,  which  should  be  injected  up  the  vagina,  and  also  given 
internally.  In  the  meantime,  and  especially  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  placenta,  the  cow-house  should  be  well  washed  with  the 
same  solution. 

The  cow,  when  beginning  to  recover,  should  be  fattened 
and  sold.  This  is  the  first  and  grand  step  toward  the  preven- 
tion of  abortion,  and  he  is  unwise  who  does  not  immediately 
adopt  it.  All  other  means  are  comparatively  inefficient  and 
worthless.  Should  the  owner  be  reluctant  to  part  with  her,  two 
months,  at  least,  should  pass  before  she  is  permitted  to  return 
to  her  companions.  Prudence  would  probably  dictate  that  she 
should  never  return  to  them,  but  be  kept,  if  possible,  on  some 
distant  part  of  the  farm. 

Abortion  having  once  occurred  among  the  herd,  the  breed- 
ing cows  should  be  carefully  watched.  Although  they  should 
be  well  fed,  they  should  not  be  suffered  to  get  into  too  high 


CATTLE. 


249 


condition.  Unless  they  are  decidedly  poor  and  weak,  they 
should  be  bled  between  the  third  and  fourth  months  of  preg- 
nancy, and  a mild  dose  of  physic  administered  to  each.  If 
the  pest  continues  to  reappear,  the  owner  should  most  carefully 
examine  how  far  any  of  the  causes  of  abortion  that  have  been 
detected,  may  exist  on  his  farm,  and  exert  himself  to  thoroughly 
remove  them. 

Garget. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  internal  substance 
of  the  udder.  One  or  more  of  the  teats,  or  whole  sections 
of  the  udder,  become  enlarged  and  thickened,  hot,  tender,  and 
painful.  The  milk  coagulates  in  the  bag,  and  causes  inflamma- 
tion where  it  is  deposited,  which  is  accompanied  by  fever. 
It  most  commonly  occurs  in  young  cows  after  calving,  especi- 
ally when  in  too  high  condition.  The  secretion  of  milk  is  very 
much  lessened,  and,  in  very  bad  cases,  stopped  altogether. 
Sometimes  the  milk  is  thick,  and  mixed  with  blood.  Often, 
also,  in  severe  cases,  the  hind  extremities,  as  the  hip-joint, 
hock,  or  fetlock,  are  swollen  and  inflamed  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  animal  cannot  rise.  The  simplest  remedy,  in  mild 
cases,  is  to  put  the  calf  to  its  mother  several  times  a day.  This 
will  remove  the  flow  of  milk,  and  often  dispel  the  congestion. 

Treatment. — Sometimes  the  udder  is  so  much  swollen 
that  the  cow  will  not  permit  the  calf  to  suck.  If  the  fever 
increases,  the  appetite  declines,  and  rumination  ceases.  In  this 
stage  of  the  complaint,  the  advice  of  a scientific  veterinary 
practitioner  is  required.  A dose  of  purging  medicine  and 
frequent  washing  of  the  udder,  in  mild  cases,  are  usually  suc- 
cessful. The  physic  should  consist  of  epsom  salts,  one  pound; 
ginger,  half  an  ounce;  nitrate  of  potassa,  half  an  ounce;  dis- 
solved in  a quart  of  boiling  water;  then  add  a gill  of  molasses, 
and  give  to  the  cow  lukewarm.  Diet  moderate;  that  is,  on  bran, 
or,  if  in  summer,  green  food.  There  are  various  medicines  for 
the  different  forms  and  stages  of  garget,  which,  if  the  above 
medicine  fails,  can  be  properly  prescribed  by  a ,skillful  vet- 
erinary practitioner. 

It  is  important  that  the  udder  should  be  frequently  exam- 
ined, as  matter  may  be  forming,  which  should  be  immediately 
released.  Various  causes  are  assigned  for  this  disease,  such  as 
exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  or  the  want  of  proper  care  or  atten- 
tion in  parturition. 

An  able  writer  says  that  hasty  drying  up  a cow  often  gives 
rise  to  inflammation  and  indurations  of  the  udder,  difficult  of 
removal.  Sometimes  a cow  lies  down  upon  and  bruises  the 
udder,  and  this  is  another  cause.  But  a very  frequent  source, 
and  one  for  which  there  can  be  no  excuse,  is  the  failure  to 
milk  a cow  clean.  The  calf  should  be  allowed  to  suck  often, 


250 


CATTLE. 


and  the  cow  should  be  milked  at  least  twice  a day  as  clean  as 
possible,  while  suffering  from  this  complaint. 

If  the  udder  is  hot  and  feverish,  a wash  may  be  used,  con- 
sisting of  eight  ounces  of  vinegar  and  two  ounces  of  camphor- 
etted  spirit;  the  whole  well  and  thoroughly  mixed,  and  applied 
just  after  milking,  to  be  washed  off  in  warm  water  before  milk- 
ing again. 

In  very  bad  cases,  iodine  has  often  been  found  most  effec- 
tual. An  iodine  ointment  may  be  prepared  by  taking  one 
drachm  of  hydriodate  of  potash  and  an  ounce  of  lard,  and 
mixing  them  well  together.  A small  portion  of  the  mixture, 
from  the  size  of  a pigeon’s  egg,  in  limited  inflammations,  to  twice 
that  amount,  is  to  be  well  rubbed  into  the  swollen  part,  morn- 
ing and  night. 

When  milk  forms  in  the  bag  before  parturition,  so  as  to 
cause  a swelling  of  the  udder,  it  should  be  milked  away;  and 
a neglect  of  this  precaution  often  leads  to  violent  attacks  of 
garget. 

Prevention  is  always  better  than  cure.  The  reason  most 
commonly  given  for  letting  the  cow  run  dry  for  a month  or  two 
before  calving  is  that  after  a long  period  of  milking  her  system 
requires  rest,  and  that  she  will  give  more  milk  and  do  better 
the  coming  season  than  if  milked  up  to  the  time  of  calving. 

This  is  all  true,  and  a reason  sufficient  in  itself  for  drying 
off  the  cow  some  weeks  before  parturition;  but  there  is  another 
important  reason  for  the  practice,  which  is  that  the  mixture  of 
the  old  milk  with  the  new  secretion  is  liable  to  end  in  an  ob- 
stinate case  of  garget. 

To  prevent  any  ill  effects  from  calving,  the  cow  should  not 
be  suffered  to  get  too  fat,  which  high  feeding,  after  drying  off, 
might  induce. 

The  period  of  gestation  is  about  two  hundred  and  eighty- 
four  or  two  hundred  and  eighty-five  days.  But  cows  some- 
times overrun  their  time,  and  have  been  known  to  go  three 
hundred  and  thirteen  days,  and  even  more;  while  they  now 
and  then  fall  short  of  it,  and  have  been  known  to  calve  in  two 
hundred  and  twenty  days.  If  they  go  much  over  the  average 
time,  the  calf  will  generally  be  a male. 

False  Presentation. — The  cow,  when  about  to  calve,  ought 
not  to  be  disturbed  by  too  constant  watching.  The  natural 
presentation  of  the  foetus  is  with  the  head  lying  upon  the  fore 
legs.  If  in  this  position,  nature  will  generally  do  all.  But,  if 
the  presentation  is. unnatural,  and  the  labor  has  been  long  and 
ineffectual,  some  assistance  is  required.  The  hand,  well 
greased,  may  be  introduced,  and  the  position  of  the  calf 
changed;  and,  when  in  a proper  position,  a cord  should  be 
tied  round  the  fore  legs,  just  above  the  hoofs;  but  no  effort 


- CATTLE. 


251 


should  be  made  to  draw  out  the  calf  till  the  natural  throes  are 
repeated.  If  the  nostril  of  the  calf  has  protruded,  and  the 
position  is  then  found  to  be  unnatural,  the  head  cannot  be 
thrust  back  without  destroying  the  life  of  the  calf. 

The  false  position  most  usually  presented  is  that  of  the 
head  first,  with  the  legs  doubled  under  the  belly.  A cord  is 
then  fixed  around  the  lower  jaw,  when  it  is  pushed  back,  to 
give  an  opportunity  to  adjust  the  fore  legs,  if  possible.  The 
object  must  now  be  to  save  the  life  of  the  cow. 

But  the  cases  of  false  presentation,  though  comparatively\ 
rare,  are  so  varied  that  no  direction  could  be  given  which  * 
would  be  applicable  in  all  cases.  ' 

After  calving,  the  cow  will  require  but  little  care,  if  she  is 
in  the  barn,  and  protected  from  changes  of  weather.  A warm 
bran  mash  is  usually  given,  and  the  state  of  the  udder  exam- 
ined. 

Puerperal  or  Milk  Fever. — Calving  is  often  attended  with 
feverish  excitement.  The  change  of  powerful  action  from  the 
womb  to  the  udder  causes  much  constitutional  disturbance  and 
local  inflammation.  A cow  is  subject  to  nervousness  in  such 
circumstances,  which  sometimes  extends  to  the  whole  system, 
and  causes  puerperal  fever.  This  complaint  is  called  dropping 
after  calving,  because  it  succeeds  that  process.  The  prominent 
symptom  is  a loss  of  power  over  the  motion  of  the  hind  ex- 
tremities, and  inability  to  stand;  sometimes  loss  of  sensibility 
in  these  parts,  so  that  a deep  puncture  with  a pin,  or  other 
sharp  instrument,  is  unfelt. 

This  disease  is  much  to  be  dreaded  by  the  farmer  on  account 
of  the  high  state  of  excitement  and  the  local  inflammation. 
Either  from  neglect  or  ignorance,  the  malady  is  not  discovered 
until  the  manageable  symptoms  have  passed,  and  extreme  de- 
bility has  appeared.  The  animal  is  often  first  seen  lying  down, 
unable  to  rise;  prostration  of  strength  and  violent  fever  are 
brought  on  by  inflammation  of  the  womb.  But  soon  a general 
inflammatory  action  succeeds,  rapid  and  violent,  with  complete 
prostration  of  all  the  vital  forces,  bidding  defiance  to  the  best 
selected  remedies. 

Cows  in  very  high  condition,  and  cattle  removed  from  low 
keeping  to  high  feeding,  are  the  most  liable  to  puerperal  fever. 

It  occurs  most  frequently  during  the  hot  weather  of  summer, 
and  then  it  is  most  dangerous.  When  it  occurs  in  winter,  cows 
sometimes  recover.  In  hot  weather  they  usually  die. 

Milk  fever  may  be  induced  by  the  hot  drinks  often  given 
after  calving.  A young  cow  at  her  first  calving  is  rarely  at- 
tacked with  it.  Great  milkers  are  most  commonly  subject  to 
it;  but  all  cows  have  generally  more  or  less  fever  at  calving. 

A little  addition  to  it,  by  improper  treatment  or  neglect,  will 


252 


CATTLE. 


prevent  the  secretion  of  milk;  and  thus  the  milk,  being  thrown 
back  into  the  system,  will  increase  the  inflammation. 

This  disease  sometimes  shows  itself  in  the  short  space  of 
two  or  three  hours  after  calving,  but  often  not  under  two  or 
three  days.  If  four  or  five  days  have  passed,  the  cow  may 
generally  be  considered  safe. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  is  restless,  frequently  shifting  her 
position;  occasionally  pawing  and  heaving  at  the  flanks.  Muz- 
zle hot  and  dry,  the  mouth  open,  and  tongue  out  at  one  side; 
countenance  wild;  eyes  staring.  She  moans  often,  and  soon 
becomes  very  irritable.  Delirium  follows;  she  grates  her  teeth, 
foams  at  the  mouth,  tosses  her  head  about,  and  frequently  in- 
jures herself.  From  the  first,  the  udder  is  hot,  enlarged  and 
tender,  and,  if  this  swelling  is  attended  by  a suspension  of  milk, 
the  cause  is  clear.  As  the  case  is  inflammatory,  its  treatment 
must  be  in  accordance;  and  it  is  usually  subdued  without  much 
difficulty. 

Treatment. — A pound  to  one  and  a half  pounds  of  epsom 
or  Glauber’s  salts,  according  to  the  size  and  condition  of  the 
animal,  should  be  given,  dissolved  in  a quart  of  boiling  water; 
and,  when  dissolved,  addpulv.  red  pepper  a quarter  of  an  ounce; 
caraway,  do.  do.;  ginger,  do.  do.;  mix,  and  add  a gill  of  mo- 
lasses, and  give  luke  warm.  If  this  medicine  does  not  act  on 
the  bowels,  the  quantity  of  ginger,  capsicum,  and  caraway, 
must  be  doubled.  The  insensible  stomach  must  be  aroused. 
When  purging  in  an  early  stage  is  begun,  the  fever  will  more 
readily  subside.  After  the  operation  of  the  medicine,  seda- 
tives may  be  given,  if  necessary. 

The  digestive  function  first  fails,  when  the  secondary  or 
low  state  of  fever  comes  on.  The  food  discharged  ferments; 
the  stomach  and  intestines  are  inflated  with  gas,  and  swell 
rapidly.  The  nervous  system  is  also  attacked,  and  the  poor 
beast  staggers.  The  hind  extremities  show  the  weakness;  the 
cow  falls  and  cannot  rise;  her  head  is  turned  on  one  side, 
where  it  rests;  her  limbs  are  palsied.  The  treatment  in  this 
stage  must  depend  on  the  existence  and  degree  of  fever.  The 
pulse  will  be  the  only  true  guide.  If  it  is  weak,  wavering,  and 
irregular,  we  must  avoid  depleting,  purgative  agents.  The 
blood  flows  through  the  arteries,  impelled  by  the  action  of  the 
heart,  and  its  pulsations  can  be  very  distinctly  felt  by  pressing 
the  finger  upon  almost  any  of  these  arteries  that  is  not  too 
thickly  covered  by  fat  or  the  cellular  tissues  of  the  skin,  espec- 
ially where  it  can  be  pressed  upon  some  hard  or  bony  sub- 
stance beneath  it.  The  most  convenient  place  is  directly  at  the 
back  part  of  the  lower  jaw,  where  a large  artery  passes  over  the 
edge  of  the  jaw  bone  to  ramify  on  the  face.  The  natural  pulse  of 
a full  grown  ox  will  vary  from  about  forty-eight  to  fifty-five 


CATTLE. 


253 


beats  a minute;  that  of  a cow  is  rather  quicker,  especially  near 
the  time  of  calving;  and  that  of  a calf  is  quicker  than  that  of  a 
cow.  But  a very  much  quicker  rate  than  that  indicated  will 
show  a feverish  state  or  inflammation,  and  a much  slower  pul- 
sation indicates  debility  of  some  kind. 

Next  in  importance,  as  we  have  already  stated,  is  the 
physic.  The  bowels  must  be  opened,  or  the  animal  will  fall  a 
victim  to  the  disease.  All  medicines  should  be  of  an  active 
character,  and  in  sufficient  quantity;  and  stimulants  should 
always  be  added  to  the  purgative  medicines,  to  insure  their 
operation.  Ginger,  gentian,  caraway,  or  red  pepper  in  powder, 
may  be  given  with  each  dose  of  physic.  Some  give  a powerful 
purgative,  by  means  of  epsom  salts,  one  pound;  flour  of  sulphur, 
four  ounces;  powdered  ginger,  a quarter  of  an  ounce;  all  dis- 
solved in  a quart  of  cold  water,  and  one-half  given  twice  a day 
till  the  bowels  are  opened.  The  digestive  organs  are  deranged 
in  most  forms  of  milk  fever,  and  the  third  stomach  is  loaded 
with  hard,  indigestible  food.  When  the  medicine  has  operated, 
and  the  fever  is  subdued,  little  is  required  but  good  nursing 
to  restore  the  patient. 

No  powerful  medicines  should  be  used  without  discretion; 
for,  in  the  milder  forms  of  the  disease,  as  the  simple  palsy  of 
the  hind  extremities,  the  treatment,  though  of  a similar  charac- 
ter, should  be  less  powerful,  and  every  effort  should  be  made 
for  the  comfort  of  the  cow  by  providing  a thick  bed  of  straw, 
and  raising  the  forequarters  to  assist  the  efforts  of  nature, 
while  all  filth  should  be  carefully  and  promptly  removed.  She 
may  be  covered  with  a warm  cloth,  and  warm  gruel  should  be 
frequently  offered  to  her,  and  light  mashes.  An  attempt 
should  be  made  several  times  a day  to  bring  milk  from  the 
teats.  The  return  of  milk  is  an  indication  of  speedy  recovery. 

Milch  cows  in  too  high  condition  appear  to  have  a consti- 
tutional tendency  to  this  complaint,  and  one  attack  of  it  pre- 
disposes them  to  another. 

Simple  Fever. — This  may  be  considered  as  increased  arte- 
rial action,  with  or  without  any  local  affection;  or  it  may  be 
the  consequence  of  the  sympathy  of  the  system  with  the  mor- 
bid condition  of  some  particular  part.  The  first  is  pure  or 
idiopathic  fever.  Pure  fever  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  cattle. 
Symptoms  as  follows:  Muzzle  dry;  rumination  slow  or  entirely 
suspended;  respiration  slightly  accelerated;  the  horn  at  the 
root  hot,  and  its  other  extremity  frequently  cold:  pulse  quick; 
bowels  constipated;  coat  staring  and  the  cow  is  usually  seen 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  herd.  In  slight  attacks,  a cathar- 
tic of  salts,  sulphur  and  ginger  is  sufficient.  But,  if  the  common 
fever  is  neglected  or  improperly  treated,  it  may  assume,  after  a 
time,  a local  determination,  as  pleurisy  or  inflammation  of  the 


254 


CATTLE. 


lungs  or  bowels.  In  such  cases  the  above  remedy  would  be 
insufficient,  and  a veterinary  surgeon  to  manage  the  case  would 
be  necessary.  Symptomatic  fever  is  more  dangerous  and  is 
commonly  the  result  of  injury,  the  neighboring  parts  sympa- 
thizing with  the  injured  part.  Cattle  become  unwell,  are 
stinted  in  their  feed,  have  a dose  of  physic,  and  in  a few  days 
are  well;  still  a fever  may  terminate  in  some  local  affection. 
But  in  both  cases  pure  fever  is  the  primary  disease. 

A more  dangerous  form  of  fever  is  that  known  as  symptom- 
atic. As  we  have  said,  cattle  are  not  only  subject  to  fever  of 
common  intensity,  but  to  symptomatic  fever,  and  thousands 
die  annually  from  its  effects.  But  the  young  and  the  most 
thriving  are  its  victims.  There  are  few  premonitory  symptoms 
of  symptomatic  fever.  It  often  appears  without  any  previous 
indications  of  illness.  The  animal  stands  with  her  neck 
extended,  her  eyes  protruding  and  red,  muzzle  dry,  nostrils 
expanded,  breath  hot,  base  of  the  horn  hot,  mouth  open,  pulse 
full,  breathing  quick.  She  is  often  moaning;  rumination  and 
appetite  are  suspended;  she  soon  becomes  more  uneasy; 
changes  her  position  often.  Unless  these  symptoms  are  speedily 
removed,  she  dies  in  a few  hours. 

Treatment. — The  name  of  the  ailment,  inflammatory  or 
symptomatic  fever,  shows  the  treatment  necessary,  which  must 
commence  with  purging.  Salts  here,  as  in  most  inflammatory 
diseases,  are  the  most  reliable.  From  a pound  to  a pound  and 
a half,  with  ginger  and  sulphur  in  a dose,  dissolved  in  warm 
water  or  thin  gruel.  If  this  does  not  operate  in  twelve  hours, 
give  half  the  dose,  and  repeat  once  in  twelve  hours  until  the 
bowels  are  freed.  After  the  operation  of  the  medicine  the 
animal  is  relieved.  The  sedative  medicines  may  be  given. 
Sal  ammoniac,  one  drachm;  powdered  nitre,  two  drachms; 
should  be  administered  in  thin  gruel  two  or  three  times  a day,  if 
required. 

Bronchitis. — The  trachea  and  bronchial  tubes  are  fre- 
quently the  seat  of  inflammation,  especially  in  the  spring  of 
the  year — the  symptoms  of  which  are  often  confounded  with 
those  of  other  pulmonary  diseases.  This  inflammation  is  fre- 
i quently  preceded  by  catarrhal  affections;  cough  is  often  pres- 
ent for  a long  time  before  the  more  acute  symptoms  are 
observed.  Bronchitis  occasionally  makes  its  appearance  in  an 
epizootic  form. 

Symptoms. — A peculiarly  anxious  expression  of  the  coun- 
tenance will  be  observed;  respiration  laborious;  a husky, 
wheezing,  painful  cough;  on  placing  the  ear  to  the  windpipe  a 
sonorous  rale  is  heard;  symptomatic  fever  also  prevails  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  extent. 


CATTLE. 


255 


Treatment. — Counter  irritation  should  be  early  resorted 
to;  strong  mustard,  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  spirits  of  harts- 
horn and  water,  and  made  into  a thin  paste,  should  be  applied 
all  along  the  neck  over  the  windpipe,  and  to  the  sides,  and- 
should  be  well  rubbed  in;  or  the  tincture  of  cantharides  with 
ten  drops  of  castor-oil  to  each  ounce,  applied  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  former,  will  be  found  equally  effective.  Give  inter- 
nally ten  drops  of  Fleming’s  tincture  of  aconite  every  four 
hours  until  five  or  six  doses  have  been  given;  after  which  give 
one  of  the  following  powders  twice  a day:  Nitrate  of  potash, 
one  ounce;  Barbadoes  aloes,  one  ounce;  Jamaica  ginger,  half 
an  ounce;  pulverized-gentian  root,  one  ounce;  mix  and  divide 
into  eight  powders.  If  necessary  a pound  of  salts  may  be 
given. 

Diseases  of  the  Teats.— Obstruction  at  the  Ends  of 
the  Teats. — It  occasionally  happens  that  a fungous  or  watery 
excerescence  makes  its  appearance  at  the  end  and  centre  of  the 
teat,  which  obstructs  the  flow  of  milk,  and  is  very  annoying  and 
painful  to  the  animal.  This  should  be  removed  by  the  scalpel, 
taking  care  to  dissect  away  every  portion  of  the  morbid  growth. 
The  part  is  then  to  be  sprinkled  with  powdered  bloodroot,  in 
order  to  prevent  union  of  the  edges  of  the  the  outlet  of  the 
teat.  The  milk-tube,  well  oiled,  must  now  and  then  be  intro- 
duced. 

Obstruction  in  the  Teats. — A simple  obstruction  in  the 
teats  is  frequently  occasioned  by  imperfect  union  in  the  lining 
membrane. 

Treatment. — This  is  easily  remedied  by  introducing  a 
tube  constructed  for  the  purpose,  which  should  be  well  lubri- 
cated with  olive  oil  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the  lactiferous 
channel  for  several  hours  daily,  or  until  all  danger  of  readhe- 
sion has  passed  away.  The  lactiferous  outlet  is  sometimes 
obstructed  by  false  membranes  running  across  its  channel. 
These  must  be  annihilated  by  the  introduction  of  the  tube. 

Tumors  in  the  Teats. — Tumors  are  occasionally  found 
in  the  teats.  Their  presence  is  determined  by  bulbous  enlarge- 
ment, which,  on  manipulation,  appear  very  evident. 

Treatment. — The  method  of  operation  in  such  cases  is  to 
introduce  a tube,  well  smeared  with  iodine  ointment,  and 
repeat  the  operation  two  or  three  times  daily,  until  the  milk 
passes  freely. 

Injuries  to  the  Teats. — There  are  many  cases  of  injury 
to  the  teats  in  the  form  of  an  incision,  which  occurred  acci- 
dentally on  the  animal  rising  from  the  ground,  cutting  or  lacer- 
ating the  same  with  its  own  hoofs. 


256 


CATTLE. 


Treatment. — When  the  accident  is  discovered  shortly 
after  it  happens,  the  parts  may  be  drawn  together  by  uninter- 
rupted suture.  The  seam  is  then  coated  with  collodion,  and 
the  milk  must  be  evacuated  wholly  by  the  tube  until  the  parts 
have  united.  Sometimes  the  union  is  not  complete,  but  a small 
fistulous  opening  is  left,  through  which  the  milk  is  constantly 
dribbling.  The  only  way  to  remedy  this  is  to  convert  the 
fistula  into  a simple  flesh-wound.  This  is  done  by  means  of  a 
sharp-pointed  knife,  which  removes  the  thin  callus  forming  the 
interior  of  the  fistula.  The  raw  edges  are  then  to  be  brought 
together  by  suture,  and  collodion  and  the  tube  used  as  before. 

Sore  Teats. — Treatment. — First,  wash  with  warm  water 
and  Castile  soap;  then  lubricate  the  parts  with  equal  portions 
of  lime-water  and  linseed  oil. 

Chapped  Teats  and  Chafed  Udder. — Treatment.** — 
Foment  the  parts  daily  with  an  infusion  of  camomile  flowers 
for  at  least  fifteen  minutes  at  a time;  then  wipe  dry  and  use 
the  lime  liniment.  These  temporary,  or  what  might,  with  more 
propriety,  be  termed  local,  maladies,  will,  if  the  system  be  free 
from  morbid  matter,  generally  yield  to  local  remedies.  If,  how- 
ever, no  change  for  the  better  can  be  observed,  the  following 
aperient  should  be  given  : 

Cow-pox. — Two  varieties  of  sore  teats  occur  in  the  cow,  in 
the  form  of  pustular  eruption.  They  first  appear  as  small 
vesicles  containing  a purulent  matter,  and  subsequently  assume 
a scabby  appearance,  or  small  ulcers  remain,  which  often  prove 
troublesome  to  heal.  This  latter  is  the  cow-pox,  from  which 
Jenner  derived  the  vaccine  matter. 

Treatment. — Foment  the  teats  well  with  warm  water  and 
Castile  soap;  after  which,  wipe  the  bag  dry,  and  dress  with 
citrine  ointment.  The  preparations  of  iodine  have  also  been 
recommended,  and  they  are  very  serviceable. 

Coryza. — In  the  spring,  and  late  in  the  fall,  catarrhal  affec- 
tions are  quite  common,  occurring  frequently  in  an  epizootic 
form.  Coryza,  or  nasal  catarrh,  commonly  called  a cold  in  the 
head,  is  not  very  common  among  cows.  As  its  name  implies, 
it  is  a local  disease,  confined  to  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
nose;  and,  consequently,  the  general  system  is  not  usually 
disturbed. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  will  be  observed  to  sneeze;  the 
Schneiderian  membrane  (membrane  of  the  nose)  is  heightened 
in  color;  cough  sometimes  accompanies;  there  is  also  a muco- 
purulent discharge  from  the  nose.  Neglect  to  attend  to  these 
early  symptoms  frequently  occasions  disease  of  a more  serious 
nature.  In  fact,  coryza  may  be  regarded  as  the  forerunner  of 
all  epizootic  pulmonary  disorders. 


CATTLE. 


257 


Treatment. — The  animal  should  be  kept  on  a low  diet 
for  a few  days;  the  nostrils  occasionally  steamed,  and  one  of  the 
following  powders  given  night  and  morning,  which,  in  most 
cases,  will  be  all  the  medicine  required:  Nitrate  of  potassa,  one 
ounce;  digitalis  leaves  pulverized  and  tartrate  of  antimony,  of 
each  one  drachm;  sulphate  of  copper,  two  drachms.  Mix,  and 
divide  into  eight  powders.  Should  the  disease  prove  obstinate, 
give  for  two  or  three  days  two  ounces  of  epsom  salts  at  a dose, 
dissolved  in  water,  three  times  a day. 

Diarrhoea. — Cattle  are  frequently  subject  to  this  disease, 
particularly  in  the  spring  of  the  year  when  the  grass  is  young 
and  soft.  Occasionally  it  assumes  a very  obstinate  form  in 
consequence  of  the  imperfect  secretion  of  gastric  juice;  the 
faeces  are  thin,  watery,  and  fetid,  followed  by  very  great 
prostration  of  the  animal. 

The  symptoms  of  diarrhoea  are  too  well  known  to  require 
any  detailed  description. 

Treatment. — If  in  a mild  form,  the  diet  should  be  low; 
give  two  ounces  of  epsom  salts  twice  a day.  In  a more  obsti- 
nate form,  give  two  drachms  of  carbonate  of  soda  in  the  food. 
Oak-bark  tea  will  be  found  very  useful  in  these  cases;  or  one 
of  the  following  powders,  twice  a day,  will  be  found  very 
advantageous:  Pulverized  opium  and  catechu,  each  one  and  a 
half  ounces:  prepared  chalk,  one  drachm;  to  be  given  in 
the  feed. 

Calves  are  particularly  subject  to  this  disease,  and  it  often 
proves  fatal  to  them.  It  sometimes  assumes  an  epizootic  form, 
when  it  is  generally  of  a mild  character.  So  long  as  the  calf  is 
lively  and  feeds  well,  the  farmer  should  entertain  no  fear  for 
him;  but  if  he  mopes  about,  refuses  his  food,  ceases  to  rumin- 
ate, wastes  in  flesh,  passes  mucus  and  blood  with  the  faeces,  and 
exhibits  symptoms  of  pain,  the  case  is  a dangerous  one. 

In  such  an  emergency,  lose  no  time,  but  give  two  or  three 
ounces  of  castor-oil  with  flour-gruel,  or  two  ounces  of  salts  at  a 
dose,  followed  with  small  draughts  of  oak-bark  tea;  or  give, 
twice  a day,  one  of  the  following  powders:  Pulverized  catechu, 
opium,  and  Jamaica  ginger,  of  each,  half  an  ounce;  prepared 
chalk,  one  ounce.  Mix,  and  divide  into  twelve  powders. 
Bran  washes,  green  food,  and  flour-gruel  should  be  given, 
with  plenty  of  salt. 

Dysentery. — This  disease  is  very  frequently  confounded 
with  the  foregoing.  A distinction,  however,  exists,  since  inflam- 
mation appears  in  this  disease,  while  it  is  absent  in  the  former. 
In  this  affection,  inflammation  of  the  large  intestines  takes 
place,  which  is  attended  with  diarrhoea.  The  faeces  are  covered 
with  blood;  the  animal  rapidly  becomes  prostrated,  and  death 
frequently  comes  to  its  relief 
15 


358 


CATTLE. 


It  is,  however,  with  dysentery  that  the  practioner  is  TTnjSt 
loth  to  cope,  a disease  that  betrays  thousands  of  cattle.  This, 
also,  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic.  Its  causes  are  too  often 
buried  in  obscurity,  and  its  premonitory  symptoms  are  disre- 
garded or  unknown.  There'appears  to  be  a strong  predispo- 
sition in  cattle  to  take  on  this  disease.  It  seems  to  be  the 
winding  up  of  many  serious  complaints,  and  the  foundation  of 
it  is  sometimes  laid  by  those  that  appear  to  be  of  the  most 
trifling  nature.  It  is  that  in  cattle  which  glanders  and  farcy 
are  in  the  horse — the  breaking  up  of  the  constitution. 

Dysentery  may  be  a symptom  and  concomittant  of  other  dis- 
eases. It  is  one  of  the  most  fearful  characteristics  of  murrain; 
it  is  the  destructive  accompaniment,  or  consequence,  of  phthisis. 
It  is  produced  by  the  sudden  disappearance  of  a cutaneous 
eruption;  it  follows  the  cessation  of  chronic  hoose;  it  is  the 
consequence  of  the  natural  or  artificial  suspension  of  every 
secretion.  Were  any  secretion  to  be  particularly  selected,  the 
repression  of  which  would  produce  dysentery,  it  would  be  that 
of  the  milk.  How  often  does  the  farmer  observe  that  no  sooner 
does  a milch  cow  cease  her  usual  supply  of  milk  than  she 
begins  to  purge!  There  may  not  appear  to  be  anything  else 
the  matter  with  her;  but  she  purges,  and,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  that  purging  is  fatal. 

It  may  sometimes,  however,  be  traced  to  sufficient  causes, 
exclusive  of  previous  disease.  Unwholesome  food — exposure 
to  cold — neglect  at  the  time  of  calving — low  and  marshy  situa- 
tions— the  feeding  in  meadows  that  have  been  flooded,  where 
it  is  peculiarly  fatal — the  grazing  upon  the  clays  lying  over  the 
blue  lias  rock — the  neighborhood  of  woods  and  of  half-stagnant 
rivers — the  continuation  of  unusually  sultry  weather — over- 
work, and  all  the  causes  of  acute  dysentery,  may  produce  that 
of  a chronic  nature;  an  acute  dysentery — neglected,  or  badly, 
or  even  most  skillfully  treated — may  degenerate  into  an  incur- 
able chronic  affection.  Half  starve  a cow,  or  overfeed  her, 
milk  her  to  exhaustion,  or  dry  her  milk  too  rapidly — and  dysen- 
tery may  follow. 

Symptoms. — The  following  will,  probably,  be  the  order  of 
the  symptoms,  if  they  are  carefully  observed:  There  will  be  a 
little  dulness  or  anxiety  of  countenance,  the  muzzle  becoming 
short  or  contracted;  a slight  shrinking  when  the  loins  are 
pressed  upon;  the  skin  a little  harsh  and  dry;  the  hair  a little 
rough;  there  will  be  a slight  degree  of  uneasiness  and  shiver- 
ing that  scarcely  attracts  attention;  then — except  it  be  the 
degeneracy  of  acute  into  chronic  dysentery — constipation  may 
be  perceived.  It  will  be,  to  a certain  extent,  obstinate;  the 
excrement  will  be  voided  with  pain;  it  will  be  dry,  hard,  and 
expelled  in  small  quantities.  In  other  cases,  perhaps,  purging 


CATTLE. 


259 


will  be  present  from  the  beginning;  the  animal  will  be  tor- 
mented with  tenesmus,  or  frequent  desire  to  void  its  excrement, 
and  that  act  attained  by  straining  and  pain,  by  soreness  about 
the  anus,  and  protrusion  of  the  rectum  and  sometimes  by 
severe  colicky  spasms.  In  many  cases,  however,  and  in  those 
of  a chronic  form,  few  of  these  distressing  symptoms  are  . 
observed,  even  at  the  commencement  of  the  disease;  but  the 
animal  voids  her  faeces  oftener  than  it  is  natural  that  she 
should,  and  they  are  more  fluid  than  in  a state  of  health;  while 
at  the  same  time  she  loses  her  appetite  and  spirits  and  condi- 
tion, and  is  evidently  wasting  away. 

Treatment. — Give  one  drachm  of  the  extract  of  bella- 
donna, three  times  a day,  dissolved  in  water;  or  calomel  and 
powdered  opium,  of  each  one  drachm  three  times  daily.  As 
soon  as  the  inflammatory  stage  passes  by,  give  one  of  the 
following  three  times  daily,  in  their  gruel:  Nitrate  of  potash  pul- 
verized, gentian-root  pulverized,  of  each  one  ounce;  pulverized 
Jamaica  ginger,  one-half  an  ounce;  pulverized  caraway,  or 
anise  seed,  six  drachms.  A bottle  of  porter,  given  once  or 
twice  a day,  will  be  found  of  very  great  advantage. 

The  Hoove,  or  Hoven. — This  is  brought  on  by  a derange- 
ment of  the  digestive  organs,  occasioned  by  over- feeding  on 
green  and  luxuriant  clover,  or  other  luxuriant  food.  It  is 
simply  the  distension  of  the  first  stomach  by  carbonic  acid  gas. 
In  later  stages,  after  fermentation  of  the  contents  of  the  stom- 
ach has  commenced,  hydrogen  gas  is  also  found.  The  green 
food,  being  gathered  very  greedily  after  the  animal  has  been 
kept  on  dry,  and  perhaps  unpalatable  hay,  is  not  sent  forward 
so  rapidly  as  it  is  received,  and  remains  to  overload  and  clog 
the  stomach,  till  this  organ  ceases  or  loses  the  power  to  act 
upon  it.  Here  it  becomes  moist  and  heated,  begins  to  ferment, 
and  produces  a gas  which  distends  the  paunch  of  the  animal, 
which  often  swells  up  enormously.  The  cow  is  in  great  pain, 
breathing  with  difficulty,  as  if  nearly  suffocating.  Then  the 
body  grows  cold,  and,  unless  relief  is  at  hand,  the  cow  dies. 

Treatment. — Prevention  is  both  cheaper  and  safer  than 
cure;  but  if  by  neglect,  or  want  of  proper  precaution,  the  animal 
is  found  in  this  suffering  condition,  relief  must  be  afforded 
as  soon  as  possible,  or  the  result  will  be  fatal. 

A hollow  flexible  tube,  introduced  into  the  gullet,  will 
sometimes  afford  a temporary  relief  till  other  means  can  be 
had,  by  allowing  part  of  the  gas  to  escape;  but  the  cause  is 
not  removed  either  by  this  means  or  by  puncturing  the  paunch, 
which  is  often  dangerous 

In  the  early  stage  of  the  disease  the  gas  may  be  neutralized 
by  ammonia,  which  is  usually  near  at  hand.  Two  ounces  of 


260 


CATTLE. 


liquid  ammonia,  in  a quart  of  distilled  or  rain  water,  given 
every  quarter  of  an  hour,  will  prove  beneficial.  A little  tincture 
of  ginger,  essence  of  aniseed,  or  some  other  cordial,  may  be 
added,  without  lessening  the  effect  of  the  ammonia. 

If  the  case  has  assumed  an  alarming  character,  the  flexible 
‘tube,  or  probang,  may  be  introduced,  and  afterwards  take 
three  drachms  ether  of  the  chloride  of  soda,  dissolve  in  a pint 
of  water,  and  pour  it  down  the  throat.  Lime-water,  potash, 
and  sulphuric  ether,  are  often  used  with  effect. 

In  desperate  cases  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  make  an 
incision  through  the  paunch;  but  the  chloride  of  lime  will,  in 
most  cases,  give  relief  at  once  by  neutralizing  the  gas. 

Choking. — This  is  often  produced  by  feeding  on  roots, 
particularly  round  and  uncut  roots,  like  the  potato.  The  ani- 
mal slavers  at  the  mouth,  tries  to  raise  the  obstruction  from  the 
throat.  This  method,  if  adopted,  should  be  attended  with 
great  care  and  patience,  or  the  tender  parts  will  be  injured.  If 
the  obstruction  is  low  down,  and  a tube  is  to  be  inserted,  a 
pint  of  olive  or  linseed  oil  first  turned  down  will  so  lubricate  the 
parts  as  to  aid  the  operation,  and  the  power  applied  must  be 
steady.  If  the  gullet  is  torn  by  the  carelessness  of  the  opera- 
tor, or  the  roughness  of  the  instrument,  a rupture  generally 
results  in  serious  consequences.  A hollow  tube  is  best,  and  if 
the  object  is  passed  on  into  the  paunch,  the  tube  should  re- 
main a short  time,  to  permit  the  gas  to  escape.  In  case  the 
animal  is  badly  swelled,  the  dose  of  chloride  of  lime,  or  am- 
monia, should  be  given,  as  for  the  hoove,  after  the  obstruction 
is  removed. 

Care  should  be  taken,  after  the  obstruction  is  removed,  to 
allow  no  solid  food  for  some  days. 

Foul  in  the  Foot. — Cows  and  other  stock,  when  fed  in  low, 
wet  pastures,  will  often  suffer  from  ulcers  or  sores,  generally 
appearing  first  between  the  claws.  This  is  commonly  called 
foul  in  the  foot,  and  is  analogous  to  foot-rot  in  sheep.  It  is 
often  very  painful,  causing  severe  lameness  and  loss  of  flesh, 
and  discharges  a putrid  matter  or  pus.  Sometimes  it  first  ap- 
pears in  the  form  of  a swelling  near  the  top  of  the  hoof  which 
breaks  and  discharges  foul  matter. 

Treatment. — The  rough  and  common  practice  among 
farmers  is  to  fasten  the  foot  in  the  same  manner  as  the  foot  of 
an  ox  is  fastened  in  shoeing,  and  draw  a rough  rope  back  and 
forth  over  the  ulcerated  parts,  so  as  to  produce  a clean,  fresh 
wound,  and  then  dress  it  with  tar  or  other  similar  substance. 

This  is  often  an  unnecessarily  cruel  operation.  The  loose 
matter  may  easily  be  removed  by  a knife,  and  then  carefully 
wiped  off  with  a moist  sponge.  The  animal  should  then  be  re- 
moved at  once  to  a warm,  dry  pasture,  or  kept  in  the  bam. 


CATTLE. 


261 


If  the  case  has  been  neglected  till  the  pasterns  become 
swollen  and  tender,  the  sore  may  be  thoroughly  cleansed  out, 
and  dressed  with  an  ointment  of  sulphate  of  iron,  one  ounce; 
molasses,  four  ounces;  simmered  over  a slow  fire  till  well  mixed. 
Apply  on  a piece  of  cotton  batting,  and  secure  upon  the  parts. 
If  any  morbid  growth  or  fungus  appear,  use  equal  parts  of 
powdered  blood-root  and  alum  sprinkled  on  the  sore,  and  this 
will  usually  effect  a cure. 

Some  also  give  a dose  of  flour  of  sulphur,  half  an  ounce; 
powdered  sassafras-bark,  one  ounce,  and  burdock,  two  ounces; 
the  whole  steeped  in  a quart  of  boiling  water,  and  strained 
when  cool;  and,  if  the  matter  still  continues  to  flow  from  the 
sore,  wash  it  morning  and  night  with  chloride  of  soda,  one 
ounce,  or  a tablespoonful  of  common  salt  dissolved  in  a pint 
of  water. 

Foul  in  the  foot  causes  very  serious  trouble,  if  not  taken  in 
season.  The  health  of  cows  is  injured  to  a great  extent. 

The  Mange. — This  is  commonly  brought  on  by  half-starving 
in  winter,  and  by  keeping  the  cow  in  a filthy,  ill-ventilated 
place.  It  is  contagious,  and  if  one  cow  of  a herd  has  it,  the 
rest  will  be  apt  to  get  it  also.  Blaine  says,  “Mange  has  three 
origins — filth,  debility  and  contagion.”  It  is  a disgrace  to  the 
farmer  to  suffer  it  to  enter  his  herd  from  either  of  these  causes, 
since  it  shows  a culpable  neglect  of  his  stock.  It  is  too  com- 
mon in  this  country,  especially  in  filthy  barns. 

Symptoms. — The  cow  afflicted  with  the  mange  is  hide- 
bound, the  hair  is  dry  and  stiff,  and  comes  of.  She  is  con- 
stantly rubbing,  and  a kind  of  white  scurfiness  appears  on  the 
skin.  It  is  most  perceptible  toward  the  latter  part  of  winter 
and  in  spring,  and  thus  too  plainly  tells  the  story  of  the  winter’s 
neglect. 

Treatment. — An  ointment  composed  chiefly  of  sulphur 
has  been  found  most  effectual.  Some  mercurial  ointment  may 
be  added  if  the  cows  are  kept  housed;  but,  if  let  out  during  the 
day,  the  quantity  must  be  very  small,  else  salivation  is  pro- 
duced by  their  licking  themselves. 

The  ointment  may  be  made  of  flour  of  sulphur,  one  pound; 
strong  mercurial  ointment,  two  ounces;  common  turpentine, 
one-half  pound;  lard,  one  and  a quarter  pounds.  Melt  the  tur 
pentine  and  lard  together,  and  stir  in  the  sulphur  as  they  begin 
to  cool  off;  then  rub  down  the  mercurial  ointment  on  some 
hard  substance  with  the  other  ingredients.  Rub  the  whole  in 
with  the  hand,  and  take  care  to  leave  no  places  untouched 
once  a day  for  three  days;  and,  after  this,  if  any  places  are  left 
uncured,  rub  it  in  over  them.  There  is  no  danger  in  this  appli- 
cation if  the  animal  is  not  exposed  to  severe  cold.  This  will 


262 


CATTLE. 


be  pretty  sure  to  effect  a speedy  cure,  if  aided  by  Cleanliness, 
pure  air  and  a nutritious  diet. 

Another  wa.ffi  for  mange  is  the  following:  P)toligneous 
acid,  four  ounces;  water,  a pint;  mix  and  apply. 

Lice. — Lice  show  unpardonable  neglect  of  duty  wherever 
they  are  suffered  to  exist.  They  crawl  all  over  the  stable  floor 
and  the  stalls,  on  the  pastures,  and  a touch  is  sufficient  to  give 
them  to  other  animals.  They  worry  the  poor  animal  con- 
stantly, and  no  thriftiness  can  be  expected  where  they  are 
found.  If  the  mange  ointment  does  not  completely  destroy 
them,  as  it  often  will,  take  bees-wax,  tallow  and  lard,  in  equal 
parts,  and  rub  it  into  the  hide  in  the  most  thorough  manner, 
with  the  hand  or  brush,  two  and  a half  pounds  for  a small  cow, 
three  pounds  for  a large  one.  The  next  day  it  may  be  washed 
off  in  soft  soap,  and  the  lice  will  have  disappeared  from  the 
animal,  but  not  always  from  the  barn.  Some  use  a wash  of 
powdered  lobelia-seeds,  two  ounces,  steeped  in  boiling  water, 
and  applied  with  a sponge.  Others  hang  up  tobacco  leaves 
over  the  stalls.  This  may  do  to  keep  them  away,  but  after  the 
animal  is  covered  with  them,  they  are  not  so  easily  scared. 

Warbles. — The  gad-fly  is  very  troublesome  to  cattle  towards 
the  end  of  summer.  The  fly  alights  on  the  back  of  the  cow, 
punctures  the  skin,  and  lays  her  egg  under  it.  A tumor  is  now 
formed,  varying  in  size,  which  soon  bursts  and  leaves  a small 
hole  for  the  grub  already  hatched  to  breathe  through.  Here 
the  insect  feeds  on  its  surroundings  and  grows  up  to  consider- 
able size.  All  this  time  the  animal  is  probably  suffering  moie 
or  less  pain,  and  often  tries  to  lick  or  rub  the  part  affected, 
if  possible.  Farmers  often  press  them  out  with  finger  and 
thumb.  The  best  way  is  to  puncture  the  skin  with  a common 
pen-knife,  and  then  press  out  the  grub.  They  injure  the  hide 
more  than  most  people  are  aware  of. 

Loss  of  cud  is  a consequence  of  indigestion,  and  is  often 
brought  on  by  eating  too  greedily  of  food  which  the  cow  is 
not  used  to.  Loss  of  cud  and  loss  of  appetite  are  synonymous. 
Gentle  purgatives  may  be  given,  with  such  as  salts,  ginger  and 
sulphur.  But  when  a cow  is  surfeited,  as  already  said,  I should 
prefer  to  withhold  food  entirely,  or  for  the  most  part,  till  the 
system  can  regulate  itself. 

Epizootic  Catarrh. — Catarrh  frequently  assumes  an  epizoo- 
tic form  of  a very  virulent  character,  originating  spontaneously 
and  extending  over  a large  section  of  country  at  or  about  the 
same  time.  A cold  spring  succeeding  a mild  winter  is  produc- 
tive of  malignant  catarrh.  This  is  one  of  the  most  distressing 
and  fatal  diseases  to  which  cattle  are  subject. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  appears  dull  and  unwilling  to 


CATTLE. 


203 


move  about,  staggering  when  forced  to  do  so;  obstinate  costive- 
ness is  usually  one  of  the  earliest  symptoms,  succeeded  by 
diarrhoea,  which  is  equally  difficult  of  management;  sometimes, 
however,  diarrhoea  is  present  from  the  first;  the  animal  loses 
flesh  rapidly;  the  coat  is  staring;  the  appetite  is  lost;  tumors 
form  about  the  head,  neck,  back,  and  joints,  which  appear  to 
be  filled  with  air,  and  upon  pressure  cause  a crepitating  sound  ; 
saliva  flows  from  the  mouth,  becoming  very  fetid  as  the  diseaxj 
progresses.  The  animal  always  dies  of  putrefaction. 

Treatment. — This  disease  should  be  treated  early,  or  not 
at  all.  Good  nursing  is  very  essential.  When  costiveness  is 
present,  give  Barbadoes  aloes,  one  ounce;  croton-oil,  ten  drops; 
mix  together;  or  give  one  pint  of  linseed  oil,  to  which  add  from 
ten  to  twenty  drops  of  castor-oil.  If  the  bowels  are  not  open 
in  twenty-four  hours,  give  four  ounces  of  sulphate  of  magnesia 
every  six  hours  until  they  are  opened.  Follow  this  with  tinc- 
ture of  aconite,  ten  drops  in  water  every  four  hours,  until  the 
fever  has  abated 

Bleeding  has  been  recommended  by  some  writers;  but  the 
author  has  failed  to  experience  any  benefit  from  resorting  to 
it;  but,  on  the  contrary,  has  seen  much  injury  result  from  the 
use — or,  rather,  the  abuse — of  the  lancet.  He  is,  indeed, 
inclined  to  attribute  much  of  the  fatality  attending  this  dis- 
ease to  indiscriminate  blood-letting. 

When  much  debility  exists,  the  animal  should  be  sustained 
by  stimulants.  One  ounce  of  nitric  ether,  and  half  an  ounce  of 
tincture  of  opium,  given  in  a little  water,  will  be  found  benefic- 
ial. It  should  be  given  twice  a day.  Pulverized  gentian-root,  one 
ounce;  Jamaica  ginger,  half  an  ounce;  pulverized  cloves,  half 
an  ounce;  mixed,  and  divided  into  four  powders,  one  to  be 
given  at  night  and  morning,  will  be  found  useful  in  place  of 
the  opium  and  ether. 

Gastro-Enteritis. — This  disease — otherwise  known  as  wood- 
evil,  or  moor-evil — arises  from  eating  the  buds  of  oak,  young 
ash,  and  other  trees,  which  are  of  a very  highly  stimulating  or 
irritating  character.  As  the  intestinal  canal  is  liable  to  inflam- 
matory action  from  irritant  substances  admitted  into  it,  ani- 
mals are  found  to  become  diseased  from  eating  too  freely  of 
these  vegetable  substances. 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  appetite  and  suspended  rumination; 
mouth  hot;  skin  dry;  pulse  from  sixty  to  seventy;  swelling  and 
pain  of  the  belly;  obstinate  constipation;  faeces  hard  and  cov- 
ered with  blood;  urine  of  a strpng  odor,  highly  colored,  and 
voided  with  difficulty. 

Treatment. — The  animal  should  be  bled  and  a strong 
purgative  administered,  followed  by  aconite  and  belladonna,  as 


264 


CATTLE. 


in  enteritis.  Injections  of  Castile-soap  and  water  should  be 
freely  used;  the  application  of  the  mustard,  hartshorn  and 
water  to  the  belly  will  also  be  found  very  beneficial. 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. — Inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
known  also  as  pneumonia,  is  not  usually  so  prevalent  among 
the  bovine  as  it  proves  to  be  in  the  equine  species,  excepting, 
however,  milch  cows,  located  in  unventilated  milking  establish- 
ments. In  such  locations  diseases  of  the  lungs  are  often  fear- 
fully prevalent,  raging,  at  times,  as  an  epizootic  affection,  which 
generally  proves  fatal  when  a large  number  of  animals  are  con- 
fined in  a small  place. 

Among  horses  this  disease  is  often  occasioned  by  laborious 
work  and  feats  of  speed,  which  produce  rapid  and  sometimes 
distressing  respiration;  but  among  cattle  whose  powers  of 
speed  and  endurance  are  not  often  put  to  the  test,  we  may  rea- 
sonably infer  that  the  exciting  causes  vary  in  their  general 
character. 

The  stimulating  and  morbid  action  of  an  impure  atmos- 
phere may  produce  this  disease  by  first  creating  irritation  on 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  respiratory  passages.  It  has  also 
been  noticed  that  this  disease  frequently  appears  among  cattle 
that  have  been  driven  a long  distance  and  have  also  been  com- 
pelled to  go  hungry  and  thirsty  for  many  hours.  Fortunately 
for  the  poor  brute,  this  disease  is  not  so  painful  as  bronchitis, 
pleurisy  and  laryngitis;  and,  after  having  passed  through  the 
acute  stage,  it  assumes  a sort  of  mild,  subacute  or  chronic  type, 
which,  apparently,  appears  less  dangerous  than  the  acute  kind; 
yet,  after  all,  is  more  so,  as  it  is  apt  to  terminate  in  altered 
structure,  hepatization,  induration,  and  tubercles. 

Pneumonia,  now  and  then,  terminates  by  metastasis;  that 
is,  by  translation  of  the  formidable  lung  difficulty  to  one 
equally  formidable,  which  locates  in  the  feet,  known  to  veter- 
inarians as  liminitis  (fever  in  the  feet).  Among  cattle,  how- 
ever, this  termination  is  rather  rare,  yet  very  frequent  among 
horses.  When  the  disease  does  not  take  this  course  it  often 
ends  in  “resolution,”  which  signifies  a return  to  health,  without 
leaving  any  perceivable  evidence  of  altered  structure;  so  that, 
after  awhile,  the  animal  may  become  sound  as  ever. 

Pneumonia  is  divided  into  several  forms  or  stages,  but,  as 
they  have  reference  to  its  degree  or  intensity,  it  seems  unnec- 
essary to  refer  to  them.  It  may,  however,  be  proper  to  inform 
the  reader  that  pneumonia  may  exist  either  as  a state  of  con- 
gestion or  of  inflammation.  Congestion  signifies  a distended 
or  plethoric  state  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  parenchyma  of 
the  lungs,  and  slow  motion  of  blood.  Congestive  pneumonia 
sometimes  sets  in  as  suddenly  as  that  which  is  termed  “inflam- 
matory,” and  among  cattle  the  former  is  more  prevalent.  In 


CATTLE. 


265 


the  congestive  stage,  the  symptoms  are  those  of  embarrassment, 
the  blood  courses  through  its  channels  sluggishly,  and  there  is 
not  the  activity  of  heart  and  lungs  which  is  perceivable  in 
pneumonia. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms,  in  the  early  stage,  are  such  as 
are  generally  observed  at  the  commencement  of  any  inflamma- 
tory affection;  namely,  coldness  of  extremities  and  shivering 
fits;  loss  of  appetite;  labored  respiration,  quick  pulse,  slight 
cough,  mouth  hot  and  clammy.  The  animal  will  not  lie  down, 
and  refuses  to  move;  the  head  is  extended,  perhaps  drooping, 
and  the  fore-legs  stand  wide  apart.  As  the  disease  progresses 
these  symptoms  vary,  and  the  appearance  of  the  membrane  of 
the  mouth,  nose  and  eyes  vary  also,  from  the  color  of  bright 
scarlet  to  that  of  a leaden  hue.  In  the  congestive  stage,  the 
pulse  is  more  voluminous,  yet  less  active,  and  the  visible  sur- 
faces are  highly  congested.  A cough,  slight  or  active,  as  the 
case  may  be,  is  usually  noticed;  it  is  a sort  of  deep-seated, 
half-suppressed  cough,  and  sometimes  is  the  first  symptom 
which  attracts  the  owner’s  attention  to  the  ailing  animal. 

Treatment. — It  is  very  important,  at  the  commencement 
of  the  treatment,  that  the  patient  shall  be  placed  in  a clean, 
comfortable  location,  where  pure  air  abounds;  for,  under  such 
circumstances,  the  condition  favorable  to  the  operation  of 
Nature  in  the  cure  of  the  malady  are  secured.  Should  the 
animal  labor  under  accelerated  respiration,  and  full,  strong 
pulse,  administer  one  ounce  of  powdered  nitre  in  a quart  of 
cold  water;  after  which,  four  ounces  of  the  liquor  acetate  of 
ammonia  may  be  given,  every  four  hours.  This  agent  also 
should  have  a quart  of  cold  water  added  to  it  at  every  dose. 
The  brisket  and  sides  may  be  rubbed  with  a portion  of  the 
following:  Powdered  mustard  and  strong  vinegar,  enough  of 
each  to  form  a thin  paste.  When  mixed,  a small  quantity  of 
oil  of  cedar  may  be  added-  This  application  should  be  repeated 
two  or  three  times  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours.  Nause- 
ants  are  next  administered,  in  view  of  relaxing  capillary  and 
muscular  constrictions,  and  this  is  desirable,  as  such  conditions 
tend  to  equalize  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  prevent  an 
undue  quantity  accumulating  in  the  pulmonary  organs. 

A couple  of  quarts  of  infusion  of  lobelia  may  occasionally 
be  thrown  into  the  rectum.  Considerable  of  the  active  princi- 
ple of  lobelia  may  be  absorbed  within  this  gut,  and,  under  the 
circumstances,  it  is  much  better  to  introduce  the  medicine  into 
the  system  in  this  way  than  by  the  stomach.  The  proportions 
of  the  lobelia  to  the  water  are: 

2 ounces  of  lobelia  (herb). 

2 quarts  of  boiling  water. 

When  cool,  strain,  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 


266 


CATTLE. 


It  may  be  necessary  to  give  a dose  of  medicine;  if  so,  use 
the  following: 

12  ounces  of  Glauber  salts. 

1 drachm  of  ginger. 

1 quart  of  warm  water. 

It  should  be  known  to  all  husbandmen  that  a disease  of 
this  character,  located  in  such  important  organs  as  those  of 
respiration,  is  very  prostrating,  and  operates  very  unfavorably 
on  the  inherent  vitality  of  parts;  hence,  as  soon  as  the  activity 
of  the  morbid  phenomena  is  somewhat  subdued,  all  active 
medication  should  cease. 

The  affection  is  likely  to  continue  for  some  days,  and  all 
we  have  to  do  is  to  try  to  keep  the  patient  alive  while  the 
disease  is  running  its  course.  Careful  nursing,  pure  air  and 
light  diet  are  the  remedies.  After  the  first  twenty-four  hours, 
pay  little  attention  to  the  pulse,  but  more  to  the  patient,  for 
there  are  but  two  conditions  in  this  case — one  acute,  the  other 
chronic.  The  very  moment  the  acute  condition  subsides,  it 
merges  into  the  chronic,  and  requires  life-sustaining  agents. 
After  the  first  twenty-four  hours  resort  to  the  following 
medicine: 

8 ounces  of  glycerine. 

4 drachms  of  powdered  bloodroot. 

1 ounce  of  powdered  golden  seal 

4 ounces  of  water.  Mix. 

Dose,  one  tablespoonful,  to  be  smeared  on  the  tongue  night 
and  morning. 

Management  Under  Treatment. — As  already  intimated, 
a full  supply  of  pure  air  must  be  insured;  for  a practitioner 
would  be  more  likely  to  save  an  animal  in  the  open  air  (pro- 
vided the  weather  is  not  too  cold  or  tempestuous)  than  in  the 
unventilated  cow-house.  Should  the  limbs  at  any  time  be  cold, 
they  are  to  be  hand-rubbed  and  bandaged;  the  body  being  in 
the  same  condition,  must  also  be  clothed.  Also  give  the  chilled 
patient  some  warm  ginger-tea,  or  any  other  non-alcoholic  stim- 
ulant or  carminative,  in  view  of  arousing  the  action  of  the 
heart  and  capillaries,  by  which  means  the  red  arterial  and  life- 
sustaining  blood  would  be  forced  to  the  external  surface,  and 
extremities,  imparting  to  them  a genial  warmth  and  thus 
insuring  an  equilibrium  of  the  circulating  fluid.  The  patient 
should  be  furnished  constantly  with  a bucket  of  pure,  cold 
water.  When  morbid  thirst  prevails,  the  water  must  be  acidu- 
lated with  either  lemon  juice,  cream  of  tartar  or  acetic  acid. 
Any  symptoms  of  debility  or  lassitude  are  to  be  opposed  by  a 
few  doses  of  some  vegetable  tonic.  Tincture  of  golden  seal 
or  tincture  of  matico,  in  ounce  doses  every  twelve  hours,  are 
the  best  remedies  that  I am  acquainted  with. 

Pharnygitis.  — Sore  Throat.  — The  term  pharyngitis 


CATTLE. 


26? 


signifies  inflammation  of  the  membrane  lining  in  the  pharyn- 
gitis inlet,  or  funnel-like  entrance  into  the  oesophagus,  or  gullet. 

Symptoms. — The  subject  is  unable  to  swallow,  and  thus 
the  food  taken  into  the  mouth  is  apt  to  be  returned  by  the 
nostrils.  This  happens  occasionally,  although  the  passage  of 
the  nasal  inlet  is  much  smaller  than  it  is  in  the  horse.  On 
exploring  the  interior  region  of  the  throat,  from  ear  to  ear, 
considerable  swelling  or  tumefaction  is  encountered,  yet  the 
pharyngial  muscles  appear  to  be  constricted.  It  generally 
appears  among  cattle  as  a simple  local  affection,  yet  it  often 
accompanies  other  diseases  of  the  respiratory  j character,  and, 
whenever  it  does  appear  as  a local  malady,  it  is  apt  to  merge 
into  something  else.  It  is  a very  distressing  affection,  and  the 
animal  gets  but  little  relief  until  suppuration  commences;  then 
a free  discharge  takes  place. 

Treatment. — Let  the  animals  throat  be  rubbed  twice 
daily  with 

1 ounce  oil  of  cedar. 

6 ounces  of  cod  liver  oil. 

2 drachms  spirits  of  ammonia.  Mix. 

Keep  a sloppy  bran-mash  before  the  patient,  or  some  flax- 
seed tea,  into  which  stir  a small  quantity  of  powdered  nitre  of 
licorice.  This  will  relieve  the  cough  if  any  be  present,  and 
tend  to  lessen  irritation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  pharynx. 
When  the  patient  begins  to  expectorate,  or  has  the  least 
discharge  from  the  nose,  give 

2 ounces  balsam  of  tolu. 

3 ounces  of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre. 

8 ounces  of  mucilage  of  gum  arabic. 

Dose,  one  wine-glassful  twice  daily. 

Pulmonary  Appoplexy. — This  disease  occasionally  appears 
among  cattle  in  the  Western  States.  It  attacks  animals 
irrespective  of  age,  sex,  or  condition.  It  is  generally  sudden 
in  its  attacks,  and  death  frequently  ensues  in  the  course  of  a 
few  hours. 

Symptoms. — The  pulse  and  respirations  are  very  much 
accelerated,  the  former  sometimes  running  as -high  as  no;  an 
augmented  salivary  secretion  is  observed  to  run  from  the  mouth; 
the  tongue  is  much  swollen;  so,  also,  are  the  eyelids,  and  tears 
run  down  each  side  of  the  face;  various  parts  of  the  body  are 
swollen  and  congested;  the  stomach  is  distended  with  gas,  and 
the  evacuations  are  profuse  and  watery.  Post-mortem  examin- 
ations reveal  a highly  congested  state  of  the  lungs;  in  fact,  they 
are  engorged  with  blood,  and  the  muscles  in  the  region  of  the 
tumefied  parts  are  in  a similar  engorged  condition. 

Treatment. — No  time  should  be  lost  in  administering  the 


2G8 


CATTLE. 


following  drench,  for  it  will  preserve  the  tissues  against  decom- 
position, and,  perhaps,  save  the  animal: 

12  drachms  of  pyroligneous  acid. 

1 pint  of  water. 

1 ounce  of  tincture  of  matico. 

Repeat  the  dose  after  a lapse  of  six  hours,  and  rub  the 
tumefaction  occasionally  with 

1 ounce  of  oil  of  cedar. 

2 ounces  of  tincture  of  capsicum. 

4 ounces  of  tincture  of  bayberry  bark.  Mix. 

It  appears  that  in  this  disease  there  is  a morbid  impulse 
directed  to  various  parts,  which  results  in  local  accumulations, 
rendering  the  parts  turgid.  Then  the  blood  is  thrown  out  of 
the  capillary  vessels,  and  sometimes  they  suffer  a rupture,  which 
accounts  for  the  engorgement  and  extravasation. 

Murrain. — This  is  one  of  the  most  malignant  diseases  to 
which  cattle  are  liable.  Fortunately,  however,  true  murrain  is 
comparitively  rare  in  this  great  stock-raising  country. 

Symptoms. — The  entire  system  seems  to  partake  of  the  dis- 
ease. The  first  indication  of  its  approach  is  a feverish  condition 
of  the  system,  attended  with  a frequent  and  painful  cough; 
the  pulse  is  small,  hard,  and  rapid.  As  the  disease  advances, 
the  respiration  becomes  disturbed;  the  flanks  heave;  vesicular 
eruption  is  observed  upon  the  teats,  mouth,  and  feet;  the  horns 
are  cold;  the  animal  is  sometimes  lame;  constipation  and, 
sometimes,  diarrhoea  are  accompanying  symptoms;  faeces  black 
and  fetid;  the  eyes  weep  and  become  much  swollen;  great 
tenderness  along  the  spine;  a brown,  or  bloody  discharge  from 
the  nose  and  mouth;  the  animal  moans  incessantly,  grinds  his 
teeth,  rarely  lies  down,  but  to  get  up  again  quickly;  finally,  the 
breath  becomes  very  offensive;  tumors  make  their  appearance 
in  various  parts  of  the  body,  which,  in  favorable  cases,  sup- 
purate, and  discharge  a fetid  matter. 

Treatment. — Give  one-fourth  of  a pound  of  epsom  salts, 
with  one  drachm  of  Jamaica  ginger,  twice  a day,  for  two  or 
three  days.  A bottle  of  porter,  twice  a day,  will  be  found 
serviceable.  Very  little  medicine  is  required  internally  in  this 
disease,  but  much  depends  upon  good  nursing.  External 
applications  are  chiefly  to  be  depended  upon.  A solution  of 
chloride  of  lime  should  be  applied  to  the  eruptions,  or  a solu- 
tion of  the  chloride  of  zinc,  twenty  grains  to  an  ounce  of  water; 
or,  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  two  drachms  to  a pint  of  water;  or  pul- 
verized charcoal  applied  to  the  parts  will  be  found  useful. 

Navel-ill. — Inflammation  of  the  navel  in  calves  occasionally 
occurs,  causing  redness,  pain,  and  sudden  swelling  in  the  part 


CATTLE. 


269 


affected.  This  disease,  if  not  promptly  attended  to,  speedily 
carries  off  the  creature. 

Treatment. — Foment  the  part  well  with  warm,  hop-tea; 
after  which,  the  application  of  a cloth,  well  saturated  with  lead 
water  and  secured  by  bandages,  should  be  applied.  Internally, 
doses  of  epsom  salts,  of  two  ounces  each,  dissolved  in  half  a 
pint  of  water,  should  be  given  until  the  bowels  are  acted  upon. 
After  the  inflammation  has  subsided,  to  counteract  the  weak- 
ness which  may  follow,  give  a bottle  of  porter  two  or  three 
times  a day. 

Phrenitis. — Inflammation  of  the  brain  iso.neof  those  dread- 
ful diseases  to  which  all  animals  are  liable.  It  is  known  to  the 
farmer  as  frenzy,  mad  staggers,  etc. 

Symptoms. — The  active  symptoms  are  preceded  by  stupor; 
the  animal  stubbornly  stands  in  one  position;  the  eyes  are  full, 
red,  and  fiery;  respiration  rapid;  delirium  soon  succeeds;  the 
animal,  bellowing,  dashes  wildly  about,  and  seems  bent  on  mis- 
chief, rushing  madly  at  every  object  which  comes  in  its  way. 

The  causes  of  this  disease  are  overwork  in  warm  weather, 
a plethoric  condition  of  the  system,  and  too  stimulating  food. 

Treatment. — As  this  is  attended  with  considerable  risk, 
unless  it  is  taken  prior  to  the  frenzied  stage,  bleeding  almost  to 
fainting  should  be  resorted  to,  and  followed  by  a brisk  purge. 
Take  one  ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  and  ten  to  fifteen  drops  of 
croton  oil:  mix  the  aloes  with  one  pint  of  water  and  the  oil, 
using  the  mixture  as  a drench.  One  pound  of  epsom  salts  will 
answer  the  purpose  very  well,  in  cases  where  the  aloes  and  oil 
cannot  be  readily  obtained.  Application  of  bags  of  broken 
ice  to  the  head  is  very  beneficial.  Spirits  of  turpentine,  or 
mustard,  together  with  spirits  of  hartshorn  and  water,  should 
be  well  rubbed  in  along  the  spine,  from  the  neck  to  the  tail. 

Pleurisy. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  pleura,  or  the 
serous  membrane  which  lines  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  and  which 
is  deflected  over  the  lungs.  Inflammation  of  this  membrane 
rarely  occurs  in  a pure  form,  but  is  more  generally  associated 
with  inflammation  of  the  tissue  of  the  lungs.  If  this  disease  is 
not  attended  to  at  an  early  period,  its  usual  termination  is  in 
hydrothorax,  or  dropsy  of  the  chest.  The  same  causes  which 
produce  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  of  the  bronchia,  and  of  the 
other  respiratory  organs,  produce  also  pleurisy. 

Symptoms. — The  respiration  is  quick,  short  and  painful; 
pressure  between  the  ribs  produces  much  pain;  a low,  short, 
painful  cough  is  present;  the  respiratory  murmur  is  much  di- 
minished; in  fact,  it  is  scarcely  audible.  This  condition  is 


270 


CATTLE. 


rapidly  followed  by  effusion,  which  may  be  detected  from  the 
dullness  of  the  sounds,  on  applying  the  ear  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  lungs.  The  febrile  symptoms  disappear;  the  animal  for  a 
few  days  appears  to  improve,  but  soon  becomes  weak,  languid, 
and  often  exhausted,  from  the  slightest  exertion. 

Treatment. — The  same  treatment  in  the  early  stage  is 
enjoined  as  in  inflammatory  pneumonia,  which  the  reader  will 
consult — counter  irritation  and  purgatives.  Bleeding  never 
should  be  resorted  to.  When  effusion  takes  place,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  puncture  the  sides  with  a trochar,  and  draw  away  the 
fluid,  giving  internally  one  of  the  following  purges  three  times 
a day:  Resin,  eight  ounces;  saltpetre,  two  ounces;  mix,  and 
divide  into  eight  powders.  Half-drachm  doses  of  the  iodide 
of  potash,  dissolved  in  water,  to  be  given  three  times  daily,  will 
be  found  useful  in  this  disease. 

Aphtha  . — This  disease  is  commonly  known  as  “thrush,”  or 
sore  mouth.  It  appears  as  a vesicular  eruption  on  the  tongue, 
gums,  and  on  the  buccal  and  palatine  membrane.  When  the 
disease  is  mild,  and  confined  to  the  above  parts,  it  is  easily 
cured  by  daily  applications  of  a portion  of  the  following: 

2 ounces  of  powdered  golden  seal. 

1 ounce  of  tincture  of  matico. 

4 ounces  of  honey.  Mix. 

Apply  by  means  of  a swab  or  sponge. 

When  the  disease  is  violent,  and  of  long  standing,  it  it  apt 
to  extend  through  the  whole  course  of  the  alimentary  canal, 
from  the  mouth  to  the  anus.  If  this  be  the  case,  the  animal 
will  purge,  as  if  a powerful  cathartic  had  been  administered, 
and  will  be  otherwise  unwell.  The  method  of  cure,  in  this 
event,  is  to  prescribe  tonics  and  astringents.  The  remedies 
are  tincture  of  matico,  golden  seal,  and  sulphur,  in  the  follow- 
ing proportions: 

4 drachms  of  tincture  of  matico. 

2 drachms  of  powdered  golden  seal. 

2 drachms  of  sulphur. 

1 pint  of  water.  Mix. 

The  patient’s  diet  should  consist  of  oatmeal  gruel,  slightly 
alkalized  with  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

Milk  taken  from  cows  affected  with  this  disease  should 
never  be  drank,  as  it  will  most  readily  produce  aphthae  in  man. 

Flatulent  Colic. — This  disease  is  generally  occasioned  by 
some  derangement  of  the  digestive  organs,  whereby  the  food, 
instead  of  being  properly  digested,  undergoes  fermentation, 
and  thus  carbonic  acid  gas,  or  sulphureted  hydrogen,  is  evolved. 

Symptoms. — It  is  attended  by  considerable  pain;  the  ani- 
mal will  be  very  restless,  continually  lying  down  and  getting 


CATTLE. 


271 


up  again;  discharges  gas  from  the  anus;  strikes  the  belly 
occasionally  with  the  hind  feet,  and  the  abdomen  is  enlarged. 

Treatment. — This  species  of  colic  can  generally  be  re- 
lieved as  follows:  Take  one  ounce  of  hyposulphite  of  soda, 
dissolve  the  same  in  a quart  of  water;  then  add  tincture  of  gin- 
ger and  tincture  of  golden  seal,  of  each  one  ounce.  Drench 
the  animal  with  the  same.  Clysters  of  soapsuds,  to  which  a 
little  salt  may  be  added,  should  be  thrown  into  the  rectum 
occasionally.  The  belly  should  be  well  rubbed  with  coarse 
straw,  and,  in  severe  cases,  rub  some  mustard,  moistened  with 
vinegar,  on  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen.  After  a lapse  of 
two  hours,  should  the  patient  appear  unrelieved,  a second  dose 
of  the  colic  drench  may  be  given.  Generally,  however,  one 
dose  is  sufficient. 

Spasm  of  the  Bowels. — Spasm  of  the  bowels,  generally 
termed  spasmodic  colic,  is  occasioned  by  contraction  of  the 
longitudinal  and  circular  fibres  of  the  muscular  tunic  of  the 
intestines.  In  this  disease  nearly  the  same  symptoms  are  ob- 
served as  those  alluded  to  in  flatulent  colic,  and  he  has  periods 
of  relaxation  from  pain  which  return  at  intervals  with  increased 
violence.  It  is  supposed  that  this  affection  is  caused  by  the 
presence  of  irritating  matters  in  the  intestinal  canal,  either  in 
the  form  of  bad  food,  poisonous  plants,  or  water  impregnated 
with  lead.  As  the  muscles  of  the  intestines  belong  to  that  class 
known  as  involuntary,  it  follows  that  the  state  of  spasm  is  the 
result  of  some  excitability  or  deranged  condition  of  the  nerves 
of  involuntary  motion;  hence  antispasmodics  are  indicated. 
To  relieve  the  spasm: 

1 drachm  of  powdered  assafoetida. 

2 drachms  of  sulphuric  ether. 

1 pint  of  thin  gruel.  Mix. 

Use  as  a drench;  then  administer,  occasionally,  an  anti- 
spasmodic  clyster,  composed  of  warm  water  and  a small  quan- 
tity of  powdered  lobelia. 

Failing  to  relieve  the  animal  by  the  above  means,  get  him 
under  the  influence  of  sulphuric  ether,  to  be  applied  to  the 
nostrils  by  means  of  a sponge.  There  is  no  necessity  for  fully 
etherizing  the  animal,  for,  if  kept  in  a partial  state  of  stupefac- 
tion for  about  twenty  minutes,  the  spasm  will  relax;  after 
which,  let  the  patient  be  kept  on  bran-mashes  for  a day  or 
more. 

Constipation. — Constipation  is  generally  the  result  of  im- 
paired digestion;  yet,  now  and  then,  it  is  the  precursor  of  some 
definite  malady.  The  old  method  of  resorting  to  powerful 
cathartics  generally  aggravates  the  symptoms,  and  the  animal 
dies  unrelieved  of  the  constipation. 


272 


CATTLE. 


Treatment. — The  best  method  of  treating  this  affection 
is  to  administer,  with  an  aperient,  stimulants  and  bitters;  in 
this  way  we  arouse  the  action  of  the  digestive  organs,  and 
create  a lax  state  of  the  bowels.  Let  the  following  drench  be 
given: 

12  ounces  of  Glauber  salts. 

3 dracbms  of  powdered  golden  seal. 

2 drachms  of  powdered  ginger. 

Dissolve  the  Glauber  salts  in  one  quart  of  tepid  water;  then 
add  the  other  ingredients.  After  the  lapse  of  eight  hours,  the 
animal  should  be  walked  about,  have  its  belly  rubbed,  and  .an 
occasional  clyster  of  warm  soap  suds  may  be  thrown  into  the 
rectum.  Should  the  medicine  not  operate  at  the  expected 
time,  administer  two  drachms  of  powdered  mandrake,  the  same 
quantity  of  golden  seal,  and  half  an  ounce  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda,  in  about  a quart  of  water. 

To  prevent  a recurrence  of  the  constipation,  let  the  animal 
have  half  an  ounce  of  equal  parts  of  golden  seal  and  carbonate 
of  soda  daily,  which  may  be  mixed  in  the  food.  It  is  import- 
ant, also,  in  view  of  guarding  against  constipation,  to  make 
some  change  in  the  diet.  Thus,  if  the  animal  has  been  long 
fed  on  meal,  some  coarser  material  (shorts)  should  be  substi- 
tuted, for  a brief  period,  at  least. 

Rabies. — Hydrophobia  in  cattle  is  the  result  of  the  bite  of 
a rabid  dog,  from  which  bite  no  animal  escapes.  The  effects 
produced  by  the  wound  made  by  the  teeth  of  such  an  animal, 
after  the  virus  is  once  absorbed  into  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  are  so  poisonous  that  all  treatment  is  useless.  The 
proper  remedies  must  be  instantly  applied  to  prevent  this 
absorption,  or  the  case  is  utterly  hopeless.  Among  men,  nine 
out  of  every  ten  bitten  by  rabid  dogs  escape  the  terrible  effects 
resulting  from  this  dreadful  disorder,  without  resorting  to  any 
applications  to  prevent  it.  It  is  a well  established  fact  that 
men,  when  bitten  by  dogs,  are  generally  wounded  in  some  part 
protected  by  their  clothing,  which  guards  them  from  the  dele- 
terious effects  of  the  saliva  which  covers  the  teeth,  and  which, 
at  such  times,  is  deadly  poison.  The  teeth,  in  passing  through 
the  clothing,  are  wiped  clean,  so  that  the  virus  is  not  intro- 
duced into  the  blood;  hence  the  comparitively  few  cases  of 
rabies  occurring  in  man.  When,  however,  the  wound  is  made, 
upon  an  exposed  surface,  as  the  flesh  of  the  hand,  or  of  the 
face,  this  fatal  disease  is  developed  in  spite  of  every  precau- 
tion, unless  such  precautions  are  immediately  taken.  For  this 
reason,  cattle,  when  bitten,  do  not  escape  the  disease. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  separates  itself  from  the  rest  of 
the  herd,  standing  in  a kind  of  stupor,  with  the  eyes  half-closed; 
respiration  natural;  pulse  quickened;  temperature  of  body  and 


CATTLE. 


273 


limbs  natural,  the  slightest  noise  agitates,  causing  the  eyes  to 
glare  and  exciting  bellowing;  the  bark  of  a dog  produces  the 
most  violent  effects;  the  animal  foams  at  the  mouth  and  stag- 
gers when  it  walks;  if  water  is  offered,  the  muzzle  is  plunged 
into  it,  but  the  victim  cannot  drink;  in  making  the  effort,  the 
most  fearful  consequences  are  produced.  The  animal  now 
seeks  to  do  mischief — and  the  quicker  it  is  then  destroyed  the 
better. 

Treatment. — This  must  be  applied  quickly  or  not  at  all. 
The  moment  the  animal  is  bitten,  that  moment  the  wound 
should  be  searched  for,  and,  when  found,  should  be  freely 
opened  with  a knife,  and  lunar  caustic,  caustic  potash,  or  the 
per-manganate  of  potash  at  once  applied  to  all  parts  of  the 
wound,  care  being  taken  not  to. suffer  a single  scratch  to  escape. 
This,  if  attended  to  in  time,  will  save  the  animal 

Red  Water. — This  disease  derives  its  name  from  the  color 
of  the  urine  voided  in  it.  It  is  one  of  the  most  common  com- 
plaints of  horned  cattle,  and  one  of  the  most  troublesome  to 
manage. 

Symptoms. — Respiration  hurried;  rumination  ceases;  a 
high  degree  of  fever  presented;  the  animal  moans,  arches  the 
back  and  strains  in  passing  the  urine,  which  is  tinged  with 
blood,  or  presents  the  appearance  of  pure  blood.  The  cause 
is  almost  invariably  feeding  on  turnips  that  have  grown  on 
damp,  ill-drained  land,  and  very  often  a change  of  diet  stops 
the  spread  of  this  disease  in  the  byre.  Other  succulent  food, 
grown  under  similar  circumstances,  may  produce  the  same 
symptoms,  tending  to  disturb  the  digestive  organs  and  the 
blood-forming  process. 

In  the  course  of  investigations  as  to  the  cause  of  various 
cattle-diseases,  and  of  red-water  in  particular,  it  has  been 
found  that  it  is  unknown  on  well-drained  farms  and  in  dairies 
where  turnips  are  used  only  in  a moderate  degree.  The  land  of 
poor  people  furnish  the  roots  most  likely  to  induce  this  dis- 
order; it  is  a disease  essentially  attacking  the  poor  man’s  cow; 
and,  to  be  seen  and  studied,  requires  a practice  extending  into 
the  less  favorably  situated  parts  of  the  country.  On  large  farms, 
where  good  stock  is  well  kept,  and  in  town  dairies,  where  arti- 
ficial food  is  used  to  supplement  the  supply  of  turnips,  it  is 
seldom  now  seen. 

Symptoms. — General  derangement  attracts  the  dairyman’s 
attention,  and,  upon  observing  the  urine  which  the  animal  has 
voided,  it  seems  to  be  of  a red,  or  of  a reddish  brown,  or 
claret  color;  sometimes  transparent,  at  others  clear.  The  color 
increases  in  depth;  other  secretions  are  checked;  the  animal 
becomes  hide-bound  and  the  milk  goes  off.  Appetite  and 
18 


TT4 


CATTLE. 


rumination  are  suspended;  the  pulse  becomes  extremely  feeble 
and  frequent — as  in  all  debilitating,  or  anaemic  disorders — the 
heart’s  action  is  loud  and  strong,  with  a decided  venous  pulse, 
or  apparent  regurgitation,  in  the  large  veins  of  the  neck. 

In  some  cases,  if  even  a small  quantity  of  blood  be  with- 
drawn, the  animal  drops  in  a fainting  state.  In  red  water,  the 
visible  mucous  membranes  are  blanched  and  the  extremities 
cold,  indicating  the  languid  state  of  the  blood’s  circulation  and 
the  poverty  of  the  blood  itself.  Constipation  is  one  of  the 
most  obstinate  complications,  and  many  veterinary  surgeons — 
aware  that,  if  the  bowels  can  be  acted  on,  the  animal  is  cured 
— have  employed  purgatives  in  quantities  far  too  large,  induc- 
ing at  times  even  death.  Occasionally  diarrhoea  is  one  of  the 
first,  and  notof  the  unfavorable,  symptoms. 

Treatment. — Give  one  pint  of  linseed-oil;  clysters  of  soap 
and  water  should  be  freely  used,  and  give  plenty  of  linseed-tea 
to  drink.  When  the  urine  is  abundant,  give  one  ounce  of 
tincture  of  opium,  with  one  drachm  of  powdered  aloes,  three 
times,  at  intervals  of  six  or  eight  hours 

Rheumatism. — This  is  a constitutional  inflammatory  affec- 
tion of  the  joints  affecting  the  fibrous  tissue  and  serous,  or 
synovial,  membrane.  It  is  caused  by  exposure  to  cold  and  wet; 
being  quite  common  in  low,  marshy  sections. 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  appetite;  upon  forcing  the  animal  to 
move,  every  joint  seems  stiffened;  nose  dry;  coat  staring;  con- 
stipation is  also  an  attendant  symptom;  the  joints,  one  or  more, 
become  swollen  and  painful.  This  may  be  regarded  as  a 
metastic,  or  shifting  disease;  first  one  part,  and  then  another, 
seems  to  be  affected. 

Treatment. — Mild  purgatives  should  be  used;  one-half- 
ounce doses  of  colchicum-root,  pulverized,  will  be  found  useful; 
one-ounce  balls  of  pine-tar  may  also  be  given  with  advantage. 
As  a local  application,  the  author  has  found  nothing  to  equal 
kerosene  oil,  one  pint,  to  two  ounces  of  aqua  ammonia,  well 
rubbed  in  two  or  three  times  a day. 

Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys. — Symptoms. — Cattle  affected 
with  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  will  be  observed  to  have  some 
slight  roaching  of  the  back;  that  is  to  say,  instead  of  the  back 
or  spinal  column  being  straight  or  slightly  concave,  as  it  ought 
to  be,  it  now  presents  a convexity,  or,  in  other  words,  is  arched 
in  a upward  or  superior  direction.  The  arching  of  the  back  is 
occasioned  by  tonic  spasms  of  the  psoas  and  iliac  muscles, 
located  above  the  kindeys  in  the  lumbar  region.  These  mus- 
cles are  known  to  butchers  as  “tenderloin.”  On  making  pres- 
sure over  the  region  of  the  kidneys,  the  animal  will  be  observed 


CATTLE. 


275 


to  flinch,  the  parts  appearing  very  tender  and  hot.  The  ani- 
mal is  generally  dull;  the  muzzle  dry;  a chilliness  of  the  horns 
and  external  surface  is  observed,  showing  very  clearly  that 
there  is  an  unequal*  circulation  of  the  blood.  There  is  gener- 
ally some  difficulty  in  passing  the  urine;  the  animal  strains  in 
the  act  of  passing  it,  and  it  is  redder  than  usual.  The  symp- 
toms vary  as  the  disease  progresses,  but  the  above  are  the 
principal  ones  on  which  the  diagnosis  must  be  founded. 

Treatment. — Drench  the  animal  with  twelve  ounces  of 
Glauber  salts,  dissolved  in  a quart  of  warm  water,  then  apply 
warm  water  bandages  to  the  region  of  the  loins,  which  may 
be  retained  in  their  place  by  encircling  the  body  with  a bandage. 
An  emollient  clyster  of  slippery  elm  should  occasionally  be 
thrown  into  the  rectum,  and  the  patient  should  be  drenched 
with  four  ounces  of  the  liquor  acetate  of  ammonia  every  six 
hours,  until  an  improvement  takes  place.  Then  give  tincture 
of  matico,  in  half-ounce  doses,  night  and  morning,  until  the 
patient  is  better. 

Inflammation  of  the  Liver — Cattle  and  young  stock,  when 
fed  too  high,  or  when  allowed  to  luxuriate  in  a rich  meadow,  are 
often  attacked  with  an  acute  disease  of  the  liver. 

Symptoms. — The  principal  symptoms  of  this  malady  are 
yellowness  of  the  membrane  which  lines  the  eyelids,  and  covers 
that  part  known  as  the  “white  of  the  eye.”  The  visible  sur- 
faces of  the  mouth  are  also  of  a yellow  tinge.  In  addition  to 
the  above  symptoms,  the  animal  is  feverish,  thirsty;  mouth  and 
base  of  the  horns  hot;  pulse  accelerated;  breathing  rather 
laborious;  rumination  is  suspended,  and  the  animal  is  said  to 
have  “lost  its  cud.”  Some  fullness  will  also  generally  be 
observed  on  the  right  side,  in  the  region  of  the  liver,  and  the 
animal  will  occasionally  turn  its  head  in  that  direction,  as  if  it 
were  the  seat  of  pain,  which  is  probably  the  case;  yet  the  most 
reliable  symptoms,  in  a disease  of  this  character,  are  a yellow 
tinge  of  the  visible  surface,  accompanied  by  febrile  symptoms. 

Treatment.-  —The  most  rational  method  of  treating  this 
disease  is  to  endeavor  to  mitigate  the  inflammatory  diathesis, 
and  restore  the  normal  function  of  the  liver.  To  accomplish 
these  desirable  results  use  the  following  prescription: 

16  ounces  of  Glauber  salts. 

2 drachms  powdered  mandrake. 

The  salts  should  be  dissolved  in  one  quart  of  tepid  water; 
then  add  the  mandrake,  and  drench  the  animal  by  means  of  a 
common  porter-bottle.  This  drench  should  be  poured  down 
the  oesophagus  in  a gradual  manner,  so  as  to  prevent  its  being 
received  into  the  rumen,  or  paunch. 


276 


CATTLE. 


The  patient  should,  if  possible,  be  dieted  on  green  fodder. 
If  this  cannot  be  procured,  some  sliced  cabbage,  turnips,  or 
carrots  may  be  substituted.  A teaspoonful  of  mandrake  should 
be  given  daily  in  the  food,  until  the  visible  surfaces  assume 
their  natural  color.  A curable  case  will  generally  yield  under 
\he  above  treatment. 

This  disease  sometimes  runs  into  a chronic  type,  and  is 
known  by  the  yellow  cover  of  visible  surfaces,  dull,  sleepy 
appearance  of  the  subject,  and  absence  of  those  acute  symp- 
toms which  are  invariably  present  in  the  inflammatory  stage. 
A chronic  disease  of  this  character  may  exist  for  months  and 
even  years  without  interfering  very  essentially  with  the  general 
health.  Finally,  ; however,  the  liver  undergoes  alterations  in 
structure,  becomes  hardened  or  indurated,  or  else  it  becomes 
turberculous,  or  is  the  seat  of  hydatids,  and  the  fluke-worm  is 
often  found  in  the  ducts.  The  treatment  for  chronic  disease 
of  the  liver  is  as  follows: 

2 drachms  powdered  iodide  of  potassium. 

4 ounces  powdered  golden  seal.  Mix. 

Divide  the  mass  into  six  equal  parts,  and  give  one  in  a little 
water,  every  morning,  on  an  empty  stomach.  The  medicine 
may  be  continued  for  some  length  of  time  without  the  least 
danger.  If  this  treatment  does  not  benefit  the  animal,  the  case 
is  probably  incurable. 

Gadflies. — The  gadfly  is  known  to  naturalists  as  the  oestris 
bovis.  It  punctures  the  integument  of  cattle,  and  then 
deposits  its  ova,  or  eggs.  In  this  situation  the  ova  mature,  until 
they  are  capable  of  enjoying  an  independent  existence.  They 
then  make  their  exit  through  the  external  outlet,  fall  to  and 
burrow  into  the  ground,  and  remain  there  until  the  period  of 
their  metamorphosis  takes  place,  when  they  assume  the  form  of 
winged  insects.  In  this  form  they  multiply  the  species  by  the 
deposit  of  their  ova.  They  probably  occasion  much  irritation; 
and,  in  view  of  getting  rid  of  them,  puncture  the  tumor,  by 
means  of  a thumb-lancet,  and  squeeze  out  the  parasite 

The  gadfly  not  only  persecutes  healthy  oxen  by  its  bites, 
during  summer,  but  also  deposits  its  eggs  in  their  skin,  which 
give  rise  to  tumors  on  the  back  and  other  parts,  in  which  the 
larvae  become  developed.  They  live  there  on  the  succulent 
fluid  which  the  soft  parts  secrete,  and  make  their  escape  thence 
in  the  following  spring,  in  order  to  become  metamorphosed. 
The  greater  the  number  of  tumors,  the  more  is  the  strength  of 
the  animal  diminished  by  the  pain  and  suppuration.  For  this 
reason  we  should  endeavor  to  free  the  animal,  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble, from  these  larvae  pests,  by  frequently  washing  these  tumors 
with  camphorated  brandy,  or  forcibly  compressing  them,  which 
either  crushes  the  insect  or  forces  it  to  make  its  exit.  When 


CATTLE. 


277 


they  have  attained  the  size  of  a filbert,  an  incision  must  be 
made  into  the  part,  which  is  then  to  be  covered  with  a pitch 
plaster.  A few  doses  of  sulphur  are  to  be  given  internally.  We 
are  told  that  those  oxen  which  have  taken  sulphur  for  a long 
period  of  time  are  not  infested  by  gadflies. 

Yoke  Galls. — The  exciting  cause  is  local  irritation,  occa- 
sioned by  the  yoke. 

Treatment. — So  soon  as  an  abrasion  is  discovered  on  the 
neck,  the  animal  should  be  excused  from  duty  for  a few  days. 
The  abraded  part  should  be  lubricated,  two  or  three  times  daily, 
with  a small  quantity  of  glycerine.  In  most  cases,  however,  a 
few  applications  of  tincture  of  aloes  and  myrrh  will  produce  a 
healthy  action,  and  thus  restore  the  parts  to  soundness.  Should 
there  be  no  abrasion,  yet  some  tumefaction,  heat,  and  tender- 
ness, a cold  water  bandage,  renewed  as  occasion  seems  to 
require,  will,  in  most  cases,  have  the  desired  effect.  Occasion- 
ally the  integuments  are  so  bruised  as  to  induce  induration 
(hardening).  Local  induration  in  the  neck  is  a morbid  condi- 
tion of  parts,  known  to  the  farriers  of  old  as  “ sit-fast.”  The 
treatment  consists  in  smearing  the  part  with  a portion  of  the 
following: 

*4  drachm  of  iodine. 

7 drachms  of  simple  ointment. 
y2  drachm  of  powdered  bloodroot.  Mix. 

A few  applications  of  a portion  of  the  above  will  have  the 
effect  of  removing  the  sit-fast,  or  eschar,  when  a healthy  gran- 
ulating surface  will  appear. 

Some  animals,  owing  to  a peculiarity  of  constitution,  will 
“chafe,”  as  the  saying  is,  in  those  parts  which  come  in  contact 
with  the  yoke,  and  no  human  foresight  or  mechanical  contri- 
vance can  prevent  it;  therefore,  in  view  of  protecting  the  parts 
against  the  local  irritation  and  its  consequences,  the  following 
liquid  cuticle  is  good: 

Equal  parte  of] 

After  washing  the  abrasion  with  soap  and  water,  wipe  dry, 
and  smear  it  all  over  with  a portion  of  the  above  invaluable 
liquid  cuticle. 


I 


\ 

'4.'!  ? 

Ij’i  ; .»  : ; (U.* 

;r;fv- ' m 


THE  BURSAR,”  (773)  A TYPICAL  OXFORD  DOWN. 


SHEEP 


I 


1.— The  intermaxillary  bone.  2— The  nasal  bones.  3. — The  upper  jaw.  4.— The 
union  of  the  nasal  and  upper  jaw  bones.  5. — The  union  of  the  molar  and  lachrymal 
bones.  6. — The  orbits  of  the  eye.  7.— The  frontal  bone.  8. — The  lower  jaw.  9. — The 
incisor  teeth,  or  nippers.  10. — The  molars  or  grinders.  11.— The  ligament  of  the 
neck  supporting  the  head.  12. — The  seven  vertebrae,  or  the  bones  of  the  neck.  13. — 
The  thirteen  vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  back.  14.— The  six  vertebrae  of  the  loins. 
15. — The  sacral  bone.  16. — The  bones  of  the  tail,  varying  in  different  breeds  from 
twelve  to  twenty-one.  17.— The  haunch  and  pelvis.  18.— The  eight  true  ribs  with 
their  cartilages.  19.— The  five  false  ribs,  or  those  that  are  not  attached  to  the  breast- 
bone. 20. — The  breast-bone.  21.— The  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade.  22.— The  hume- 
rus, bone  of  the  arm,  or  lower  part  of  the  shoulder.  23.— The  radius,  or  bone  of  the 
fore-arm.  24. — The  ulna,  or  elbow.  25.— The  knee  with  its  different  bones.  26.— 
The  metacarpel  or  shank-bones— the  larger  bones  of  the  leg.  27.— A rudiment  of 
the  smaller  metacarpel.  28. — One  of  the  sessamoid  bones.  29. — The  first  two  bones 
of  the  foot — the  pasterns.  30. — The  proper  bones  of  the  foot.  31.— The  thigh-bone. 
32.— The  stifle  joint  and  its  bone— the  patella.  33.— The  tibia,  or  bone  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  leg.  34. — The  point  of  the  hock.  35.— The  other  bones  of  the  hock. 
36. — Metatarsal  bones,  or  bone  of  the  hind-leg.  37.— Rudiment  of  the  small  meta- 
tarsal. 38.— A sessamoid  bone.  39.— The  first  two  bones  of  the  foot— the  pasternn. 
40.— The  proper  bones  of  the  foot 


280 


SHEEP. 


With  the  exception  of  the  dog,  there  is  not  one  of  the  brute 
creation  which  exhibits  the  diversity  of  size,  color,  form, 
covering  and  general  appearance  which  characterizes  the  sheep, 
and  none  which  occupies  a wider  range  of  climate  or  subsists 
on  a greater  variety  of  food.  In  every  latitude,  between  the 
equator  and  the  arctic,  he  ranges  over  sterile  mountains,  and 
through  the  fertile  valleys.  He  feeds  on  almost  every  species 
of  edible  forage,  the  cultivated  grasses,  clovers,  cereals  and 
roots;  he  browses  on  aromatic  and  bitter  herbs;  he  crops  the 
leaves  and  bark  from  the  stunted  forest  shrubs,  and  the  pun- 
gent, resinous  evergreens.  In  some  parts  of  Norway  and 
Sweden,  when  other  resources  fail,  he  subsists  on  fish  or  flesh 
during  their  long  and  rigorous  winters,  and,  if  reduced  to 
necessity,  he  eats  his  own  wool.  He  is  diminutive  like  the  Ork- 
ney, or  massive  like  the  Teeswater.  He  is  policerate  or  many- 
horned; he  has  two  large  or  small  spiral  horns  like  the  Merino, 
or  is  polled  or  hornless  like  the  long-wooled.  He  has  a long 
tail  like  our  own  breeds;  a broad-tail,  like  many  of  the  East- 
ern, or  a mere  button  of  a tail,  like  the  fat  rumps,  discernible 
only  by  the  touch.  His  coat  is  sometimes  long  and  coarse, 
like  the  Lincolnshire;  short  and  hairy,  like  those  of  Mada- 
gascar; soft  and  furry,  like  the  Angola,  or  fine  and  spiral,  like 
the  silken  Merino  or  Saxon.  Their  color,  either  pure  or  fan- 
cifully mixed,  varies  from  the  white  or  black  of  our  own 
country  to  every  shade  of  brown,  dun,  buff,  blue  and  gray, 
like  the  spotted  flocks  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  other 
parts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  This  wide  diversity  is  the  result  of 
long  domestication,  under  almost  every  conceivable  variety  of 
condition. 

Native  Sheep. — Strictly  speaking,  there  are  no  sheep 
indigenous  to  North  America,  excepting  the  Rocky  Mountain 
sheep.  Before  the  introduction  of  the  improved  European 
breeds,  during  the  past  century,  our  sheep  consisted  generally 
of  a hardy,  long-legged,  coarse,  open-fleeced  animal,  which 
yielded,  according  tt)  attention  and  feed,  from  one  and  a half 
to  four  pounds  of  indifferent  wool.  We  have  seen  numerous 
flocks,  within  the  last  thirty  years,  of  the  old  natives,  whose 
bellies  were  entirely  destitute  of  wool,  and  sometimes  the 
whole  carcass  was  bare,  excepting  a mere  strip  or  ridge  like  a 


SHEEP. 


281 


mane,  reaching  from  the  head  to  the  tail.  The  wool  which 
was  retained  on  the  neck,  back  and  sides,  was  frequently  mat- 
ted almost  as  firmly  as  a leather  apron;  and  that  on  the  thighs, 
and  sometimes  on  the  sides,  was  often  composed  almost 
wholly  of  long  hair.  Although  indifferently  formed  in  com- 
parison with  the  best  breeds  of  the  present  day,  being  thin  in 
the  breast  and  back,  light  quartered,  and  slow  in  coming  to 
maturity,  they  yet  possessed  some  good  qualities.  They  were 
prolific,  and  made  excellent  nurses. 

There  were  occasionally  some  smutty-nosed,  or  brockle- 
faced,  sheep  among  them,  distinguished  by  their  additional  size, 
superior  merits  and  courage.  These  were  usually  the  leaders 
of  the  flock  in  their  marauding  expeditions  on  their  neighbor’s 
domains,  and,  in  common  with  the  others,  were  eminently 
adapted  to  purvey  for  themselves  on  the  frontier  settlements. 
There  were,  besides,  some  black,  or  dark  chocolate-brown, 
members  in  every  flock,  which  were  much  valued  by  the 
thrifty  housewife  for  their  wool,  which  afforded  an  economical 
mixture  for  jackets,  hose  and  trousers,  known  as  sheep’s  gray. 
Our  original  stock  were  principally  derived  from  England, 
where  their  counterparts  may  be  seen  at  the  present  day,  in 
the  refuse  breeds  of  that  country.  When  these  sheep  were 
well  selected  and  properly  bred,  there  was  rapid  and  satis- 
factory improvements,  and  from  such  flocks,  mixed  with  some 
of  the  more  recently  improved  varieties,  have  sprung  many 
valuable  animals. 

The  Spanish  Merino. — The  Spanish  sheep,  in  different  coun- 
tries, has,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  effected  a complete 
revolution  in  the  character  of  the  fleece.  The  race  is  unques- 
tionably one  of  the  most  ancient  extant.  The  early  writers  on 
agriculture  and  the  veterinary  art,  describe  various  breeds  of 
sheep  as  existing  in  Spain,  of  different  colors — black,  red,  and 
tawny.  The  black  sheep  yield  a fine  fleece,  the  finest  of  that 
color  which  was  then  known;  but  the  red  fleeces  of  Bsetica — a 
considerable  part  of  the  Spanish  coast  on  the  Mediterranean, 
comprising  the  modern  Spanish  provinces  of  Gaen,  Cordova, 
Seville,  Andalusia,  and  Granada,  which  was  early  colonized  by 
the  enterprising  Greeks — was,  according  to  Pliny,  of  still 
superior  quality,  and  “ had  no  fellow.” 


282 


SHEEP. 


The  Merino  race  possess  inbred  qualities  to  an  extent  sur- 
passed by  no  others.  They  have  been  improved  in  the  gen- 
eral weight  and  evenness  of  their  fleece,  as  in  the  celebrated 
flock  of  Rambouillet;  in  the  uniformity  and  excessive  fineness 
of  the  fibre,  as  in  the  Saxons;  and  in  their  form  and  feeding 
qualities,  in  various  countries;  but  there  has  never  yet  been 
deterioration,  either  in  quantity  or  quality  of  fleece  or  carcass, 
wherever  they  have  been  transported,  if  supplied  with  suitable 
food  and  attention.  Most  sheep  annually  shed  their  wool  if 
unclipped;  while  the  Merino  retains  its  fleece,  sometimes  for 
five  years,  when  allowed  to  remain  unshorn. 

Conclusive  evidence  is  thus  afforded  of  continued  breeding 
among  themselves,  by  which  the  very  constitution  of  the  wool- 
producing  organs  beneath  the  skin  have  become  permanently 
established;  and  this  property  is  transmitted,  to  a great  extent, 
even  among  the  crosses,  thus  marking  the  Merino  as  an 
ancient  and  peculiar  race. 

The  first  impression  made  by  the  Merino  sheep,  on  one  un- 
acquainted with  its  value,  would  be  unfavorable.  The  wool 
lying  closer  and  thicker  over  the  body  than  in  most  other 
breeds,  and  being  abundant  in  yolk — or  a peculiar  secretion 
from  the  glands  of  the  skin,  which  nourishes  the  wool  ar.d 
causes  it  to  mat  closely  together — is  covered  with'  a dirty  crust, 
often  full  of  cracks.  The  legs  are  long,  yet  small  in  the  bone; 
the  breast  and  the  back  are  narrow,  and  the  sides  somewhat 
flat;  the  fore-shoulders  and  bosoms  are  heavy,  and  too  much 
of  their  weight  is  carried  on  the  coarser  parts.  The  horns  of 
the  male  are  comparatively  large,  curved,  and  with  more  or  less 
of  a spinal  form;  the  head  is  large,  but  the  forehead  rather  low. 
A few  of  the  females  are  horned;  but,  generally  speaking,  they 
are  without  horns.  Both  male  and  female  have  a peculiar 
coarse  and  unsightly  growth  of  hair  on  the  forehead  and 
cheeks,  which  the  careful  shepherd  cuts  away  before  the  shear- 
ing time;  the  other  part  of  the  face  has  a pleasing  and  charac- 
teristic velvet  appearance.  Under  the  throat  there  is  a singu- 
lar looseness  of  skin,  which  gives  them  a remarkable  appear- 
ance of  throatiness  or  hollowness  in  the  neck.  The  pile  of 
hair,  when  pressed  upon,  is  hard  and  unyielding,  owing  to  the 
thickness  into  which  it  grows  on  the  pelt,  and  the  abundance 


SHEEP. 


283 


of  the  yolk,  retaining  all  the  dirt  and  gravel  which  falls  upon 
it;  but,  upon  examination,  the  fibre  exceeds  in  fineness,  and 
in  the  number  of  serrations  and  curves,  that  which  any  other 
sheep  in  the  world  produces.  The  average  weight  of  the  fleece 
in  Spain  is  eight  pounds  from  the  ram,  and  five  from  the  ewe. 
The  staple  differs  in  length  in  different  provinces.  When  fatted, 
these  sheep  will  weigh  from  twelve  to  sixteen  pounds  per 
quarter. 

The  excellence  of  the  Merinos  consists  in  the  unexampled 
fineness  and  felting  property  of  their  wool,  and  in  the  weight 
of  it  yielded  by  each  individual  sheep;  the  closeness  of  that 
wool,  and  the  luxuriance  of  the  yolk,  which  enable  them  to 
support  extremes  of  cold  and  wet  quite  as  well  as  any  other 
breed;  the  readiness  with  which  they  adopt  themselves  to  every 
change  of  climate,  retaining,  with  common  care,  all  their  fine- 
ness of  wool,  and  thriving  under  a burning  tropical  sun,  and  in 
the  frozen  regions  of  the  north;  an  appetite  which  renders  them 
apparently  satisfied  with  the  coarsest  food;  a quietness  and 
patience  into  whatever  pasture  they  are  turned;  and  a gentle- 
ness and  tractableness  not  excelled  in  any  other  breed 

Their  defects — partly  attributable  to  the  breed,  but  more  to 
the  improper  mode  of  treatment  to  which  they  are  occasionally 
subjected — are,  their  unthrifty  and  unprofitable  form;  a ten- 
dency to  abortion,  or  barrenness;  a difficulty  of  yeaning,  or  giv- 
ing birth  to  their  young;  a paucity  of  milk;  and  a too  frequent 
neglect  of  their  lambs.  They  are  likewise  said,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fineness  of  their  wool,  and  the  beautiful  red  color  of 
the  skin  when  the  fleece  is  parted,  to  be  more  subject  to  cu- 
taneous affections  than  most  other  breeds.  Man,  however,  is 
far  more  responsible  for  this  than  nature.  Everything  was 
sacrificed  in  Spain  to  fineness  and  quantity  of  wool.  These 
were  supposed  to  be  connected  with  equality  of  temperature, 
or,  at  least,  with  freedom  from  exposure  to  cold;  and,  there- 
fore, twice  in  the  year,  a journey  of  four  hundred  miles  was 
undertaken,  at  the  rate  of  eighty  or  a hundred  miles  per  week 
— the  spring  journey  commencing  when  the  lambs  are  scarcely 
four  months  old.  It  is  difficult  to  say  in  what  way  the  wool  of 
the  migratory  sheep  was,  or  could  be,  benefited  by  these  peri- 
odical journeys,  Although  among  them  is  found  the  finest  and 


284 


SHEEP. 


most  valuable  wool  in  Spain,  yet  the  stationary  sheep,  in  cer- 
tain provinces — Segovia,  Leon  and  Estremadura — are  more 
valuable  than  the  migratory  flocks  of  others.  Moreover,  the 
fleece  of  some  of  the  German  Merinos — which  do  not  travel  at 
all,  and  are  housed  all  the  winter — greatly  exceed  that  obtained 
from  the  best  migratory  breed — the  Leonese — in  fineness  and 
felting  property;  and  the  wool  of  the  migratory  sheep  has 
been,  comparatively  speaking,  driven  out  of  the  market  by  that 
from  sheep  which  never  travel.  With  respect  to  the  carcass, 
these  harassing  journeys,  occupying  one-quarter  of  the  year, 
tend  to  destroy  all  possibility  of  fattening,  or  any  tendency 
toward  it,  and  the  form  and  the  constitution  of  the  flock  are 
deteriorated,  and  the  lives  of  many  sacrificed. 

The  term  Merino,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  but  the  gen- 
eral appellation  of  a breed,  comprising  several  varieties,  pre- 
senting essential  points  of  difference  in  size,  form,  quality  and 
quantity  of  wool.  These  families  have  generally  been  merged, 
by  interbreeding,  in  the  United  States  and  other  countries, 
which  have  received  the  race  from  Spain.  Purity  of  Merino 
^ blood,  and  actual  excellence  in  the  individual  and  its  ances- 
tors, form  the  only  standard  in  selecting  sheep  of  this  breed. 
Families  have,  indeed,  sprung  up  in  this  country,  exhibiting 
wider  points  of  difference  than  did  those  of  Spain.  This  is 
owing,  in  some  cases,  doubtless,  to  particular  causes  of  breed- 
ing; but,  more  often,  probably,  to  concealed  or  forgotten  infu- 
sions of  other  blood.  The  question,  which  has  been  at  times 
raised,  whether  there  are  any  Merinos  in  the  United  States,  de- 
scendants of  the  early  importations,  of  unquestionable  purity 
of  blood,  haslbeen  conclusively  settled  in  the  affirmative. 

The  minor  distinctions  among  the  various  families  into 
which,  as  has  already  been  intimated,  the  American  Merino 
has  diverged,  are  numerous,  but  may  all,  perhaps,  be  classed 
under  three  general  heads. 

The  first  is  a large,  short-legged,  strong,  exceedingly  hardy 
sheep,  carrying  a heavy  fleece,  ranging  from  medium  to  fine, 
free  from  hair  in  properly  bred  flocks;  somewhat  inclined  to 
throatiness,  but  not  so  much  so  as  the  Rambouillets;  bred  to 
exhibit  external  concrete  gum  in  some  flocks,  but  not  com- 
monly so;  their  wool  rather  long  on  back  and  belly,  and  ex- 


SHEEP. 


28o 


ceedingly  dense;  wool  whiter  within  than  the  Rambouillets; 
skin  the  same  rich  rose  color.  Sheep  of  this  class  are  larger 
and  stronger  than  those  originally  imported,  carry  much  heavier 
fleeces,  and  in  well-selected  flocks,  or  individuals,  the  fleece  is 
of  a decidedly  better  quality. 

The  second  class  embraces  smaller  animals  than  the  pre- 
ceding; less  hardy;  wool,  as  a general  thing,  finer,  and  covered 
with  a black,  pitchy  gum,  on  its  extremities;  fleece  about  one- 
fourth  lighter  than  in  the  former  class. 

The  third  class,  bred  at  the  South,  mostly,  includes  animals 
still  smaller  and  less  hardy,  and  carrying  still  finer  and  lighter 
fleeces.  The  fleece  is  destitute  of  external  gum.  The  sheep 
and  wool  have  a close  resemblance  to  the  Saxon;  and,  if  not 
actually  mixed  with  that  blood,  they  have  been  formed  into  a 
similar  variety,  by  a similar  course  of  breeding. 

The  mutton  of  the  Merino,  notwithstanding  the  prejudices 
existing  on  the  subject,  is  short-grained,  and  of  good  flavor, 
when  killed  at  a proper  age,  and  weighs  from  ten  to  fourteen 
pounds  to  the  quarter.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  longevity,  re- 
taing  its  teeth,  and  continuing  to  breed  two  or  three  years 
longer  that  the  common  sheep,  and  at  least  half  a dozen  years 
longer  than  the  improved  English  breeds.  It  should,  however, 
be  remarked,  in  this  connection,  that  it  is  correspondingly  slow 
in  arriving  at  maturity,  as  it  does  not  attain  its  full  growth  be- 
fore three  years  of  age;  and  the  ewes,  in  the  best  managed 
flocks,  are  rarely  permitted  to  breed  before  they  reach  that  age. 

The  Merino  is  a far  better  breeder  than  any  other  fine- 
woolled  sheep,  and  its  lambs,  when  newly  dropped,  are  claimed 
to  be  hardier  than  the  Bakewell,  and  equally  so  with  the  high- 
bred South-Down.  The  ewe,  as  has  been  intimated,  is  not  so 
good  a rturse,  and  will  not  usually  do  full  justice  to  more  than 
one  lamb.  Eighty  or  ninety  per  cent,  is  about  the  ordinary 
number  of  lambs  reared,  though  it  often  reaches  one  hundred 
per  cent,  in  carefully  managed  or  small  flocks. 

Allusion  has  heretofore  been  made  to  the  cross  between 
the  Merino  and  native  sheep.  On  the  introduction  of  the 
Saxon  family  of  the  Merinos,  they  were  universally  engrafted 
on  the  parent  stock,  and  the  cross  was  continued  until  the 
Spanish  blood  was  nearly  bred  out.  When  the  admixture  took 


286 


SHEEP. 


place  with  judiciously  selected  Saxons,  the  results  were  not 
unfavorable  for  certain  purposes.  These  instances  of  judi- 
cious crossing  were,  unfortunately,  rare.  Fineness  of  wool 
was  made  the  only  test  of  excellence,  no  matter  how  scanty  its 
quantity,  or  how  diminutive  or  miserable  the  carcass.  The  con- 
sequence was,  as  might  be  supposed,  the  ruin  of  most  of  the 
Merino  flocks. 

Breeding  Merinos. — The  general  principles  of  breeding 
cattle  and  sheep,  as  laid  down  by  the  most  approved  authori- 
ties, must  be  taken  with  some  exceptions,  when  applied  to  the 
Merino.  Good  form  and  breeding  qualities  are  desirable  in 
this  breed,  but  they  are  not  as  essential  as  with  others.  Wool 
is  the  great  object,  and  if  this  be  sufficiently  fine,  even  and 
abundant,  something  may  be  abated  in  the  perfection  of  form. 
Early  maturity,  so  much  sought  after  in  the  mutton  sheep, 
cannot  be  reconciled  with  great  longevity  and  the  prolonged 
productive  powers  of  the  Merino.  We  must  content  ourselves, 
therefore,  with  slowly  engrafting  such  improvements  on  the 
breed  as  can  be  effected  without  prejudice  to  his  other  good 
qualities,  and  look  to  his  crosses  with  others  for  such  qualities 
as  are  irreconcilable  with  his  nature.  It  is  considered  indis- 
pensable to  the  improvement  of  the  Merino,  that  it  be  not  bred 
too.  young.  A vigorous  ewe  may  bring  her  first  lamb  at  two 
years  old,  but  it  is  better  that  it  be  deferred  till  three.  The 
ram  should  never  be  used  till  his  second  year,  and  then  but 
sparingly.  From  two  and  one-half  to  six  years  old  is  deemed 
the  most  vigorous  age,  though  many  may  be  safely  used  till 
eight  or  ten,  and  occasionally  later.  Both  ewes  and  rams 
have  been  known  to  breed  till  twenty  years  old. 

The  ram  should  be  large,  stout  and  well  made,  carrying  his 
weight  as  compactly  as  possible.  The  nose  should  be  convex; 
the  face  covered  with  soft,  velvety  hair,  where  not  covered  with 
wool;  the  eye  lively  and  prominent;  the  veins  near  the  lach- 
rymal glands  of  a clear  red;  the  horns  rough;  short  neck;  pen- 
dent dewlap  not  objectionable;  full  chest;  broad  shoulders; 
broad,  level  back;  large  quarters;  tail  large  and  well  set  up; 
good  legs  and  sound  hoofs,  with  a firm,  easy,  regular  gait;  the 
head  carried  high,  with  a look  of  boldness  and  decision,  with- 
out in  any  degree  approaching  to  wildness  or  ferocity.  The 


SHEEP. 


28? 


ewe  should  possess  the  characteristics  generally,  with  such 
modifications  as  are  suited  to  the  sex.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  to  breed  from  such  as  are  most  perfect  in  all  the  essential 
points  of  constitution,  form  and  size,  and  weight,  uniformity 
and  fineness  of  fleece.  The  closest  observation  is  requisite  to 
select  the  best  in  all  respects. 

Excessive  use  of  rams  can  never  be  permitted  without  de 
cided  injury  to  them  and  their  progeny.  If  moderately  grained 
before  and  during  their  use,  and  especially  if  kept  up,  and 
allowed  to  serve  the  ewes  once  only  as  they  come  in  heat,  the 
number  may  be  largely  increased.  A vigorous  ram  will  suffice 
for  thirty-five  or  forty  ewes,  when  running  with  the  flock;  yet 
his  powers  would  not  be  more  taxed  by  double  or  even  treble 
this  number,  if  admitted  to  each  but  once.  If  he  is  gentle, 
which  he  should  always  be,  he  should  be  stabled  at  night  and 
• fed  with  grain.  If  young  ewes  have  stolen  lambs,  they  should 
be  taken  away  from  them  immediately  after  yeaning,  and  the 
nourishment  supplied  to  the  lamb  by  another  ewe,  or  the  milk 
of  a cow.  The  tax  of  nursing  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  gesta- 
tion, and  further  injury  to  the  dam  may  be  avoided  by  this 
practice.  Merino  ewes  have  had  the  reputation  of  being 
indifferent  nurses  in  Spain.  This  is  owing  to  their  fatigue  in 
traveling,  and  frequently  to  scanty  pasturage,  instead  of  any 
constitutional  deficiency.  It  is  a frequent  practice  there  to 
kill  a part  of  the  lambs  and  put  one  on  to  two  ewes.  This  has 
never  been  found  necessary  in  the  countries  where  they  have 
been  transplanted,  as  generous  feed  for  the  dams  has  in- 
variably been  found  entirely  adequate  for  their  support  of  the 
young. 

The  Saxon. — This,  like  some  others,  is  one  of  [the  varieties 
of  the  pure  bred  Merino,  the  foundation  of  which  was  laid  by 
an  importation  of  some  of  the  choicest  animals  into  Saxony, 
in  1765.  The  great  care  and  attention  bestowed  upon  these 
sheep  by  the  Elector,  the  nobility  and  the  most  intelligent 
farmers,  soon  carried  them  to  a point  of  uniformity  and  excel- 
lence of  fleece,  never  exceeded  by  the  best  of  the  original 
flocks.  The  breeders  were  selected  with  almost  exclusive 
reference  to  the  quality  of  the  fleece.  Creat  care  was  taken  to 
prevent  exposure  throughout  the  year,  and  they  were  housed 


288 


SHEEP. 


on  every  slight  emergency.  The  consequence  of  this  course 
of  breeding  and  treatment  has  been  to  reduce  the  size  and 
weight  of  fleece,  and  partially  to  impair  that  hardiness  and 
vigor  of  constitution  which  universally  characterized  the  orig- 
inal Transhumantes.  In  numerous  instances,  this  management 
resulted  in  permanent  injury  to  the  character  of  their  flocks, 
which  America  has  severely  felt  in  several  importations  of 
worthless  animals,  which  a too  great  eagerness  for  improve- 
ment induced  her  flock-masters  to  use  with  the  Spanish 
Merinos  and  their  descendants,  as  a means  for  this  object 
but  which  has  resulted  in  the  introduction  of  fatal  diseases 
and  serious  deterioration  in  their  flocks. 

The  New  Leicester. — The  unimproved  Leicester  was  a 
large,  heavy,  coarse-wooled  breed  of  sheep,  inhabiting  the 
midland  counties  of  England.  It  was  a slow  feeder,  its  flesh 
coarse-grained,  and  with  little  flavor.  The  breeders  of  that’ 
period  regarded  only  size  and  weight  of  fleece. 

The  improved  Leicester  is  of  large  size,  but  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  original  stock,  and  in  this  respect  falls  con- 
siderably below  the  coarser  varieties  of  Cotswold,  Lincoln,  etc. 
When  there  is  sufficiency  of  feed,  the  new  Leicester  is  unrivaled 
for  its  fattening  propensities;  but  it  will  not  bear  hard  stock- 
ing, nor  must  it  be  compelled  to  travel  far  in  search  of  its  food, 
It  is,  in  fact,  properly  and  exclusively  a lowland  sheep.  In  its 
appropriate  situation — on  the  luxuriant  herbage  of  the  highly 
cultivated  lands  of  England — it  possesses  unequalled  earliness 
of  maturity;  and  its  mutton,  when  not  too  fat,  is  of  a good 
quality,  but  is  usually  coarse,  and  comparitively  deficient  in 
flavor,  owing  to  that  unnatural  state  of  fatness  which  it  so 
readily  assumes,  and  which  the  breeder,  to  gain  weight,  so  gen- 
erally feeds  for.  The  wethers,  having  reached  their  second 
year,  are  turned  off  in  the  succeeding  February  or  March,  and 
weigh  at  that  age  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  pounds  to  the 
quarter.  The  wool  of  the  New  Leicester  is  long,  averaging, 
after  the  first  shearing,  about  six  inches;  and  the  fleece  of  the 
American  animal  weighs  about  six  pounds.  It  is  of  a coarse 
quality,  and  little  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  on  account 
of  its  length,  and  that  deficiency  of  felting  properties  common, 
in  a greater  or  less  extent,  to  all  English  breeds.  As  a comb- 


SHEEP. 


289 


mg  "wool,  however,  it  stands  first,  and  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  finest  worsteds,  and  the  like  textures. 

In  England,  where  mutton  is  generally  eaten  by  the  labor- 
ing classes,  the  meat  of  this  variety  is  in  very  great  demand; 
and  the  consequent  return  which  a sheep  possessing  such  fine 
feeding  qualities  is  enabled  to  make  renders  it  a general  favorite 
with  the  breeder.  Instances  are  recorded  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary prices  having  been  paid  for  these  animals.  They 
have  spread  into  all  parts  of  the  British  dominions,  and  been 
imported  into  the  other  countries  of  Europe  and  into  the 
United  States.  The  breed,  however,  has  never  proved  a favor- 
ite with  any  large  class  of  American  farmers.  Our  long,  cold 
winters — but,  more  especially,  our  dry,  scorching  summers, 
when  it  is  often  difficult  to  obtain  the  rich,  green,  tender  feed 
in  which  the  Leicester  delights— together  with  the  general 
deprivation  of  green  food  in  the  winter,  rob  it  of  its  early  ma- 
turity, and  even  of  the  ultimate  size  which  it  attains  in  England. 
Its  mutton  is  too  fat,  and  the  fat  and  lean  are  too  little  inter- 
mixed to  suit  American  taste.  Its  wool  is  not  very  salable, 
owing  to  the  dearth  of  worsted  manufactures  in  our  country. 
Its  early  decay  and  loss  of  wool  constitute  an  objection  to  it, 
in  a country  where  it  is  often  so  difficult  to  advantageously 
turn  off  sheep,  particularly  ewes.  But,  notwithstanding  all 
these  disadvantages,  on  rich,  lowland  farms,  in  the  vicinity  of 
considerable  markets,  it  will  always,  in  all  probability,  make  a 
profitable  return. 

The  head  of  the  New  Leicester  should  be  hornless,  long, 
small,  tapering  towards  the  muzzle,  and  projecting  horizontally 
forward;  the  eyes  prominent,  but  with  a quiet  expression;  the 
ears  thin,  rather  long,  and  directed  backward;  the  neck  full 
and  broad  at  its  base,  where  it  proceeds  from  the  chest,  so  that 
there  is,  with  the  slightest  possible  deviation,  one  continued 
horizontal  line  from  the  rump  to  the  poll;  the  breast  broad  and 
full;  the  shoulders  also  broad  and  round,  and  no  uneven  or 
angular  formation  where  the  shoulders  join  with  the  neck  or  the 
back — particularly  no  rising  of  the  withers,  or  hollow  behind 
the  situation  of  these  bones;  the  arm  fleshy  throughout  its 
whole  extent,  and  even  down  to  the  knee;  the  bones  of  the  leg 
small,  standing  wide  apart;  no  looseness  of  skin  about  them, 
17 


390 


SHEEP. 


and  comparitively  void  of  wool;  the  chest  and  barrel  at  once 
deep  and  round;  the  ribs  forming  a considerable  arch  from  the 
spine,  so  as,  in  some  cases — and  especially  when  the  animal  is 
in  good  condition — to  make  the  apparent  width  of  the  chest 
even  greater  than  the  depth;  the  barrel  ribbed  well  home;  no 
irregularity  of  line  on  the  back  or  belly,  but  on  the  sides;  the 
\ carcass  very  gradually  diminishing  in  width  towards  the  rump; 
I the  quarters  long  and  full,  and,  as  with  the  fOre-legs,  the  mus- 
cles extending  down  to  the  hock;  the  thighs  also  wide  and  full; 
the  legs  of  a moderate  length;  and  the  pelt  almost  moderately 
thin,  but  soft  and  elastic,  and  covered  with  a good  quantity  of 
white  wool,  not  so  long  as  in  some  breeds,  but  considerably 
finer. 

The  South-Down. — A long  range  of  chalky  hills,  diverging 
from  the  chalky  stratum  which  intersects  England  from  Nor- 
folk to  Dorchester,  is  termed  the  South-Downs.  On  these 
downs  a certain  breed  of  sheep  has  been  produced  for  manj 
centuries,  in  greater  perfection  than  elsewhere;  and  hence  have 
sprung  those  successive  colonies  which  have  found  their  way 
abroad  and  materially  benefited  the  breed  of  short-woolleo 
sheep  wherever  they  have  gone.  It  is  only,  however,  within  a 
comparatively  recent  period  that  they  have  been  brought  tc 
their  present  perfection.  As  recently  as  1776,  they  were  smal 
in  size,  and  of  a form  not  superior  to  the  common  woollei, 
sheep  of  the  United  States;  they  were  far  from  possessing  a 
good  shape,  being  long  and  thin  in  the  neck,  high  on  the 
shoulders,  low  behind,  high  on  the  loins,  down  on  the  rump, 
the  tail  set  on  very  low,  perpendicular  from  the  hip  bones, 
sharp  on  the  back;  the  ribs  flat,  not  bowing,  narrow  in  the  fore- 
quarters, but  good  in  the  leg,  although  having  big  bones.  Since 
that  period  a course  of  judicious  breeding  has  mainly  contri- 
buted to  raise  this  variety  to  its  present  value:  and  that,  too 
without  the  admixture  of  the  slightest  degree  of  foreign  blood 

This  pure,  improved  family,  it  will  be  borne  in  mind,  h 
spoken  of  in  the  present  connection;  inasmuch  as  the  original 
stock,  presenting,  with  trifling  modifications,  the  same  charac 
teristics  which  they  exhibited  seventy-five  years  ago,  are  yet  t< 
be  found  in  England;  and  the  intermediate  space  between 
these  two  classes  is  occupied  by  a variety  of  grades,  rising  01 


SHEEP. 


291 


falling  in  value,  as  they  approximate  to  or  recede  from  the  im- 
proved blood. 

The  South-Down  sheep  are  polled,  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  original  breed  was  horned,  as  it  is  not  unusual  to  find 
among  the  male  South-Down  lambs  some  with  small  horns. 
The  dusky,  or  at  times,  black  hue,  of  the  head  and  legs  fully 
establishes  the  original  color  of  the  sheep,  and,  perhaps  of  all 
sheep;  while  the  later  period  at  which  it  was  seriously  at- 
tempted to  get  rid  of  this  dingy  hue  proving  unsuccessful,  only 
confirms  this  view.  Many  of  the  lambs  have  been  dropped 
entirely  black. 

It  is  an  upland  sheep,  of  medium  size,  and  its  wool — which 
in  point  of  length  belongs  to  the  middle  class,  and  differs 
essentially  from  Merino  wool  of  any  grade,  though  the  fibre  in 
some  of  the  finest  fleeces  may  be  of  the  same  apparent  fineness 
with  half  or  one-quarter  blood  Merino — is  deficient  in  felting 
properties,  making  a fuzzy,  hairy  cloth,  and  is  no  longer  used 
in  England;  unless  largely  mixed  with  the  foreign  wool,  even 
for  the  lowest  class  of  cloths.  As  it  has  deteriorated,  however, 
it  has  increased  in  length  of  staple,  in  that  country,  to  such  an 
extent  that  improved  machinery  enables  it  to  be  used  as  a 
combing-wool,  for  the  manufacture  of  worsteds.  Where  this 
has  taken  place  it  is  quite  as  profitable  as  when  it  was  finer  and 
shorter.  In  the  United  States,  where  the  demand  for  comb- 
ing-wool is  so  small  that  it  is  easily  met  by  a better  article,  the 
same  result  would  not  probably  follow.  Indeed,  it  may  well 
be  doubted  whether  the  proper  combing  length  will  be  easily 
reached,  or  at  least  maintained  in  this  country,  in  the  absence 
of  that  high  feeding  system  which  has  undoubtedly  given  the 
wool  its  increased  length  in  England.  The  average  weight  of 
fleece  in  the  hill-fed  sheep  is  three  pounds;  on  rich  lowlands, 
a little  more. 

The  South-Down,  however,  is  cultivated  more  particularly 
for  its  mutton,  which  for  quality  takes  precedence  of  all  other — 
from  sheep  of  good  size — in  the  English  markets.  Its  early 
maturity  and  extreme  aptitude  to  lay  on  flesh,  render  it  pecu- 
liarly valuable  for  this  purpose.  It  is  turned  off  at  the  age  of 
two  years,  and  its  weight  at  that  age  is,  in  England,  from  eighty 
to  one  hundred  pounds  High-fed  wethers  have  reached  from 


292 


SHEEP. 


thirty-two  to  even  forty  pounds  a quarter.  Notwithstanding  its 
weight,  it  has  a patience  of  occasional  short  keep,  and  an  en- 
durance of  hard  stocking,  equal  to  any  other  sheep.  This  gives 
it  a decided  advantage  over  the  bulkier  Leicesters  and  Lincolns, 
as  a mutton  sheep,  in  hilly  districts,  and  those  producing  shcrt 
, and  scanty  herbage.  It  is  hardy  and  healthy,  though,  in  com- 
mon with  the  other  English  varieties,  much  subject  to  catarrh, 
and  no  sheep  better  withstands  our  American  winters.  The 
ewes  are  prolific  breeders  and  good  nurses. 

The  Down  is  quiet  and  docile  in  its  habits,  and,  though  an 
industrious  feeder,  exhibits  but  little  disposition  to  rove.  Like 
the  Leicester,  it  is  comparatively  a short-lived  animal,  and  the 
fleece  continues  to  decrease  in  weight  after  it  reaches  maturity. 
It  crosses  better  with  short  and  middle-woolled  breeds  than 
the  Leicester.  A sheep  possessing  such  qualities,  must,  of 
necessity,  be  valuable  in  upland  districts  in  the  vicinity  of 
markets.  The  desirable  characteristics  of  the  South-Down 
may  be  thus  summed  up:  The  head  small  and  hornless;  the 
face  speckled  or  gray,  and  neither  too  long  nor  too  short;  the 
lips  thin,  and  the  space  between  the  nose  and  the  eyes  narrow; 
the  under  jaw  or  chop  fine  and  thin;  the  ears  tolerably  wide  and 
well  covered  with  wool,  and  the  forehead  also,  and  the  whole 
space  between  the  ears  well  protected  by  it,  as  a defence 
against  the  fly;  the  eye  full  and  bright,  but  not  prominent;  the 
orbits  of  the  eye,  the  eye-cap  or  bone  not  too  projecting,  that 
it  may  not  form  a fatal  obstacle  in  lambing;  the  neck  of  a 
medium  length,  thin  toward  the  head,  but  enlarging  toward  the 
shoulders,  where  it  should  be  broad  and  high  and  straight  in 
its  whole  course  above  and  below. 

The  breast  should  be  wide,  deep  and  projecting  forward 
between  the  fore-legs,  indicating  a good  constitution  and  a 
disposition  to  thrive;  corresponding  with  this,  the  shoulders 
should  be  on  a level  with  the  back,  and  not  too  wide  above; 
they  should  bow  outward  from  the  top  to  the  breast,  indicating 
a springing  rib  beneath,  and  leaving  room  for  it;  the  ribs  com- 
ing out  horizontally  from  the  spine,  and  extending  far  back- 
ward, and  the  last  rib  projecting  more  than  others;  the  back 
flat  from  the  shoulders  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail;  the  loin 
broad  and  flat;  the  rump  broad,  and  the  tail  set  on  high,  and 
nearly  on  a level  with  the  spine 


SHEEP. 


293 


The  hips  should  be  wide;  the  space  between  them  and  the 
last  rib  on  each  side  as  narrow  as  possible,  and  the  ribs  gener- 
ally presenting  a circular  form  like  a barrel;  the  belly  as 
straight  as  the  back;  the  legs  neither*  too  long  nor  too  short; 
the  fore-legs  straight  from  the  breast  to  the  foot,  not  bending 
inward  at  the  knee,  and  standing  far  apart,  both  before  and 
behind;  the  hock  having  a direction  rather  outward,  and  the 
twist,  or  the  meeting  of  the  thighs  behind,  being  particularly 
full;  the  bones  fine,  yet  having  no  appearance  of  weakness,  and 
of  a speckled  or  dark  color;  the  belly  well  defended  with  wool, 
and  the  wool  coming  down  before  and  behind  to  the  knee  and 
to  the  hock;  the  wool  short,  close,  curled  and  fine,  and  free 
from  spiry  projecting  fibres. 

The  Cotswold. — The  Cotswolds,  until  improved  by  modem 
crosses,  were  a very  large,  coarse,  long-legged,  flat-ribbed, 
variety,  light  in  the  fore  quarter,  and  shearing  a long,  heavy, 
coarse  fleece  of  wool.  They  have  been  extensively  crossed 
with  the  Leicester  sheep — producing  thus  the  modern  or  im- 
proved Cotswold — by  which  their  size  and  fleece  have  been 
somewhat  diminished,  but  their  carcasses  have  been  materially 
improved,  and  their  maturity  rendered  earlier.  The  wethers 
are  sometimes  fattened  at  fourteen  months  old,  when  they 
weigh  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four  pounds  to  a quarter,  and,  at 
two  years  old,  increase  to  twenty  or  thirty  pounds. 

The  wool  is  strong,  mellow,  and  of  good  color,  though  rather 
coarse,  six  to  eight  inches  in  length,  and  from  seven  to  eight 
pounds  per  fleece.  The  superior  hardihood  of  the  improved 
Cotswold  over  the  Leicester,  and  their  adaptation  to  common 
treatment,  together  with  the  prolific  nature  of  the  ewes,  and 
their  abundance  of  milk,  have  rendered  them  in  many  places 
rivals  of  the  New  Leicester,  and  have  obtained  for  them,  of 
late  years,  more  attention  to  their  selection  and  general  treat- 
ment, under  which  management  still  farther  improvement  has 
been  made.  They  have  also  been  used  in  erasing  other 
breeds,  and  have  been  mixed  with  the  Hampshire  Downs. 
Indeed,  the  improved  Cotswold,  under  the  name  of  the  New,  or 
Improved  Oxfordshire  sheep,  have  frequently  been  the  suc- 
cessful candidates  for  prizes  offered  for  the  best  long-wooled 
sheep  at  some  of  the  principal  agricultural  meetings  or  shows 


204 


SHEEP. 


in  England.  The  quality  of  their  mutton  is  considered  superior 
to  that  of  the  Leicester;  the  tallow  being  less  abundant,  with  a 
larger  development  of  muscle  or  flesh. 

The  degree  to  which  the  cross  between  the  Cotswold  and 
Leicester  may  be  carried,  must  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
old  stock,  and  on  the  situation  and  character  of  the  farm.  In 
exposed  situations,  and  somewhat  scanty  pasture,  the  old  blood 
should  decidedly  prevail.  On  a more  sheltered  soil,  and  on 
land  that  will  bear  eloser  stocking,  a greater  use  may  be  made 
of  the  Leicester.  Another  circumstance  that  should  guide  the 
farmer  is  the  object  which  he  has  principally  in  view.  If  he 
expects  to  derive  his  chief  profits  from  the  wool,  he  will  look 
to  the  primitive  Cotswolds;  if  he  expects  to  gain  more  as  a 
grazier,  he  will  use  the  Leicester  ram  more  freely. 

The  Cheviot. — On  the  steep,  storm-lashed  Cheviot  hills,  in 
the  extreme  north  of  England,  this  breed  first  attracted  notice 
for  their  great  hardiness  in  resisting  cold,  and  for  feeding  on 
coarse,  heathery  herbage.  A cross  with  the  Leicester,  pretty 
generally  resorted  to,  constitutes  the  improved  variety. 

The  Cheviot  readily  amalgamates  with  the  Leicester — the 
rams  employed  in  the  system  of  breeding,  which  has  been 
extensively  introduced  for  producing  the  first  cross  of  this 
descent,  being  of  the  pure  Leicester  breed — and  the  progeny  is 
superior  in  size,  weight  of  wool,  and  tendency  to  fatten,  to  the 
native  Chevoit.  The  benefit,  however,  may  be  said  to  end 
with  the  first  cross,  and  the  progeny  of  this  mixed  descent  is 
greatly  inferior  to  the  pure  Leicester  in  form  and  fattening 
properties,  and  to  the  pure  Cheviot  in  hardiness  of  constitution. 

The  improved  Cheviot  has  greatly  extended  itself  through- 
out the  mountains  of  Scotland,  and  in  many  instances  sup- 
planted the  black-faced  breed;  but  the  change,  though  often 
advantageous,  has  in  some  cases  been  otherwise — the  latter 
being  somewhat  hardier,  and  more  capable  of  subsisting  on 
heathy  pasturage.  They  are  a hardy  race,  however,  well  suited 
for  their  native  pastures,  bearing,  with  comparative  impunity, 
the  storms  of  winter,  and  thriving  well  on  poor  keep.  The 
purest  specimens  are  to  be  found  on  the  Scotch  side  of  the 
Cheviot  hills,  and  on  thefhigh  and  stony  mountain  farms  which 
lie  between  that  range  and  the  sources  of  the  Teviot,  These 


SHEEP. 


295 


sheep  are  a capital  mountain  stock,  provided  the  pasture 
resembles  those  hills,  in  containing  a good  proportion  of  rich 
herbage.  Though  less  hardy  than  the  black-faced  sheep  of 
Scotland,  they  are  more  profitable  as  respects  their  feeding, 
making  more  flesh  on  an  equal  quantity  of  food,  and  making 
it  more  quickly. 

They  have  white  faces  and  legs,  open  countenances,  lively 
eyes,  and  are  without  horns;  the  ears  are  large,  and  somewhat 
singular,  and  there  is  much  space  between  the  ears  and  eyes; 
the  carcass  is  long;  the  back  straight;  the  shoulders  rather 
light;  the  ribs  circular;  and  the  quarters  good.  The  legs  are 
small  in  the  bone,  and  covered  with  wool,  as  well  as  the  body, 
with  the  exception  of  the  face.  The  wether  is  fit  for  the 
butcher  at  three  years  old,  and  averages  from  twelve  to 
eighteen  pounds  a quarter,  the  mutton  being  of  a good  quality, 
though  inferior  to  the  Southdown,  and  of  less  flavor  than  the 
black-faced.  The  Cheviot,  though  a mountain  breed,  is  quiet 
and  docile,  and  easily  managed. 

The  wool  is  about  the  quality  of  Leicester,  coarse  and 
long,  suitable  only  for  the  manufacture  of  low  coatings  and 
flushings.  It  closely  covers  the  body,  assisting  much  in 
preserving  it  from  the  effects  of  wet  and  cold.  The  fleece 
averages  about  three  and  a half  pounds.  Formerly  the  wool 
was  extensively  employed  in  making  cloths;  but,  having  given 
place  to  the  finer  Saxony  wools,  it  has  sunk  in  price,  and  been 
confined  to  combing  purposes.  It  has  thus  become  altogether 
a secondary  consideration.  The  Cheviots  have  become  an 
American  sheep  by  their  repeated  importations  into  this 
country. 

The  Lincoln. — The  old  breed  of  Lincolnshire  sheep  was 
hornless,  had  white  faces,  and  long,  thin,  and  weak  carcasses; 
the  ewes  weighed  from  fourteen  to  twenty  pounds  a quarter; 
the  three-year  old  wethers  from  twenty  to  thirty  pounds;  legs 
thick,  rough  and  white;  pelts  thick;  wool  long — from  ten  to 
eighteen  inches — and  covering  a slow-feeding,  coarse-grained 
carcass  of  mutton.  The  improved  Lincolns  possess  a rather 
more  desirable  robustness, 'approaching,  in  some  few  specimens, 
almost  to  coarseness,  as  compared  with  the  finest  Leicesters; 
but  they  are  more  hardy  aqd  Jess  liable  to  disease. 


296 


SHEEP. 


The  Age. — The  age  of  sheep  is  usually  reckoned,  not  from 
the  time  they  are  dropped,  but  from  the  first  shearing;  although 
the  first  year  may  thus  include  fifteen  or  sixteen  months,  and 
sometimes  more  When  doubt  exists  relative  to  the  age, 
recourse  is  had  to  the  teeth,  since  there  is  more  uncertainty 
about  the  horn  in  this  animal  than  in  cattle;  ewes  that  have 
been  early  bred,  appearing  always,  according  to  the  rings  on 
the  horn,  a year  older  than  others  that  have  been  long  kept 
from  the  ram. 

The  Teeth. — Sheep  have  no  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  the 
bars  or  ridges  of  the  palate  thicken  as  they  approach  the  fore 
part  of  the  mouth;  there,  also,  the  dense,  fibrous,  elastic  mat- 
ter, of  which  they  are  constituted,  becomes  condensed,  and 
forms  a cushion  orbed,  which  covers  the  converse  extremity 
of  the  upper  jaw,  and  occupies  the  place  of  the  upper  incisor, 
or  cutting  teeth,  and  partially  discharge  their  functions.  The 
herbage  is  firmly  held  between  the  front  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw  and  this  pad,  and  thus  partly  bitten  and  partly  torn 
asunder.  Of  this,  the  rolling  motion  of  the  head  is  sufficient 
proof. 

The  teeth  are  the  same  in  number  as  in  the  mouth  of  the 
ox.  There  are  eight  incisors  or  cutting  teeth  in  the  fore  part 
of  the  lower  jaw,  and  six  molars  in  each  jaw  above  and  below, 
and  on  either  side.  The  incisors  are  more  admirably  formed 
for  grazing  than  in  the  ox.  The  sheep  lives  closer,  and  is 
destined  to  follow  the  ©x,  and  gather  nourishment  where  that 
animal  would  be  unable  to  crop  a single  blade.  This  close 
life  not  only  loosens  the  roots  of  the  grass,  and  disposes  them 
to  spread,  but  by  cutting  off  the  short  suckers  and  sproutings 
— a wise  provision  of  nature — causes  the  plants  to  throw  out 
fresh,  and  more  numerous,  and  stronger  ones,  and  thus  is 
instrumental  in  improving  and  in  increasing  the  value  of  the 
crop.  Nothing  will  more  expeditiously  and  more  effectually 
make^a  thick,  permanent  pasture  than  its  being  occasionally 
and  closely  eaten  down  by  sheep. 

The  mouth  of  the  lamb  newly  dropped  is  either  without 
incisor  teeth  or  it  has  two.  The  teeth  rapidly  succeed  to  each 
other,  and  before  the  animal  is  a month  Id  he  has  the  whole 
of  the  eight.  They  continue  to  grow  with  his  growth  until  he 


SHEEP. 


297 


is  about  fourteen  or  sixteen  months  old.  Then  with  the  same 
previous  process  of  dimunition  as  in  cattle,  or  carried  to  a still 
greater  degree,  the  two  central  teeth  are  shed,  and  attain  their 
full  growth  when  the  sheep  is  two  years  old. 

In  examining  a flock  of  sheep,  however,  there  will  often  be 
very  considerable  difference  in  the  teeth  of  those  that  have 
not  been  sheared,  or  those  that  have  been  once  sheared;  in 
some  measure  to  be  accounted  for  by  a difference  in  the  time  of 
lambing,  and  likewise  in  the  general  health  and  vigor  of  the 
animal.  There  will  also  be  a material  difference  in  different 
animals,  attributable  to  the  good  or  bad  keep  which  they  have 
had.  Those  fed  on  good  land,  or  otherwise  well  kept,  will 
generally  take  the  start  of  others  that  have  been  half  starved, 
and  renew  their  teeth  some  months  sooner  than  these.  There 
are  also  irregularities  in  the  times  of  renewing  the  teeth,  not 
to  be  accounted  for  by  either  of  these  circumstances;  in  fact, 
nor  to  be  explained  by  any  known  circumstance  relating  to  the 
breed  or  the  keep  of  the  sheep.  The  want  of  improvement  in 
sheep,  which  is  occasionally  observed,  and  which  cannot  be 
accounted  for  by  any  deficiency  or  change  of  food,  may  some- 
times be  justly  attributed  to  the  tenderness  of  the  mouth  when 
the  permanent  teeth  are  protruding  through  the  gums. 

Between  two  and  three  years  old  the  next  two  incisors  are 
shed;  and,  when  the  sheep  is  actually  three  years  old,  the  four 
central  teeth  are  fully  grown;  at  four  years  old,  he  has  six  teeth 
fully  grown;  and  at  five  years  old — one  year  before  the  horse 
or  the  ox  can  be  said  to  be  full-mouthed — all  the  teeth  are  per- 
fectly developed.  The  Sheep  is  a much  shorter  lived  animal 
than  the  horse,  and  does  not  often  attain  the  usual  age  of  the 
ox.  Their  natural  age  is  about  ten  years,  to  which  age  they 
will  breed  and  thrive  well;  though  there  are  recorded  instances 
of  their  breeding  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  of  living  twenty 
years. 

The  careless  examiner  may  be  sometimes  deceived  with 
regard  to  the  four-year-old  mouth.  He  will  see  the  teeth  per- 
fectly developed,  no  diminutive  ones  at  the  sides,  and  the 
mouth  apparently  full;  and  then,  without  giving  himself  the 
trouble  of  counting  the  teeth,  he  will  conclude  that  the  animal 
i-s  five  years  old,  iV  process  of  displacement,  as  well  as  of 


298 


SHEEP. 


diminution,  has  taken  place  here;  the  remaining  outside  milk- 
teeth  have  not  only  shrunk  to  less  than  a fourth  part  of  their 
original  size,  but  the  four-year-old  teeth  have  grown  before 
them  and  perfectly  concealed  them,  unless  the  mouth  is  com- 
pletely opened. 

After  the  permanent  teeth  have  all  appeared  and  are  fully 
grown,  there  is  no  criterion  as  to  the  age  of  the  sheep.  In 
most  cases,  the  teeth  remain  sound  for  one  or  two  years,  and 
then,  at  uncertain  intervals — either  on  account  of  the  hard 
work  in  which  they  have  been  employed,  or  from  the  natural 
effect  of  age — they  begin  to  loosen  and  fall  out;  or,  by  reason 
of  their  natural  slenderness,  they  are  broken  off.  When  favorite 
ewes,  that  have  been  kept  for  breeding,  begin  to  lose  condition, 
at  six  or  seven  years  old,  their  mouths  should  be  carefully 
examined.  If  any  of  the  teeth  are  loose,  they  should  be  ex- 
tracted, and  a chance  given  to  the  animal  to  show  how  far,  by 
browsing  early  and  late,  she  may  be  able  to  make  up  for  the 
diminished  number  of  her  incisors.  It  frequently  happens  that 
ewes  with  broken  teeth,  and  some  with  all  the  incisors  gone, 
will  keep  pace  in  condition  with  the  best  in  the  flock;  but' they 
must  be  well  taken  care  of  in  the  winter,  and,  indeed,  nursed 
to  an  extent  that  would  scarcely  answer  the  farmer’s  purpose 
to  adopt  as  a general  rule,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  declin- 
ing to  such  a degree  as  would  make  it  very  difficult  afterward 
to  fatten  them  for  the  butcher.  It  may  certainly  be  taken  as  a 
general  rule  that  when  sheep  become  broken-mouthed  they 
begin  to  decline. 

Causes  of  which  the  farmer  is  utterly  ignorant,  or  over  which 
he  has  no  control,  will  sometimes  hasten  the  loss  of  the  teeth. 
One  thing,  however,  is  certain — that  close  feeding,  causing 
additional  exercise,  does  wear  them  down;  and  that  the  sheep 
of  farmers  who  stock  unusually  and  unseasonably  hard,  lose 
their  teeth  much  sooner  than  others  do. 

The  following  is  Professor  Symonds’  statement  of  the  den- 
tition of  the  sheep  as  indicative  of  age; 


SHEEP. 


299 


DENTITION  OF  THE  SHEEP. 


Table  op  Early  Dentition. 

Table  op  Late  Dentition. 

Yrs. 

Months. 

Yrs. 

Months. 

1 

0 

Central  pair  of 

1 

3 

Two  permanent 

temporary  inci- 

incisors. 

sors  replaced  by 

permanent. 

1 

6 

Second  pair  “ 

3 

0 

Four  “ 

2 

3 

Third  pair  “ 

3 

6 

Six  “ 

3 

0 

Fourth  pair  ** 

3 

9 

Eight  “ 

Breeding1. — In  the  management  of  sheep,  how  to  procure 
the  most  profit  from  the  flock,  is  the  greatest  consideration.  It 
is  not  exactly  how  to  increase  the  flock  most  rapidly,  nor  to 
produce  the  heaviest  carcasses  or  fleeces,  but  to  produce  such 
animals  as  will  return  the  most  money  for  the  expenditure  and 
labor  involved.  In  some  localities  the  sale  of  an  early  lamb 
will  bring  in  more  money  than  that  of  the  mother  with  its  fleece. 
Where  there  is  a market  for  lambs,  it  is  evidently  the  most 
profitable  to  keep  such  sheep,  and  to  keep  them  in  such  a way 
as  will  produce  the  highest  priced  lambs.  Where  mutton  is 
the  most  profitable,  there  a different  management  must  be 
adopted,  and  frequently  a different  breed  of  sheep  must  be  kept. 
Where  wool  only  is  the  object,  still  another  different  course 
will  be  chosen.  Whichever  end  is  to  be  gained,  the  care  of  the 
breeding  ewes  and  the  lambs  will  be  a subject  of  much  solici- 
tude. But  what  would  be  a proper  course  in  one  case  would 
not  be  at  all  proper  in  another.  A few  general  principles  are 
involved  in  the  management  of  ewes  and  lambs,  which  will  first 
be  explained,  after  which  the  special  management  proper  to  be 
adopted  for  each  special  case  will  be  considered. 

The  period  of  gestation  of  the  ewe  is  150  to  153  days.  Five 
months,  in  round  numbers,  may  be  taken  as  the  period  during 
which  the  ewe  carries  a lamb.  The  coupling  of  the  ewes  and 
rams  should  be  so  timed  that  the  lamb  may  be  dropped  at  the 
most  desirable  season.  It  will  be  found  a great  convenience 
to  mark  the  rams  and  ewes,  or  such  of  them  as  may  be  selected 
to  breed  stock  animals  from.  Where  a small  flock  only  is  kept, 
or  where  special  care  is  given  to  the  improvement  of  the  breed, 
every  sheep  should  be  marked  by  a number,  that  the  time  of 
its  coupling  may  be  noted  and  the  date  of  the  expected  birth 


300 


SHEEP. 


of  the  lamb  be  known.  The  best  method  of  marking  is  by- 
means  of  metallic  ear  marks,  inserted  in  the  ear  in  different 
ways,  to  distinguish  the  sexes  easily. 

A ewe  that  produces  a fine,  large,  active  lamb,  that  is  a 
good  nurse,  and  that  rears  a profitable  market  lamb,  or  that 
rears  twins  successfully,  is  a valuable  animal  to  retain  in  the  flock 
so  long  as  she  remains  productive.  Such  ewes  have  been 
kept  until  io  or  12,  or  even  16,  years  old,  and  to  be  able  to 
identify  a ewe  of  this  kind  is  very  necessary  when  the  greatest 
profit  is  the  object  sought,  and  more  especially  in  those  cases 
when  the  special  business  is  to  rear  market  lambs  or  increase 
the  flock  rapidly.  No  more  than  30  ewes  should  be  appor- 
tioned to  one  ram  in  any  season,  unless  he  be  a full  grown  one 
and  in  vigorous  health,  and  it  would  be  well  to  observe  the  rules 
laid  down  for  the  management  of  the  ram  at  this  season.  If  the 
ram  is  equal  to  the  work,  50  ewes  may  be  given  to  him,  but  it  is 
better  to  err  on  the  safe  side  in  this  matter,  as  overwork 
simply  means  barren  ewes  and  loss  of  lambs.  At  the  breeding 
season  the  ram  should  be  smeared  upon  the  brisket  every  day 
with  a mixture  of  raw  linseed  oil  and  red  ocher,  so  that  he  will 
leave  a mark  upon  each  ewe  that  may  be  served.  As.  the  ewes 
are  served  they  are  to  be  drafted  from  the  flock  and  placed  in 
a field  or  yard  by  themselves.  Two  rams  should  not  be  kept 
together  in  a small  breeding  flock,  as  quarreling  and  fighting 
are  certain  to  result  and  great  damage  may  occur.  If  two  rams 
are  necessary,  each  may  be  used  on  alternate  days.  Wethers 
are  a nuisance  in  a flock  of  ewes  at  this  season,  disturbing 
them  and  keeping  them  and  themselves  from  feeding.  A plan 
followed  with  advantage  where  the  flock  consists  of  heavy 
bodied  sheep,  and  where  the  necessary  attention  can  be  given, 
is  to  keep  the  ram  in  a yard  or  paddock  by  himself,  out  of 
sight  of  the  ewes,  and  to  allow  a wether  to  run  with  them.  As 
each  ewe  comes  in  season,  the  wether  singles  her  out  and  keeps 
company  with  her.  On  the  return  of  the  flock  from  the  pas- 
ture at  night,  the  ewe  or  ewes  in  season  are  turned  in  to  the 
ram  until  they  are  served,  when  they  may  be  removed  at  once, 
or  left  with  him  until  the  morning.  In  the  morning,  if  any  ewes 
have  come  into  heat  during  the  night,  they  may  be  served 
before  the  flock  is  turned  into  pasture.  This  is  continued 


SHEEP. 


301 


until  it  is  known  that  all  the  ewes  are  in  lamb.  By  this  method 
a ram  may  be  made  to  serve  double  the  number  of  ewes  that 
he  would  if  allowed  indiscriminate  access  to  them,  and  exhaust 
feimselt  in  useless  and  repeated  exertions. 

As  soon  as  the  ewes  have  been  served,  the  time  of  each  is 
entered  in  the  record.  They  are  carefully  preserved  from  all 
worry  by  dogs  and  needless  driving  and  handling.  Peace  and 
quietness  at  this  season  will  tend  to  the  production  of  quiet 
and,  docile  lambs.  The  shepherd  should  make  himself  very 
familiar  with  them,  and  by  giving  salt  or  meal  in  the  hand,  or 
i small  dish,  reduce  them  to  a condition  of  perfect  docility. 
Any  ewes  that  have  either  refused  the  ram  or  have  failed  to 
creed,  should  be  dosed  with  two  ounces  of  epsom  salts  and  be 
stinted  in  their  feed  for  a few  days  to  reduce  their  condition. 
This  will  generally  be  effective  in  bringing  them  into  season. 
Good  fair  condition  is  better  than  an  excess  of  fat,  but  ewes  in 
poor  condition  cannot  be  expected  to  produce  other  than  poor, 
weak  lambs;  neither  will  an  excessively  fat  ewe  produce  a 
strong  lamb.  Some  extra  food  will  now  be  needed  by  the 
ewes,  and  should  be  given  at  first  in  small  quantities.  Bran, 
crushed  malt,  and  crushed  oats  and  corn  mixed,  are  the  best 
kinds  of  food.  Oil-cake,  either  of  cotton-seed  or  linseed, 
unless  used  with  great  caution,  is  not  always  healthful  food  for 
ewes  in  lamb.  Any  food  that  actively  affects  the  bowels, 
either  way,  is  to  be  avoided.  Half  a pint  a day  may  be  given 
of  the  first  mentioned  foods,  and  a change  from  one  to  another 
may  be  frequently  made.  So  long  as  pasture  is  to  be  had,  this 
allowance  will  be  sufficient.  When  the  winter  feeding  com- 
mences, the  ration  of  grain  should  be  gradually  increased  until, 
at  the  peiiod  when  lambing  time  approaches,  a pint  daily  is 
given.  Cold  watery  food  is  highly  dangerous  at  this  time,  and 
roots  should  not  be  given  in  large  quantities,  nor  at  all,  unless 
pulped  and  mixed  with  cut  hay  and  the  grain.  Turnips  or 
other  roots  that  have  been  highly  manured  with  superphosphate 
of  lime  has  been  said  by  several 'experienced  English  breeders 
to  be  productive  of  abortion.  Water  should  be  given  in  small 
and  frequent  quantities.  It  is  best  to  have  running  water  or 
water  from  a well  always  at  hand  for  the  ewes.  If  the  ewes 
have  not  heretofore  been  kept  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  flock, 


30*2 


SftEEP. 


they  should  now  be  separated.  The  general  treatment  of  ewes 
up  to  this  time  should  be  such  as  will  keep  them  free  from  all 
excitement,  and  in  good,  healthful  condition.  The  record 
should  now  be  consulted,  and  as  the  ewes  near  their  time  they 
should  be  removed  into  a part  of  the  stables  or  sheep-barn, 
where  each  one  can  -have  a small  pen  to  herself.  These  pens 
should  be  made  so  that  light  can  be  shut  out  if  desired.  Here 
they  are  permitted  to  drop  their  lambs  in  perfect  quiet;  by  this 
means  few  ewes  will  disown  their  lambs,  and  no  lambs  will  be 
lost  by  creeping  into  feed  racks  or  out-of-the-way  places.  The 
pens  should  not  be  larger  than  5x4  feet. 

The  Lamb. — As  soon  as  the  lamb  is  dropped  and  the  ewe 
has  owned  and  licked  it,  and  the  lamb  has  once  sucked,  all 
danger,  except  from  gross  carelessness,  is  passed.  The  ewe 
will  be  greatly  helped  by  a drink  of  slightly  warm,  thin  oat- 
meal gruel  well  salted.  The  lamb  will  be  benefitted  by  a 
teaspoonful  of  castor  oil  given  in  new  milk,  if  the  first  evacua- 
tions do  not  pass  away  freely.  These  are  apt  to  be  very 
glutinous  and  sticky,  and,  by  adhering  to  the  wool,  to  close  the 
bowel  completely  unless  removed.  Warm  water  should  be 
used  to  soften  and  remove  these  accumulations.  The  anus 
and  surrounding  wool  should  then  be  smeared  with  pure  castor 
oil.  If  the  lamb  is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  reach  the  teats, 
and  suck,  it  should  be  assisted  once  or  twice.  Any  locks  of 
wool  upon  the  ewe’s  udder,  that  may  be  in  the  way,  should  be 
clipped.  If  the  lamb  is  scoured,  a teaspoonful  of  a mixture  of 
one  pint  of  peppermint  water  and  one  ounce  of  prepared  chalk 
should  be  given  every  three  hours,  until  it  is  relieved.  When 
the  ewe  refuses  to  own  the  lamb,  she  may  be  confined  between 
two  small  hurdles.  Two  light  stakes  are  driven  in  the  ground 
close  together  to  confine  the  ewe’s  head  and  keep  her  from 
butting  the  lamb.  If  she  is  disposed  to  lie  down,  as  some  obsti- 
nate ones  will  do,  a light  pole  is  passed  through  the  hurdles 
resting  upon  the  lower  bar,  beneath  her  belly.  Thus  confined 
during  the  day,  she  is  helpless,  and,  if  the  lamb  is  lively,  it  will 
manage  to  get  its  supply  of  food.  The  ewe  should  be  released 
at  night.  One  day’s  confinement  is  often  sufficient  to  bring 
an  obstinate  ewe  to  reason. 

A twin  lamb,  or  one  deprived  of  its  dam,  that  may  need  to 


SHEEP. 


303 


be  reared  by  hand,  may  easily  be  fed  upon  cow’s  milk.  A fresh 
cow’s  milk  is  the  best  fitted  for  this  purpose.  Ewe’s  milk  is 
richer  in  solid  matter  than  that  of  the  cow,  and  the  addition  of 
a teaspoonful  of  white  refined  sugar  to  the  pint  of  cow’s  milk 
will  make  it  more  palatable  to  the  lamb.  At  first  not  more 
than  a quarter  of  a pint  of  milk  should  be  given  at  once.  The 
milk  should  be  freshly  drawn  from  the  cow  and  warmed  up  to 
ioo  degrees  before  it  is  fed.  A convenient  method  of  feeding 
milk  to  a lamb  is  to  use  a small  tin  can  with  a long  spout,  such 
as  is  used  for  oil.  An  air-hole  is  punched  in  the  cover  or  cork 
and  a piece  of  sponge  covered  with  a cloth  is  tied  upon  the 
end  of  the  spout.  The  flow  is  thus  made  easy  and  equal,  and 
the  lamb  sucks  in  a natural  manner.  A very  short  time  is 
sufficient  to  familiarize  the  lamb  with  this  kind  of  foster  mother. 
To  encourage  the  flow  of  milk  in  the  ewe  and  the  correspond- 
ing growth  of  the  lambs,  the  food  of  the  ewes  should  be  of  the 
best  character.  Clover  hay,  bran,  and  crushed  oats,  with  some 
pea-meal,  are  the  most  preferable  foods,  producing  a rich  milk 
in  abundance.  The  ewes  must  not  be  allowed  to  fall  off  in 
condition,  of  the  lambs  will  fail.  During  mild  weather,  sugar 
beets  may  be  given  in  moderate  quantity  with  advantage,  but 
mangels  or  Swede  turnips  (rutabagas)  should  be  avoided,  as 
too  watery  and  deficient  in  nutriment,  and  productive  of  scours 
in  the  lamb.  In  cold  weather  roots  are  apt  to  reduce  the 
temperature  of  the  animal  too  suddenly  if  given  in  any  but 
small  quantities,  and  consequently  decrease  the  flow  of  milk. 
Pea  straw  is  a favorite  and  nutritious  food  for  sheep,  but  it  will 
be  found  profitable  to  give  only  the  very  best  at  hand  to  nurs- 
ing ewes.  The  after  growth  and  condition  of  the  lambs  will 
greatly  depend  upon  the  maintenance  of  a thrifty  and  continu- 
ous growth  during  the  first  three  months  of  their  existence. 

Docking  and  Castrating. — At  the  age  of  a week  the 
operations  of  docking  and  castrating  the  male  lambs,  may  be 
safely  performed.  At  this  age  the  young  animal  suffers  but 
little,  there  is  no  loss  of  blood,  and  the  wounds  heal  by  the  first 
intention.  The  rough  and  ready  method  of  clipping  off  the  tail 
an  inch  from  the  rump,  first  drawing  the  skin  upwards,  and  of 
clipping  off  the  scrotum  and  testicles  altogether  with  a pair  of 
sharp  sheep-shears,  will  be  found  perfectly  safe  if  done  before 


304 


SHEEP. 


the  lamb  is  two  weeks  old.  The  nerves  being  very  slightly 
sensitive  at  this  time,  the  painful,  and,  when  later  performed, 
dangerous  operation  of  emasculation  is  only  slightly  felt,  and 
within  an  hour  a lamb  bereft  of  tail  and  generative  organs  will 
frequently  be  seen  skipping  playfully  in  the  sunshine.  To 
dock  an  older  lamb  is  a more  troublesome  operation.  To  do 
this  with  facility,  a block  of  wood,  about  a foot  high,  a sharp, 
broad  chisel,  and  a wooden  mallet,  are  required.  The  opera- 
tor stoops  with  bended  knees,  the  block  being  in  front  of  him, 
takes  the  lamb  with  its  head  between  his  knees  and  its  tail  in 
his  left  hand,  holding  the  chisel  in  his  right  hand  Backing  the 
lamb’s  rump  up  close  to  the  block,  he  lays  the  tail  upon  it,  and, 
drawing  back  the  skin  of  the  tail  up  to  the  rump,  holds  the 
chisel  lightly  upon  the  tail,  close  to  and  below  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand.  When  all  is  ready  he  directs  an  assistant  to  strike 
the  chisel  smartly  with  the  mallet,  by  which  the  tail  is  instantly 
severed  about  two  inches  from  the  root.  A pinch  of  powdered 
bluestone  (sulphate  of  copper)  is  placed  on  the  wound  and  the 
lamb  is  released.  To  castrate  an  old  lamb  with  safety,  the 
scroturfi  should  be  opened  by  a long,  free  incision  with  a sharp 
knife  at  the  lower  point,  the  animal  being  at  the  time  turned 
upon  its  back  and  secured  in  that  position.  The  scrotum  should 
be  held  in  the  hand  tig-htly  enough  to  keep  the  skin  tense. 
The  cut  should  be  made  only  through  the  skin  and  coats  of 
the  testicle,  and  not  into  the  gland,  by  which  a great  deal  of 
pain  is  spared  to  the  animal.  The  gland  will  escape  from  the 
scrotum  at  once  if  the  opening  is  made  large  enough.  It  may 
be  taken  in  the  left  hand  and  the  cord  and  vessels  scraped 
apart,  not  cut,  by  which  bleeding  is  prevented  and  healing 
made  more  certain  and  rapid.  The  opening  being  made  at  the 
bottom  of  the  scrotum,  allows  the  blood  and  any  pus  that  forms 
in  the  wound,  to  escape  freely.  It  might  probably  be  bene- 
ficial to  insert  a small  plug  of  tow  in  the  wound,  projecting  out 
of  it  a short  distance  to  prevent  the  edges  from  healing  until 
the  inflammation  has  subsided.  This  method  of  operation  is  a 
safe  one,  and,  if  it  is  neatly  done,  the  losses  need  not  be  one 
per  cent.,  while  frequently  three  lambs  out  of  five  may  be  lost 
by  any  other  method. 

Additional  Food. — While  the  lambs  are  still  with  the 


SHEEP. 


305 


ewes,  and  although  the  ewes  may  be  we  11  fed  with  a special 
view  to  the  thriftiness  of  the  lambs,  yet  a supply  of  additional 
food  for  the  latter  will  be  of  great  advantage  to  them.  To 
furnish  a young  animal  with  all  the  food  that  it  can  digest,  and 
that  of  the  choicest  character,  is  to  create  a sturdy,  thrifty, 
strong  constitutioned  animal  that  will  be  prolific  in  reproduc- 
tion and  long  lived.  To  advance  the  maturity  of  an  animal  is 
also  to  lengthen  its  life,  for  it  matters  not  at  which  part  of  its 
productive  career  we  add  a year,  it  certainly,  so  far  as  profit 
is  concerned,  lives  a year  longer  for  us.  If  a yearling  ewe  can 
be  made  to  produce  a healthful,  strong  lamb,  or  a lamb  can  be 
brought  by  care  to  maturity  for  the  market  at  eighteen  months 
instead  of  thirty  months,  this  result  is  simply  equal  to  a profit 
of  40  per  cent.  And  feed  is  the  agent  by  which  this  profit  is 
secured,  of  course  made  available  by  proper  care  in  selecting 
the  breeding  stock.  To  provide  the  means  whereby  the  lambs 
may  procure  the  extra  feed  needed  for  their  rapid  development, 
many  contrivances  have  been  brought  into  use.  Generally  these 
are  modifications  of  the  plan  of  providing  a pen  or  yard  adjoin- 
ing that  in  which  the  ewes  are  kept,  with  “creep  holes”  in  the 
fence  through  which  the  lambs  can  gain  access  to  it.  In  this 
yard  some  feed,  consisting  of  oats,  rye,  wheat  bran  ground 
together  very  finely,  is  placed  in  troughs  or  boxes,  and  lightly 
salted.  They  will  soon  find  this,  and  will  resort  to  it  several 
times  a day.  But,  by  whatever  means  it  may  be  done,  the 
lamb  should  be  supplied  with  some  additional  concentrated  and 
nutritious  feed.  As  a gentle  laxative  in  case  of  constipation, 
a few  ounces  of  linseed  oil-cake-meal  will  be  found  sufficient, 
and  far  better  than  physic.  Linseed  oil  (raw),  or  castor  oil,  a 
teaspoonful  of  either  at  a dose,  will  be  found  safe  and  effective 
for  either  constipation  or  diarrhoea,  unless  of  a serious  character. 

Weaning. — As  lambs  progress  toward  the  period  for  wean- 
ing, the  extra  food  should  be  gradually  increased,  unless  they 
can  be  removed  to  a good  pasture  of  short,  tender  grass.  In 
this  case  even  a small  allowance  at  night,  on  their  return  to  the 
fold,  will  be  beneficial.  The  weaning  should  be  very  gradually 
done.  The  sudden  removal  of  the  lambs  from  their  dams  is 
injurious  to  both.  It  too  abruptly  deprives  the  lambs  of  their 
most  easily  digested  and  most  agreeable  food.  It  forces  them 
18 


B06 


SHEfiP. 


to  load  the  stomach  with  food  for  which  it  is  hardly  yet  pre- 
pared, and  suddenly  arrests  their  growth  both  by  a stinting  of 
food  and  by  the  nervous  irritation  consequent  upon  their  sud- 
den deprivation.  The  dams  in  full  flow  of  milk,  thus  at  once 
deprived  of  the  means  of  relief,  are  subjected  to  the  engorge- 
ment of  the  udder,  with  the  consequent  congestion  of  all  the 
\ organs  connected  therewith.  This  shock  is  very  injurious,  and 
I frequently  produces  inflammatory  disorders  of  the  blood  or 
garget.  To  avoid  these  ill  effects  of  the  sudden  change,  it  is 
well  to  remove  the  lambs  to  a distant  pasture,  along  with 
some  dry  ewes  or  wethers  for  company.  The  novel  experi- 
ence of  a fresh  pasture  will  cause  them  to  forget  their  dams, 
and  they  will  utter  no  complaints  nor  manifest  any  uneasiness. 
At  night  they  should  be  turned  into  the  fold  with  ewes,  whose 
full  udders  they  will  speedily  relieve.  By  withdrawing  any  extra 
feed  hitherto  given  to  the  ewes,  somewhat  gradually  (in  no  case 
is  it  wise  to  make  a sudden  change  in  the  management  of 
sheep)  their  supply  of  milk  will  gradually  decrease,  and  in  two 
weeks  the  whole  of  the  lambs  may  be  weaned  with  perfect 
safety  to  themselves  and  the  ewes. 

After  having  been  weaned,  the  lambs  should  have  the  first 
choice  of  pasture  and  the  best  and  tenderest  cuttings  of  the 
fodder  crops.  Many  farmers  have  found  it  advantageous  in 
every  way  to  turn  newly  weaned  lambs  into  a field  of  corn  in 
the  month  of  August.  The  corn  is  too  far  grown  to  be  injured, 
the  suckers  only  will  be  nibbled  by  the  lambs,  and  the  weeds 
which  grow  up  after  the  corn  is  laid  by,  will  be  eaten  closely. 
The  lambs  also  have  the  benefit  of  a cool  shade,  and  where 
such  a field  can  be  conveniently  applied  to  this  purpose,  there 
are  several  reasons  why  it  might  well  be  done. 

Care  of  Ewes  after  Weaning. — The  condition  of  the 
ewes  must  not  be  neglected  at  this  time.  The  chief  danger  is 
in  regard  to  those  that  are  heavy  milkers.  Such  sheep  should 
be  closely  watched,  and  the  milk  drawn  by  hand  from  those 
whose  udders  are  not  emptied  by  the  lambs.  The  first  approach 
to  hardness  or  heat  in  the  udder  should  be  remedied  by  an 
immediate  dose  of  an  ounce  of  epsom  salts  dissolved  in  water, 
and  mixed  with  a teaspoonful  of  ground  ginger.  The  next  two 
days  20  grains  of  saltpetre  should  be  given  each  morning  and 


SHEEP. 


307 


evening,  to  increase  the  action  of  the  kidneys.  These  remedies 
will  generally  relieve  the  udder,  and  will  tend  to  greatly  reduce 
the  secretion  of  milk.  If  hay  is  given  in  place  of  grass,  and 
the  ewe  confined  in  a cool,  darkened  pen,  the  drying  up  of  the 
milk  will  be  hastened. 

Selection  for  Breeding. — As  the  improvement  of  the  flock 
can  be  better  made  from  within  than  by  giving  the  sole  atten- 
tion to  bringing  new  blood  from  without,  it  will  be  very  im- 
portant to%  select  the  best  lambs,  both  of  rams  and  ewes,  for 
breeders.  The  selection  should  be  made  chiefly  in  reference 
to  the  purposes  for  which  the  flock  is  kept,  and  strength  of 
constitution,  rapidity  of  growth,  size,  tendency  to  fat;  fineness, 
length  or  quality  of  wool,  and  prolificness  and  certainty  of 
breeding,  in  the  parents  as  well  as,  so  far  as  can  be  judged  of, 
in  the  lambs  themselves,  should  be  made  the  tests  by  which 
the  selection  is  determined.  If  the  production  of  early  lambs 
for  market  is  the  object,  the  produce  of  those  ewes  which  bring 
single  lambs  of  large  size  and  quick  growth  will  be  chosen  to 
increase  the  flock;  if  the  production  of  mutton  sheep,  then 
those  lambs  from  ewes  which  drop  twins,  and  are  good  nurses, 
ought  to  be  kept;  and  if  wool  of  any  particular  kind  is  desired, 
then  the  selection  should  be  made  chiefly  in  reference  to  that. 
On  no  account  should  weakly  lambs,  or  those  ewes  which  are 
poor  nurses,  or  fail  to  breed,  or  which  exhibit  tenderness  of 
constitution,  or  are  wanderers,  or  of  uneasy,  restless  disposi- 
tions, be  retained;  but  such  unprofitable  animals  should  be 
closely  weeded  out  and  fattened  for  sale  or  for  slaughter.  The 
choice  of  ram  lambs  is  of  chief  importance;  for  the  influence 
of  the  ram  runs  through  the  flock,  while  that  of  the  ewe  is  con- 
fined to  her  produce  alone.  To  select  a lamb  for  a stock  ram 
is  a matter  requiring  a knowledge  of  the  principles  of  breeding, 
and  some  tact  and  experience.  The  latter  qualifications  can- 
not be  acquired  from  books,  but  must  be  gained  by  practice. 

Winter  Management  and  Food. — Sheep  should  be  brought 
into  winter  quarters  soon  after  the  severe  frosts  occur,  as  these 
diminish  the  feed  and  materially  impair  its  nutritious  qualities. 
They  ought  also  to  be  removed  from  the  grass  lands  before 
they  become  permanently  softened  by  the  rains,  as  they  will 
injuriously  affect  their  comfort  and  health;  and  it  is  equally 


308 


SHEEP. 


objectionable  from  their  poaching  the  sod.  If  the  number  be 
large  when  brought  to  the  yards,  they  must  be  carefully  divided 
into  flocks  of  one  hundred  or  less,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
yards  and  sheds.  The  young  and  feeble  must  be  separated 
from  the  others,  and  the  ailing  ones  placed  by  themselves,  and 
that  no  one  may  suffer  from  the  others,  all  should  be  classed 
as  uniformly  as  possible,  as  to  strength.  The  yards  must  be 
dry,  well  supplied  with  a trough  of  fresh  water,  and  with  com- 
fortable sheds  to  which  they  can  retire  when  they  choose.  In 
snowy  winters,  if  water  be  not  handy,  snow  will  supply  its  place 
quite  well. 

Shelters. — These  in  northern  climates  are  indispensable  to 
profitable  sheep  raising,  and,  in  every  latitude  north  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  they  would  be  advantageous.  There  is  policy 
as  well  as  humanity  in  the  practice.  An  animal  eats  much  less 
when  thus  protected;  he  is  rribre  thrifty,  less  liable  to  disease, 
and  his  manure  is  richer  and  more  abundant.  The  feeding 
may  be  done  in  the  open  yard  in  clear  weather,  and  under 
cover  in  severe  storms.  The  shelters  for  sheep  are  variously 
constructed,  to  suit  the  taste  or  circumstance  of  the  flock- 
master.  Sheep  barns  built  upon  a side  hill  will  afford  under- 
ground floors,  surrounded  by  three  sides  of  wall,  and  opening 
to  the  south,  with  sliding  or  swinging  doors  to  guard  against 
storms,  and  sufficient  storage  for  the  fodder  may  be  made  by 
scaffolds;  or  they  may  be  constructed  with  twelve  or  fifteen 
feet  posts,  on  level  ground,  allowing  them  to  occupy  the  lower 
part,  with  the  fodder  stored  above.  In  all  cases,  however, 
thorough  ventilation  should  be  provided,  for  of  the  two  evils, 
of  exposure  to  cold  or  too  great  privation  of  air,  the  former  is 
to  be  preferred.  Sheep  cannot  long  endure  close  confinement 
without  injury.  In  all  ordinary  weather,  a shed,  closely 
boarded  on  three  sides,  with  a close  roof,  is  sufficient  protec- 
tion, especially  if  the  open  side  is  shielded  from  bleak  winds, 
or  leads  into  a well  enclosed  yard.  If  the  apartment  above  is 
used  for  storage,  the  floors  should  be  made  tight,  that  no  hay, 
chaff  or  dust  can  fall  upon  the  fleece. 


SHEEP. 


309 


Fig.  2.— Sheep  Barn. 

A building  which  is  well  arranged  and  convenient  is  shown 
fn  figures  2,  3,  and  4.  It  consists  of  a barn,  shown  at  figure  2, 
about  20  feet  wide,  16  feet  high  from  basement  to  eaves,  and 
as  long  as  desirable.  This  is  intended  to  store  the  hay  or  fod- 
der. The  posts,  sills,  and  plates  are  all  8 inches  square,  the 

girts  and  braces  are  4 
inches  square,  the  beams 

2 x 10,  are  placed  16 
inches  apart,  and  are 
cross-bridged  with  strips 

3 inches  wide.  The  hay 
is  piled  inside, so  that  the 
feed  passage  below,  over 
which  there  are  trap- 
doors, is  left  uncovered. 
The  hay  is  thrown  down 
through  these  doors, 
and  falls  upon  a sloping 
shelf,  which  carries  it 


Fig.  3.— Section  of  Building.  Fig.  4.— Hanging  Door 

for  Barn. 

into  the  feed  racks  below.  (See  figure  3).  The  basement  under 
the  barn  is  8 feet  high,  and  is  of  stone  on  three  sides;  the  front 
i»  supported  by  $ wadies  and  8 feet  ^port. 


310 


SHEEP. 


tween  each  pair  of  posts  a door  is  hung  upon  pins  (figure  4), 
which  fit  into  grooves  in  the  posts,  so  that  the  door  may  be 
raised  and  fastened  in  such  a manner  as  to  close  the  upper 
half  of  the  space  between  the  posts;  or  be  held  suspended  half 
way,  leaving  the  whole  open;  or  be  shut  down  and  close  the 
lower  half;  or  be  removed  altogether.  By  this  contrivance 
at  least  half  the  front  of  the  basement  must  be  left  open, 
whether  the  sheep  be  shut  in  or  out.  The  floor  of  the  base- 
ment should  be  slightly  sloping  from  rear  to  front,  so  that  it 
will  always  be  dry.  Figure  3 gives  a section  of  the  whole  barn. 
The  hay-loft  is  above,  and  the  passage-way  and  the  doors,  by 
which  the  hay  is  thrown  down  to  the  feed-racks  below;  as  well 
as  the  sloping  shelf  by  which  the  hay  is  carried  into  the  feed- 
racks  are  shown. 

Below  the  feed-rack  is  the  feed-trough  for  roots  or  meal.  A 
door  shuts  off  this  trough  from  the  sheep  at  the  front,  while  the 
feed  is  being  prepared,  and,  when  it  is  ready,  the  door  is  raised, 
and  held  up  to  the  feed-rack  by  a strap  or  a hook.  The  feed- 
rack  is  closely  boarded  behind,  and  this  back  part,  which  is  in 
the  feed-passage,  slopes  forward  to  the  front,  so  as  to  carry  the 
hay  forward  to  the  bottom.  The  front  of  the  rack  is  of  up- 
right slats,  smoothly  dressed,  two  inches  wide,  and  placed  three 
inches  apart.  The  boards  of  the  feed-trough  are  smoothly 
dressed  and  sand-papered,  and  all  the  edges  are  rounded,  so 
that  there  is  nothing  by  which  the  wool  may  be  torn  or  rubbed 
off  from  the  sheep’s  necks.  It  will  be  seen  by  this  arrange- 
ment that  there  is  no  dangerous  thing  by  which  a sheep  or  a 
lamb  might  be  hurt,  nor  a place  where  it  can  get  into  mischief. 
The  root-cellar  is  at  the  rear  of  the  basement,  and  is  reached 
by  the  stairs  already  mentioned. 

Racks  or  Mangers. — Racks  and  mangers  are  indispensable 
to  economical  feeding.  If  the  hay  is  fed  on  the  ground,  the 
leaves  and  seeds,  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  fodder,  are 
almost  wholly  lost,  and,  when  wet,  the  sheep,  in  their  restless- 
ness while  feeding,  will  tread  much  of  it  into  the  mud.  To 
make  an  economical  box  or  rack,  take  six  light  pieces  of 
scantling,  say  three  inches  square,  one  for  each  corner,  and  one 
for  the  center  of  each  side.  Boards  of  pine  or  hemlock,  twelve 
or  fifteen  feet  long  and  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  wide,  nasy 


SHEEP. 


311 


then  be  nailed  on  to  the  bottom  of  the  posts  for  the  sides, 
which  are  separated  by  similar  boards  at  the  ends,  two  and 
one-half  feet  long.  Boards  twelve  inches  wide,  raised  above 
the  lower  ones  by  a space  of  nine  to  twelve  inches,  are  nailed 
on  the  sides  and  ends,  which  completes  the  rack.  The  edges 
of  the  opening  should  be  made  perfectly  smooth,  to  prevent 
chafing  the  wool.  The  largest  dimensions,  above  given  are 
suitable  for  the  larger  breeds,  and  the  smallest  for  Merinos, 
and  still  smaller  are  proper  for  their  lambs.  These  should  be 
set  on  dry  ground,  or  under  the  sheds,  and  they  can  easily  be 
removed  whenever  necessary.  Some  prefer  the  racks  made 


Fig.  5.— Portable  Feed  Rack. 


with  slats,  or  smooth,  upright  sticks,  in  the  form  of  the  usual 
racks.  There  is  no  objection  to  this,  but  it  should  always  be 
accompanied  by  a broad  trough  affixed  to  the  bottom,  to  catch 
the  fine  hay  which  falls  in  feeding.  These  may  be  attached  to 
the  side  of  a building,  or  used  double.  A small  lamb  requires 
fifteen  inches  of  space,  and  a large  sheep  two  feet,  for  quiet, 


Fig.  6 —Sheep  Sbep. 

comfortable  feeding,  and  at  least  this  amount  of  room  shquid 
|)e  provided  aroynd  the  racks  for  every  sheep  ? 


312 


SHEEP. 


A very  convenient  rack  is  the  one  shown  in  figure  5.  This 
is  extremely  portable,  and  may  be  moved  from  one  part  of  the 
field  to  another  with  great  ease.  A shed  that  has  been  found 
very  convenient  in  use  is  shown  at  figure  6.  It  is  built  at  the 
center  of  four  fields,  and  has  doors  opening  into  each  of  them, 
and  is  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  entirely  closed  from  all  but 
the  one  which  may  be  in  use  at  the  time. 

For  the  protection  of  the  sheep 
at  night,  small  paddocks  may  be 
fenced  in  around  this  shed,  and 
safety  from  dogs  secured  by  the  use 
of  dog  guards.  These  consist  of 
wires  made  to  run  above  the  fence, 
or  at  right  angles  with  the  top  of  it, 
pig.  7.— Dog  Guard.  as  shown  at  figure  7. 

Food. — There  is  no  better  food  for  sheep  than  good 
upland  hay,  composed  of  the  clover  and  nearly  all  the  cultivated 
grasses.  Bean  and  pea  straw  are  valuable,  and  especially  the 
former,  which,  if  properly  cured,  they  prefer  to  the  best  hay; 
—and  it  is  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  wool.  All  the 
other  straws  furnish  good  food,  and  sheep  will  thrive  on 
them  without  hay,  when  fed  with  roots  or  grain.  Roots  ought 
to  be  given  them  occasionally  for  a change,  and  especially  to 
the  ewes  after  lambing,  if  this  occur  before  putting  them  on  to 
fresh  pasture.  They  keep  the  stomach  properly  distended, 
the  appetite  and  general  health  good,  and  they  render  their 
winter  forage  nearly  equal  to  their  summer  feed.  Much  grain 
is  not  suited  to  store  sheep.  It  is  too  rich,  and  should  be 
given  sparingly  except  to  the  lambs,  the  old  ewes  or  feeble 
sheep,  or  to  restore  the  ram  after  hard  service.  For  the  above 
purposes,  oats  are  the  best;  and,  if  any  other  grain,  beans  and 
peas  are  given,  it  should  be  given  in  small  quantities.  When 
there  is  a deficiency  of  hay  and  roots,  grain  may  be  used  with 
straw.  But  the  flock  ought  to  be  so  fed  as  to  receive  the  same 
amount  of  nourishment  throughout  every  part  of  the  year.  The 
evenness  and  value  of  the  fleece  depends  much  upon  this. 
When  the  amount  of  nutrition  is  great,  the  wool  secreting 
organs  are  distended,  and  the  fibre  becomes  enlarged;  when 
fimitedy  they  necessarily  contract,  and  the  fibre  is  small,  This 


SHEEP. 


313 


produces  a want  of  trueness,  which  the  experienced  wool 
' stapler  readily  detects,  and  does  not  fail  to  estimate  against 
the  value  of  the  fleece.  Sheep  ought  to  have  a full  supply  of 
salt,  and,  if  accessible,  sulphur,  ashes,  tar  and  clay  would  fre- 
quently be  nibbled  by  them  when  their  stomach  required 
either.  Pine  and  hemlock  boughs  are  a good  substitute  for  tar, 
and  afford  a most  healthful  change  in  the  winter  food  of  sheep. 
Entire  cleanliness  and  dryness  are  also  essential  to  the  health 
of  the  flock.  The  smaller  sizes  of  sheep  may  be  well  sustained 
on  two  and  a half  pounds  of  hay,  but  larger  sheep  will  consume 
from  three  and  a half  to  four,  or  even  five,  pounds  per  day. 
Sheep,  like  all  other  animals,  when  exposed  to  cold,  will  con- 
sume much  more  than  if  well  protected,  or  than  during  a 
warmer  season. 

Summer  Management. — As  soon  as  warm  weather  ap- 
proaches and  the  grass  appears,  sheep  become  restive  and 
impatient  for  the  pasture.  This  instinct  should  be  repressed 
till  the  ground  has  become  thoroughly  dry;  and  the  grass  has 
acquired  substance.  They  ought,  moreover,  to  be  provided  for 
the  change  of  food,  by  the  daily  use  of  roots  for  a few  days 
before  turning  out.  It  would  also  check  the  tendency  to  exces- 
sive purging,  which  is  induced  by  the  first  spring  feed,  if  they 
were  housed  at  night,  and  fed  for  the  first  few  days  with  a little 
sound,  sweet  hay.  Or,  if  a well  grown  fall  pasture  be  left 
the  previous  fall,  we  have  found  it  equally  good,  as  the  sheep 
feed  off  the  old  grass,  and  the  young  herbage  springing  up 
through  it,  they  gradually  work  from  one  into  the  other,  and 
thus  get  on  to  their  summer  food  without  detriment.  They 
must  be  provided  with  pure  water,  salt,  etc.,  as  in  winter,  for 
though  they  may  sometimes  do  tolerably  well  without  either, 
yet  thrift  and  freedom  from  disease  are  cheaply  secured  by 
this  slight  attention.  Dry,  sweet  pastures,  and  such  as  abound 
in  aromatic  and  bitter  plants,  are  best  suited  for  sheep-walks. 
No  animal,  with  the  exception  of  the  goat,  crops  so  great  a 
variety  of  plants.  They  eat  many  which  are  rejected  by  the 
horse  and  the  ox,  and  which  are  eyen  essential  to  their  own 
wants.  In  this  respect  they  are  valuable  assistants  to  the 
husbandman,  as  they  feed  greedily  on  dry  mustard,  burdocks, 
thistles,  marsh-mallows,  milk-weed  and  various  other  offending 


314 


SHEEP. 


plants;  and  the  Merino  exceeds  the  more  recent  breeds  in 
the  variety  of  his  selections.  Many  prepare  artificial  pastures 
for  their  flocks.  This  may  be  done  with  a number  of  plants. 
Winter  rye,  or  wheat  sown  early  in  the  season,  may  be  fed  off 
in  the  fall  without  injury  to  the  crop;  and  in  the  following 
spring  the  rye  may  be  pastured  till  the  stalks  shoot  up  and 
begin  to  form  a head.  This  affords  an  early  and  nutritious  food. 
Corn  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  thickly  in  drills,  and  either 
fed  off  in  the  fields,  or  cut  and  carried  to  the  sheep  in  their 
folds.  An  experiment  made  with  white  mustard  for  feeding 
sheep,  shows  it  to  be  a valuable  crop  for  this  purpose.  Sheep 
love  a wide  range,  and,  when  sufficient  pasturage  is  afforded, 
which  always  should  be,  it  is  better  to  give  them  a steady  feed- 
ing than  to  often  change  from  dry  to  green,  flashy  food,  causing 
them  to  scour. 

Cutting  the  Hoofs. — As  the  hoofs  of  fine  wooled  sheep 
grow  rapidly,  turning  up  in  front  and  under  at  the  sides,  they 
must  be  clipped  as  often  as  once  a year,  or  they  become 
unsightly,  give  an  awkward,  hobbling  gait  to  the  animal,  and 
the  part  of  the  horn  which  turns  under  at  the  sides  holds  dirt 
or  dung  in  constant  contact  with  the  soles,  and  even  prevents  it 
from  being  readily  shaken  or  washed  out  of  the  cleft  of  the 
foot  in  the  natural  movement  of  the  sheep  about  the  pastures, 
as  would  take  place  were  the  hoof  in  its  proper  place.  This 
greatly  aggravates  the  hoof-ail,  and  renders  the  curing  of  it 
more  difficult;  and  it  is  thought  by  many  to  be  the  exciting 
cause  of  the  disease.  It  is  customary  to  clip  the  hoofs  at 
tagging,  or  at  or  soon  after  the  time  of  shearing. 

Washing. — Many  judicious  farmers  object  to  washing  sheep, 
on  account  of  its  tendency  to  produce  colds  and  catarrhal 
affections,  to  which  this  animal  is  particularly  subject;  but  it 
cannot  well  be  dispensed  with,  as  the  wool  is  always  rendered 
more  salable;  and,  if  the  operation  is  carefully  done,  it  need 
not  be  attended  with  injury. 

In  most  of  that  portion  of  the  United  States  lying  north  of 
forty  degrees,  the  washing  is  performed  from  the  middle  of 
May  till  the  first  of  June,  according  to  the  season  and  climate. 
When  the  streams  are  hard,  which  is  frequently  the  case  in 
limestone  regions,  it  is  better  to  attend  to  it  immediately  after 


SHEEP. 


315' 


an  abundant  rain,  which  proportionately  lessens  the  lime 
derived  from  the  springs.  The  climate  of  the  Southern  States 
would  admit  of  an  earlier  time.  The  rule  should  be  to  wait 
until  the  water  has  acquired  sufficient  warmth  for  bathing,  and 
until  cold  rains  and  storms  and  cold  nights  are  no  longer  to  be 
expected. 

The  practice  of  a large  majority  of  farmers  is  to  drive  their 
sheep  to  the  watering-ground  early  in  the  morning,  on  a warm 
day,  leaving  the  lambs  behind.  The  sheep  are  confined  on  the 
bank  of  the  stream  by  a temporary  enclosure,  from  which  they 
are  taken,  and,  if  not  too  heavy,  carried  into  water  sufficiently 
deep  to  prevent  their  touching  bottom.  They  are  then  washed 
by  gently  squeezing  the  fleece  with  the  hands,  after  which  they 
are  led  ashore,  and  as  much  of  the  water  pressed  out  as  possi- 
ble before  letting  them  go,  as  the  great  weight  retained  in  the 
wool  frequently  staggers  and  throws  them  down. 

By  the  best  flock-masters,  sheep  are  usually  washed  in  vats. 
A small  stream  is  dammed  up,  and  the  water  taken  from  it  in 
an  aqueduct,  formed  by  nailing  boards  together,  and  carried 
till  a sufficient  fall  is  obtained  to  have  it  pour  down  a couple 
of  feet  or  more  into  the  vat.  The  body  of  water,  to  do  the 


Washing  Apparatus. 


work  fast  and  well,  should  be  some  twenty-four  inches  wide, 
and  five  or  six  deep;  and  the  swifter  the  current  the  better. 
The  vat  should  be  some  three  and  a half  feet  deep,  and  large 
enough  for  four  sheep  to  swim  in  it.  A yard  is  built  near  the 
vat,  from  the  gate  of  which  a platform  extends  to  and  encloses 


316 


SHEEP. 


the  vat  on  three  sides.  This  keeps  the  washer  from  standing 
in  the  water,  and  makes  it  much  easier  to  lift  the  sheep  in  and 
out.  The  yard  is  built  opposite  the  corners  of  two  fields — to 
take  advantage  of  the  angle  of  one  of  them  to  drive  the  sheep 
more  readily  into  the  yard,  which  should  be  large  enough  to 
contain  the  entire  flock,  if  it  does  not  exceed  two  hundred; 
and  the  bottom  of  it,  as  well  as  the  smaller  yard,  unless  well 
sodded  over,  should  be  covered  with  coarse  gravel,  to  avoid 
becoming  muddy.  If  the  same  establishment  is  used  by  a 
number  of  flock-masters,  gravelling  will  always  be  necessary. 

As  soon  as  the  flocks  are  confined  in  the  middle  yard,  the 
lambs  are  all  immediately  caught  out  from  among  them,  and 
set  over  the  fence  into  the  yard  to  the  left,  to  prevent  their 
being  trampled  down,  as  often  happens,  by  the  old  sheep,  or 
straying  off,  if  let  loose.  As  many  sheep  are  then  driven  out 
of  the  middle  yard  into  the  smaller  yard  to  the  right,  as  it  will 
conveniently  hold.  A boy  stands  by  the  gate  next  to  the  vat, 
to  open  and  shut  it,  or  the  gate  is  drawn  together  with  a chain 
and  weight,  and  two  men,  catching  the  sheep,  commence  plac- 
ing them  in  the  water  for  the  process  of  “wetting.”  As  soon 
as  the  water  strikes  through  the  wool,  which  occupies  but  an 
instant,  the  sheep  is  lifted  out  and  let  loose.  Where  there  are 
conveniences  for  so  doing,  this  process  may  be  more  readily 
performed  by  driving  them  through  a stream  deep  enough  to 
compel  the  sheep  to  swim;  but  swimming  the  compact-fleeced, 
fine-woolled  sheep  for  any  length  of  time — as  is  practiced  with 
the  long- wools  in  England — will  not  properly  cleanse  the  wool 
for  steaming.  The  vat  should,  of  course,  be  in  an  inclosed  field, 
to  prevent  their  escape.  The  whole  flock  should  thus  be 
passed  over,  and  again  driven  round  the  field  into  the  middle 
yard,  where  they  should  stand  for  about  an  hour  before  wash- 
ing commences. 

There  is  a large  per  centage  of  potash  in  the  wool  oil, 
which  acts  upon  the  dirt  independent  of  the  favorable  effect 
which  would  result  from  thus  soaking  it  with  water  alone  for 
sometime.  If  washed  soon  after  a good  shower,  previous  wet- 
ting might  be  dispensed  with;  and  it  is  not,  perhaps,  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  any  case.  If  the  water  is  warm  enough  to 
allow  the  sheep  to  remain  in  it  for  the  requisite  period,  they 


SHEEP. 


317 


may  be  got  clean  by  washing  without  any  previous  wetting; 
though  the  snowy  whiteness  of  fleece,  which  has  such  an  influ- 
ence on  the  purchaser,  is  not  so  often  nor  so  perfectly  attained 
in  the  latter  way.  But  little  time  is  saved  by  dispensing  with 
“wetting,”  as  it  takes  proportionably  longer  to  wash,  and  it  is 
not  so  well  for  the  sheep  to  be  kept  so  long  in  the  water  at 
once. 

When  the  washing  commences,  two,  and  sometimes  four, 
*heep  are  plunged  in  the  vat.  When  four  are  put  in,  two  soak 
while  two  are  washed.  This  should  not,  however,  be  done, 
unless  the  water  is  very  warm,  and  the  washers  are  uncom- 
monly quick  and  expert:  and  it  is,  upon  the  whole,  rather  an 
objectionable  practice,  since  few  animals  suffer  so  much  from 
the  effects  of  a chill  as  the  sheep;  and,  if  they  have  been  pre- 
viously wetted,  it  is  wholly  unnecessary.  When  the  sheep  are 
in  the  water,  the  two  washers  commence  kneading  the  wool 
with  their  hands  about  the  dirtier  parts — the  breech,  belly,  etc, 
— and  they  continue  to  turn  the  sheep  so  that  the  descending 
current  of  water  can  strike  into  all  parts  of  the  fleece. 

As  soon  as  the  sheep  are  clean,  which  may  be  known  by  the 
water  running  entirely  clear,  each  washer  seizes  his  own  ani- 
mal by  the  foreparts,  plunges  it  deep  in  the  vats,  and,  taking 
advantage  of  the  rebound,  lifts  it  out,  setting  it  gently  down  on 
its  breech  upon  the  platform.  He  then — if  the  sheep  is  old 
and  weak,  and  it  is  well  in  all  cases — presses,  out  some  of  the 
water  from  the  wool,  and,  after  submitting  the  sheep  to  a pro- 
cess presently  to  be  mentioned,  lets  it  go. 

There  should  be  no  mud  about  the  vat,  the  earth  not  cov- 
ered with  sod,  being  gravelled.  Sheep  should  be  kept  on  clean 
pastures,  from  washing  to  shearing — not  where  they  can  come 
in  contact  with  the  ground,  burnt  logs,  and  the  like — and  they 
should  not  be  driven  over  dusty  roads.  The  washers  should 
be  strong  and  capable  men,  and,  protected  as  they  are  from 
anything  but  the  water  running  over  the  sides  of  the  vat,  they 
-can  labor  several  hours  without  inconvenience.  Two  hundred 
sheep  will  employ  two  experienced  men  not  over  half  a day, 
and  this  rate  is  at  times  much  exceeded. 

It  is  a great  object,  not  only  as  a matter  of  propriety  and 
honesty,  but  even  as  an  item  of  profit,  to  get  the  wool  clean, 


318 


SHEEP. 


and  of  a snowy  whiteness,  in  which  condition  it  will  always  sell 
for  more  than  enough  extra  to  offset  the  increased  labor  and  the 
diminution  in  weight.  The  average  loss  in  American  Saxon 
wool  in  scouring,  after  being  washed  on  the  back,  is  estimated 
at  thirty-six  per  cent.;  and  in  American  Merino  forty-two  and 
a half  per  cent 

Shearing. — The  time  which  should  elapse  between  washing 
and  shearing  depends  altogether  on  circumstances.  From  four 
to  six  days  of  bright,  warm  weather  is  sufficient;  if  cold,  or 
rainy,  or  cloudy,  more  time  must  intervene.  Sometimes  the 
wool  remains  in  a condition  unfit  for  shearing  for  a fortnight 
after  washing.  The  rule  to  be  observed  is  that  the  water 
should  be  thoroughly  dried  out,  and  the  natural  oil  of  the  wool 
should  so  far  exude  as  to  give  the  wool  an  unctious  feeling, 
and  a lively,  glittering  look.  If  it  is  sheared  when  dry,  like 
cotton,  and  before  the  oil  has  exuded,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
thrust  the  shears  through,  the  umer  is  checked,  and  the  wool 
will  not  keep  so  well  for  long  periods.  If  it  is  left  until  it  gels 
too  oily,  either  the  manufacturer  is  cheated,  or,  what  more  fre- 
quently happens,  the  owner  loses  on  the  price. 

Shearing,  in  this  country,  is  always  done  on  the  threshing- 
floors  of  the  barns — sometimes  on  low  platforms,  some  eighteen 
or  twenty  inches  high,  but  more  commonly  on  the  floor  itself. 
The  place  where  the  sheep  remain  should  be  well  littered  down 
with  straw,  and  fresh  straw  thrown  on  occasionally,  to  keep  the 
sheep  clean  while  shearing.  No  chaff  or  other  substance  which 
will  stick  in  the  wool  should  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The 
shearing  should  not  commence  until  the  dew,  if  any,  has  dried 
off  from  the  sheep.  All  loose  straws  sticking  to  the  wool 
should  be  picked  off,  and  whatever  dung  may  adhere  to  any  of 
the  feet  brushed  off.  The  floor  or  tables  used  should  be 
planed  or  worn  perfectly  smooth,  so  that  they  will  not  hold  dirt, 
or  catch  the  wool.  They  should  all  be  thoroughly  cleaned, 
and,  if  necessary,  washed,  preparatory  to  the  process.  If  there 
are  any  sheep  in  the  pen  dirty  from  purging,  or  other  causes, 
they  should  first  be  caught  out,  to  prevent  them  from  contam- 
inating others. 

The  manner  of  shearing  varies  with  almost  every  district; 
and  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  give  intelligible  practical 


SHEEP. 


319 


instructions,  which  would  guide  an  entire  novice  in  skillfully 
shearing  a sheep.  Practice  is  requisite.  The  following  direc- 
tions are  as  plain,  perhaps,  as  can  be  made: 

The  shearer  may  place  the  sheep  on  that  part  of  the  floor 
assigned  to  him,  resting  on  its  rump,  and  himself  in  a posture 
with  his  right  knee  on  a cushion,  and  the  back  of  the  animal 
resting  against  his  left  thigh.  He  grasps  the  shears  about  half 
way  from  the  point  to  the  bow,  resting  his  thumb  along  the 
blades,  which  gives  him  better  command  of  the  points.  He 
may  then  commence  cutting  the  wool  at  the  brisket,  and,  pro- 
ceeding downward,  all  upon  the  sides  of  the  belly  to  the 
extremity  of  the  ribs,  the  external  sides  of  both  sides  to  the 
edges  of  the  flanks;  then  back  to  the  brisket,  and  thence 
upward,  shearing  the  wool  from  the  brisket,  front,  and  both 
sides  of  the  neck,  but  not  yet  the  back  of 'it,  and  also  the  poll, 
or  forepart,  and  top  of  the  head.  Then  “the  jacket  is  opened” 
of  the  sheep,  and  its  position,  as  well  as  that  of  the  shearer,  is 
changed  by  the  animal’s  being  turned  flat  upon  its  side,  one 
knee  of  the  shearer  resting  on  the  cushion,  and  the  other  gently 
pressing  the  fore-quarter  of  the  animal,  to  prevent  any  strug- 
gling. He  then  resumes  cutting  upon  the  flank  and  rump,  and 
thence  onward  to  the  head.  Thus  one  side  is  complete.  The 
sheep  is  then  turned  on  the  other  side — in  doing  which  great 
care  is  requisite  to  prevent  the  fleeces  being  torn — and  the 
shearer  proceeds  as  upon  the  other,  which  finishes.  He  must 
then  take  the  sheep  near  to  the  door  through  which  it  is  to  pass 
out,  and  neatly  trim  the  legs,  leaving  not  a solitary  lock  any- 
where as  a lodging  place  for  ticks.  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  him  to  remove  from  his  stand  to  trim,  otherwise  the  useless 
stuff  from  the  legs  becomes  intermingled  with  the  fleece  wool. 
In  the  use  of  the  shears,  the  blades  should  be  laid  as  flat  to  the 
skin  as  possible,  the  points  not  lowered  too  much,  nor  should 
more  than  from  one  to  two  inches  be  cut  at  a clip,  and  fre- 
quently not  so  much,  depending  on  the  part,  and  the  compact- 
ness of  the  wool. 

Good  shearers  will  shear,  on  the  average,  twenty-five 
Merinos  per  day;  but  a new  beginner  should  not  attempt  to 
exceed  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  that  number.  It  is  the 
last  process  in  the  world  which  should  be  hurried,  as  the 


320 


SHEEP. 


shearer  will,  in  that  case,  soon  leave  more  than  enough  wool  on 
his  sheep  to  pay  for  his  day’s  wages.  Wool  ought  not  to  be 
sheared,  and  must  not  be  done  up,  with  any  water  in  it.  If 
wounds  are  made,  as  sometimes  happen  with  unskillful  opera- 
tors, a mixture  of  tar  and  grease  ought  to  be  applied. 

Cold  Storms. — These  occurring  soon  after  shearing  some- 
times destroy  sheep,  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  country, 
especially  the  delicate  Saxons;  forty  or  fifty  of  which  have,  at 
times,  perished  out  of  a single  flock,  from  one  night’s  exposure. 
Sheep,  in  such  cases,  should  be  housed;  or,  where  this  is  im- 
practicable, driven  into  dense  forests. 

Sun-Scald.  — When  they  are  sheared  close  in  very  hot 
weather,  have  no  shade  in  their  pastures,  and  especially  where 
they  are  driven  immediately  considerable  distances,  or  rapidly, 
over  burning  and  dusty  roads,  their  backs  are  sometimes  so 
scorched  by  the  sun  that  their  wool  comes  off.  If  let  alone, 
the  matter  is  not  a serious  one;  but  the  application  of  refuse 
lard  to  the  back  will  hasten  the  cure,  and  the  starting  of  the 
wool. 

Ticks. — These  vermin,  when  very  numerous,  greatly  annoy 
and  enfeeble  the  sheep  in  winter,  and  should  be  kept  entirely 
out  of  the  flock.  The  draft  upon 
the  vitality  of  lambs  infested 
with  ticks  is  very  great,  and  suf- 
ficient to  arrest  their  growth 
altogether.  To  rid  the  flock  of 
these  pests  is  therefore  a neces- 
sary labor  in  the  spring  or  early 
summer,  and,  if  need  be,  again 
in  the  autumn.  The  easiest 
remedy  is  to  dip  both  sheep  and 
lambs,  as  soon  as  the  sheep  are  Fig-  8-— 1 Sheep-Tick  and  Pupa. 

shorn,  and  again  in  August  or  September,  in  a decoction  of 
tobacco  mixed  with  sulphur.  Coarse  plug  tobacco,  or  tobacco 
stems,  which  are  cheaper  than  the  leaves,  and  equally  effective, 
are  steeped  in  water  at  a boiling  heat,  but  not  boiling, 
at  the  rate  of  four  pounds  to  twenty  gallons  of  water.  One 
pound  of  flowers  of  sulphur  is  then  stirred  in  the  liquid, 
which  is  brought  to  a temperature  of  120  degrees,  and  kept  so 


SHEEP. 


321 


during  the  dipping  by  the  addition  of  fresh  hot  liquor.  During 
the  dipping,  the  mixture  is  kept  stirred  ^ prevent  the  sulphur 


Fig.  9.— Dipping  Sheep. 


from  subsiding.  The  dip  may  be  conveniently  placed  in  a 
trough  or  a tub  large  enough  to  allow  of  the  immersion  of  the 
sheep  or  the  lamb,  which  is  taken  by  the  feet  by  two  men  and 
plunged  into  the  bath  at  the  temperature  mentioned,  where  it 
is  held  for  a minute  or  two  until  the  wool  is.  thoroughly  satur- 
ated. The  animal  is  then  placed  in  a pen  with  a raised  floor 
sloping  on  each  side  to  a trough  in  the  middle,  along  which  the 
superabundant  liquor  escapes  into  a pail  or  a tub  placed  to 
receive  it.  The  method  of  dipping  (shown  at  figures  9 and 
10),  is  calculated  for  small  flocks,  or  for  a few  hundred  lambs. 
For  larger  flocks,  a larger  tank  is  provided,  12  feet  long,  three 
feet  wide,  and  four  feet  deep.  A fenced  platform  leads  from 
a pen  in  which  the  sheep  are  gathered,  up  to  the  edge  of 
the  dipping  tank,  and  the  sheep  are  taken  one  by  one  from 
the  pen,  led  up  the  platform,  and  pushed  into  the  tank 
in  which  the  dip  is  sufficiently  deep  to  cover  them.  As 
the  sheep  plunge  into  the  dip,  they  are  seized  and  kept 
beneath  it,  except  the  head,  which  alone  is  suffered  to  emerge 
above  it.  If,  in  their  struggles,  a little  of  the  dip  enters  their 
nostrils,  no  harm  results,  but  the  hot  tobacco  water  is,  on  the 
contrary,  often  beneficial  to  those  sheep  which  are  affected  by 
18 


322 


SHEEP. 


catarrh  or  grub  in  the  head,  and  the  violent  sneezings  which 
follow  may  help  to  free  their  from  these  troublesome  parasites 
which  often  inhabit  the  nasal  sinuses.  The  sheep  are  rapidly 
passed  from  hand  to 
hand  along  the  tank  un- 
til they  reach  the  end, 
where  there  is  a sloping 
plank  upon  which  they 
can  walk  up  to  another 
platform.  Here  they 
are  allowed  to  remain 
while  the  excess  of  dip 
is  squeezed  from  their 
wool.  From  this  the 
liquid  drains  into  tubs,  Fig-  10.— Trough  for  Dipping  Lambs. 

and  is  carried  to  the  boiler  to  be  reheated,  and  then  returned 
to  the  tank  for  use  again.  The  cost  of  dipping  a large  flock, 
numbering  several  thousands,  in  this  manner  twice  in  the  sea- 
son, is  five  cents  a head,  and  the  improvement  in  the  quality  of 
the  wool,  which  results  from  the  cWnsing  of  the  skin  from 
dust,  grease,  and  the  accumulated  refuse  of  its  secretions,  and 
its  increase  in  quantity,  consequent  upon  the  greater  comfort 
of  the  sheep,  and  their  escape  from  the  persecution  of  ticks 
and  other  parasites,  is  estimated  at  20  cents  per  head,  so  that 
the  cost  is  repaid  more  than  three-fold.  The  comforting 
knowledge  to  the  humane  shepherd  that  his  flock  is  freed  from 
a most  annoying  torment,  is  also  something,  which,  although  it 
does  not  enter  into  a pecuniary  calculation,  and  is  not  meas- 
ured by  dollars  and  cents,  yet  is  not  on  that  account  unworthy 
of  consideration. 

Marking  or  Branding. — The  sheep  should  be  marked  soon 
after  shearing,  or  mistakes  may  occur.  Every  sheep-owner 
should  be  provided  with  a marking  instrument,  which  will 
stamp  his  initials,  or  some  other  distinctive  mark,  such  as  a 
small  circle,  an  oval,  a triangle,  or  a square,  at  a single  stroke, 
and  with  uniformity,  on  the  sheep.  It  is  customary  to  have 
the  mark  cut  out  of  a plate  of  thin  iron,  with  an  iron  handle 
terminating  in  wood;  but  one  made  by  cutting  a type,  or  raised 


SHEEP. 


323 


letter,  or  character,  on  the  end  of  a stick  of  light  wood,  such 
as  pine  or  basswood,  is  found  to  be  better. 

Various  pigments  are  used  for  marking.  Many  boil  tar 
until  it  assumes  a glazed,  hard  consistency  when  cold,  and 
give  it  a brilliant,  black  color  by  stirring  in  a little  lamp-black 
during  the  boiling.  This  is  applied  when  just  cold  enough  not. 
to  burn  the  sheep’s  hide,  and  it  forms  a bright  conspicuous 
mark  all  the  year  round.  The  manufacturer,  however,  prefers 
the  substitution  of  oil  and  turpentine  for  tar,  as  the  latter  is 
cleansed  out  of  the  wool  with  some  difficulty.  It  should  be 
boiled  in  an  iron  vessel,  with  high  sides,  to  prevent  it  from 
taking  fire,  on  a small  furnace  or  chafing-dish  near  which  it  is 
to  be  used.  When  cool  enough,  forty  or  fifty  sheep  can  be 
marked  before  it  gets  too  stiff.  It  is  then  warmed  from  time 
to  time,  as  necessary,  on  the  chafing-dish. 

Maggots. — Rams  with  horns  growing  closely  to  their  heads 
are  very  liable  to  have  maggots  generated  under  them,  particu- 
larly if  the  skin  on  the  surrounding  parts  becomes  broken  by 
fighting;  and  these,  unless  removed,  soon  destroy  the  animal. 
Boiled  tar,  or  the  marking  substance  first  described,  is  both 
remedy  and  preventive.  If  it  is  put  under  the  horns  at  the 
time  of  marking,  no  trouble  will  ever  arise  from  this  cause. 

Sometimes  when  a sheep  scours  in  warm  weather,  and  clot- 
ted dung  adheres  about  the  anus,  maggots  are  generated  under 
it,  and  the  sheep  perishes  miserably.  As  a preventive,  the 
dung  should  be  removed;  as  a remedy,  the  dung  and  maggots 
should  be  removed — the  latter  by  touching  them  with  a little 
turpentine,  and  sulphur  and  grease  afterward  applied  to  tne 
excoriated  surface. 

Shortening  the  Horns.— A convolution  of  the  horn  of  a 
ram  sometimes  so  presses  in  upon  the  side  of  the  head  or  neck 
that  it  is  necessary  to  shave  or  rasp  it  away  on  the  under  side, 
to  prevent  ultimately  fatal  results.  The  points  of  the  horns  of 
both  ram  and  ewe  frequently  turn  in  so  that  they  will  grow 
into  the  flesh,  and  sometimes  into  the  eye,  unless  shortened. 
The  toe-nippers  will  often  suffice  on  the  thin  extremity  of  a 
horn;  if  not,  a fine  saw  must  be  used.  The  marking-time 
affords  the  best  opportunity  for  attending  to  this  operation. 


324 


SHEEP. 


DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 

Administering  Medicine.— -The  stomach  into  which  medi- 
cines are  to  be  administered  is  the  fourth  or  digesting  stom- 
ach. The  comparatively  insensible  walls  of  the  rumen,  or 
paunch,  are  but  slightly  acted  upon,  except  by  doses  of  very 
improper  magnitude  Medicine,  to  reach  the  fourth  stomach, 
should  be  given  in  a state  as  nearly  approaching  fluidity  as  may 
be.  Even  then  it  may  be  given  in  such  a manner  as  to  defeat 
the  object  in  view. 

If  the  animal  forcibly  gulps  fluids  down,  or  if  they  are  given 
hastily  and  bodily,  they  will  follow  the  caul  at  the  base  of  the 
gullet  with  considerable  momentum,  force  asunder  the  pillars, 
and  enter  the  rumen;-  if  they  are  drunk  more  slowly,  or  admin- 
istered gently,  they  will  trickle  down  the  throat,  glide  over 
these  pillars,  and  pass  on  through  the  maniplus  to  the  true 
stomach. 

Bleeding. — Bleeding  from  the  ears  or  tail,  as  is  commonly 
practiced,  rarely  extracts  a quantity  of  blood  sufficient  to  do 
any  good  where  bleeding  is  indicated.  To  bleed  from  the  eye- 
vein,  the  point  of  the  knife  is  usually  inserted  near  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  pouch  below  the  eye,  pressed  down,  and  then 
a cut  made  inward  toward  the  middle  of  the  face. 

Bleeding  from  the  angular  or  cheek  vein  is  recommended 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  cheek,  at  the  spot  where  the  root  of 
the  fourth  toot!  is  placed,  which  is  the  thickest  part  of  the 
cheek,  and  is  marked  on  the  external  surface  of  the  bone  of 
the  upper  jaw,  by  a tubercle,  sufficiently  prominent  to  be  very 
sensible  to  the  finger  when  the  skin  of  the  cheek  is  touched. 
This  tubercle  is  a certain  index  to  the  angular  vein,  which  is 
placed  below.  The  shepherd  takes  the  sheep  between  his  legs; 
his  left  hand  more  advanced  than  his  right,  which  he  places 
under  the  head,  and  grasps  the  under  jaw  near  to  the  hinder 
extremity,  in  order  to  press  the  angular  vein,  which  passes  in 
that  place,  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  swell;  he  touches  the 
right  cheek  at  the  spot  nearly  equidistant  from  the  eye  and 
mouth,  and  there  finds  the  tubercle  which  is  to  guide  him,  and 
also  feels  the  angular  vein  swelled  below  this  tubercle;  he  then 
makes  the  incision  from  below  upward,  half  a finger’s  breadth 
below  the  middle  of  the  tubercle.  When  the  vein  is  no  longer 
pressed  upon  the  bleeding  will  commonly  cease;  if  not,  a pin 
may  be  passed  through  the  lips  of  the  orifice  and  a lock  of 
wool  tied  around  them. 

For  thorough  bleeding,  the  jugular  vein  is  greatly  to  be  pre- 
ferred. The  sheep  should  be  firmly  held  by  the  head  by  an 
assistant,  and  the  body  confined  between  his  knees,  with  it? 
ramp  against  a wall.  Some  of  the  wool  is  then  cut  away  fron 


SHEEP. 


325 


the  middle  ot  the  neck  over  the  jugular  vein,  and  a ligature, 
brought  in  contact  with  the  neck  by  opening  the  wool,  is  tied 
around  it  below  the  shorn  spot  near  the  shoulder.  The  vein 
will  soon  rise.  The  orifice  may  be  secured,  after  bleeding,  as 
before  described. 

The  good  effects  of  bleeding  depend  almost  as  much  on 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  blood  is  abstracted  as  to  the 
amount  taken.  This  is  especially  true  in  acute  diseases.  Either 
bleed  rapidly  or  do  not  bleed  at  all.  The  orifice  in  the  vein, 
therefore,  should  be  of  some  length,  and  made  lengthwise  with 
the  vein.  A lancet  is  by  far  the  best  implement;  and  even  a 
sharp-pointed  penknife  is  preferable  to  the  bungling  gleam. 
Bleeding,  moreover,  should  always  be  resorted  to,  when  it  is 
indicated  at  all,  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  commencement  of 
the  malady. 

The  amount  of  blood  drawn  should  never  be  betermined 
by  admeasurement,  but  by  constitutional  effect — the  lowering 
of  the  pulse,  and  indications  of  weakness.  In  urgent  cases — 
apoplexy,  or  cerebral  inflammation,  for  example — it  would  be 
proper  to  bleed  until  the  sheep  staggers  or  falls.  The  quan- 
tity of  blood  in  the  sheep  is  less,  in  comparison,  than  that  in 
the  horse  or  ox.  The  blood  of  the  horse  constitutes  about  one 
eighteenth  part  of  his  weight;  and  that  of  the  ox  at  least  one- 
twentieth;  while  that  of  the  sheep,  in  ordinary  condition,  is 
one-twenty-second.  For  this  reason,  more  caution  should  be 
exercised  in  bleeding  the  latter,  especially  in  frequently  resort- 
ing to  it;  otherwise,  the  vital  powers  will  be  rapidly  and  fatally 
prostrated.  Many  a sheep  has  been  destroyed  by  bleeding 
freely  in  disorders  not  requiring  it,  and  in  disorders  which  did 
require  it  at  the  commencement,  but  of  which  the  inflamma- 
tory stage  had  passed. 

Rot,  or  Hydatids  in  the  Liver. — This  parasite,  which  affects 
the  liver  of  sheep,  is  known  as  the  fluke,  and  is  usually  found 
in  the  biliary  ducts.  Rot,  in  its  advanced  stage,  is  a disease  of 
a very  formidable  character,  and  its  associations,  closely  re- 
semble dropsy.  A serous  fluid  accumulates  beneath  the  skin, 
hence  some  people  call  it  the  water  rot. 

Causes. — Wet  pastures,  and  exposure  to  storms  and  changes 
of  weather,  with  innutritious  diet,  are  the  exciting  causes  of 

this  malady. 

Treatment. — If  flukes  are  present,  it  is  evident  that  in 
order  to  strike  at  the  root  of  the  malady  we  must  get  rid  of 
them,  which  can  only  be  effected  by  bringing  about  a healthy 
condition  of  the  system.  Nothing  that  can  be  done  by  the  ap- 
plication of  medicine  will  act  on  them  to  affect  their  vitality. 
It  is  only  by  strengthening  the  animal  powers  that  we  are  en~ 


326 


SHEEP. 


abled  to  give  sufficient  tone  to  the  system  to  throw  off  the 
flukes.  For  that  purpose  many  advocate  salt.  Salt  is  an  ex- 
cellent stimulative  to  the  digestive  organs,  and  may  also  be  of 
service  in  restoring  the  biliary  secretion,  from  the  soda  which 
it  contains.  So  well  is  its  stimulative  action  known,  that  some 
individuals  always  keep  salt  in  the  troughs  containing  animals’ 
food.  That  this  is  a preventive  they  have  good  proof,  seeing 
that  it  matters  not  how  much  the  soil  might  be  in  salt  marshes, 
no  sheep  are  ever  attacked  by  rot  in  them,  while  those  sent 
there  infected  very  often  come  back  free.  Salt,  therefore,  must 
not  be  neglected.  But  then  comes  the  question,  can  they  not 
do  something  more?  They  can.  They  must  throw  tonics  into 
the  system,  especially  those  that  are  obtained  in  the  mineral 
kingdom.  The  sulphate  of  iron  (iron  is  found  in  animal  mat- 
ter)  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  blood,  and,  used  in  the 
form  of  sulphate,  it  gives  a greater  tone  and  energy  to  the 
frame  than  in  any  other  form.  Its  use,  therefore,  ought  never 
to  be  neglected  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease. 

Yellows. — This  term  is  used  by  shepherds  to  designate  dis- 
ease of  the  liver. 

Symptoms. — The  affected  animal  has  a peculiar  languid 
appearance,  frequently  shaking  the  head,  as  if  parasites  were  in 
the  nostrils;  the  head  is  pressed  against  any  elevated  ground, 
sometimes  against  the  fence  or  a post;  the  animal  moves  lazily 
along,  with  its  nose  almost  touching  the  ground;  the  mem- 
branes of  the  eyes  and  nose  have  a yellow  tinge;  the  same  is 
true  of  the  skin;  a marked  yellowness  is  observed  on  the  inside 
of  the  thigs  and  anus.  As  the  disease  advances,  these  morbid 
appearances  are  augmented.  The  patient  grates  its  teeth; 
stands  with  the  head  pendulous,  almost  touching  the  ground; 
then  soon  falls,  and  dies  without  a struggle. 

The  autopsy  reveals  the  following:  The  liver  has  a mottled 
appearance,  and  its  structure  is  easily  broken  down;  the  gall- 
bladder is  usually  full  of  dark-colored,  tarry-looking  bile;  kid- 
neys, stomach,  and  intestines,  tolerably  healthy.  Should  any 
urine  be  found  in  the  bladder,  it  will  be  of  a dark  color.  The 
heart  is  pale  and  flabby;  the  lungs,  healthy,  yet  the  chest  usu- 
ally contains  a quart  or  more  of  dark-colored  serum.  On  re- 
moving the  skin,  the  surface  of  the  body  is  yellow  (jaundiced). 

Treatment. — Remove  the  diseased  animals  from  the  flock 
and  put  them  in  a dry  shed.  Then  prepare  the  following: 

1 pound  of  fluid  extract  of  leptandra  (Culver’s  root). 

6 ounces  of  powdered  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

1 quart  of  water. 

Dissolve  the  soda  in  the  water,  then  add  the  leptandrin. 
Dose,  one  ounce  (fluid)  twice  daily.  Let  the  affected  animals 
have  salt;  grass  should  also  be  cut  and  placed  before  them. 


SHEEP. 


327 


Vertigo,  or  Giddiness. — Vertigo,  or  giddiness,  is  a disease 
of  the  nervous  system,  occasioned  most  frequently  by  a para- 
site located  in  the  brain.  The  parasite  is  named  caenarus  cere- 
bralis,  and  belongs  to  the  species  know  as  the  hydatids.  Lambs 
from  the  age  of  two  months,  or  from  four  to  twelve  months, 
are,  when  predisposed,  apt  to  become  the  subject  of  it.  The 
disease  is  very  apt  to  end  in  organic  disease  of  the  brain  and 
spinal  marrow. 

The  disease  is  of  hereditary  origin,  and  comes  from  faults 
or  defects  in  one  or  both  parents,  and  also  from  the  too  early 
practice  of  breeding,  which  often  obtains  in  some  sections  of 
country.  In  order  to  guard  against  the  disease,  we  must  put 
out  of  the  breeding  fold  both  males  and  females  that  have 
shown  any  signs  of  the  disorder,  and  not  breed  from  the  ewes 
under  the  age  of  thirty  months,  nor  from  rams  until  they  have 
attained  their  second  year. 

Treatment. — In  the  treatment  of  the  disease,  our  object 
is  to  give  tone  to  the  system,  and  saturate  the  blood  with  some 
agent  (sulphur)  which  is  known  to  be  obnoxious  to  parasites 
in  general.  Take 

1 pound  of  sulphur. 

6 ounces  of  powdered  sulphate  of  iron. 

1 pound  of  powdered  poplar  bark. 

Let  this  be  thoroughly  mixed,  place  it  in  a stoppered  bot- 
tle, and  keep  it  in  a dark  place.  Mix  a tablespoonful  daily  in 
bran,  and  place  it  in  the  feed  trough,  or  mix  it  in  a table- 
spoonful of  syrup,  and  administer  it  by  means  of  an  iron  spoon. 

Some  persons  contend  that  turnips,  when  fed  to  sheep,  are 
apt  to  produce  hydatids. 

Foot  Rot. — Causes. — General  debility,  exposure  in  wet  pas- 
tures, contagion,  foul  habit  of  body. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  is  observed  to  limp  on  one  or 
both  of  the  fore  or  hind  legs.  Sometimes  the  whole  four  are 
affected.  The  parts  are  hot,  tender,  and  swollen,  and  exude  a 
fetid  fluid.  The  animal  is  now  incapable  of  walking,  and,  if 
not  speedily  relieved,  death  ensues.  The  form  of  rot  is  con- 
tagious, so  that,  if  the  diseased  are  not  separated  from  the 
healthy,  the  latter  soon  become  infected.  To  propagate  malig- 
nant rot,  it  is  quite  sufficient  that  a flock  should  pass  over  a 
place  which  has  a little  before  been  walked  over  by  a diseased 
sheep. 

Treatment. — Endeavor  to  ascertain  the  exciting  cause, 
and,  if  possible,  remove  it.  If  the  disease  has  assumed  a putrid 
type,  the  superfluous  horn  may  be  removed.  The  parts  are 
then  to  be  washed  with 

4 ounces  of  pyroligneous  acid. 

3 ounces  of  water.  Mix. 


SHEEP. 


A piece  of  lint  is  afterward  to  be  saturated  with  the  above, 
and  applied  as- a dressing,  and  changed  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire. 

The  local  remedy  will  avail  but  little  unless  we  sustain  the 
living  powers,  and  thus  improve  the  secretions.  Our  usual 
remedies  are: 

1 ounce  of  powdered  golden  seal. 

*4  ounce  of  powdered  sulphur. 

1 ounce  of  powdered  charcoal. 

1 ounce  of  powdered  sassafras. 

2 drachms  of  powdered  assafcetida. 

2 pounds  of  flaxseed. 

Mix,  and  give  a tablespoonful  twice  a day  in  the  food. 

Supposing  a number  of  animals  to  be  affected,  it  would 
occupy  too  much  time  to  treat  them  singly;  hence,  let  them  be 
made  to  walk  slowly,  or  linger  for  some  time  in  a wooden 
trough,  the  floor  of  which  may  be  covered,  to  the  depth  of 
one  inch,  with  the  following: 

2 pints  of  linseed  oil. 

4 pints  of  pyroligneous  acid. 

1 pint  of  kerosene. 

JLn  the  above,  proportions,  the  required  quantity  may  be 
prepared. 

Grubs  in  the  hiostrils. — Grubs  in  the  nostrils  are  occasioned 
by  the  gadfly,  which  deposits  her  ova  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep. 
After  a short  time  the  ova  bring  forth  parasites  in  the  larvaeal 
state;  the  latter  migrate  within  the  interior  of  the  nostrils, 
causing  the  sheep  much  pain  and  annoyance.  When  the  larvae 
are  capable  of  exercising  an  independent  existence,  they 
undergo  the  same  evolution  which  obtains  in  the  case  of  the 
bot  parasite;  namely,  they  burrow  into  the  earth,  and  finally 
become  metamorphosed  into  the  gadfly. 

It  seems  that  the  gadfly  selects  its  subjects,  and  the  weakest 
and  the  most  unpromising  of  the  flock  are  usually  its  victims; 
hence  close  attention  to  the  requirements  and  condition  of  a 
flock  may,  to  a certain  extent,  act  as  a preventive.  Some 
farmers,  in  view  of  preventing  the  gadfly,  smear  the  nose  of 
their  sheep  with  common  tar.  Others  plow  up  a piece  of  land 
where  sheep  are  pastured,  into  which  they  thrust  their  noses, 
and  then,  for  the  time  being,  they  baffle  the  gadfly.  It  is  hardly 
good  policy  to  attempt,  either  by  mechanical  or  medicinal 
means,  to  dislodge  the  parasites;  for  the  remedy  might  be 
worse  than  the  disease.  When  the  ova  have  arrived  at  maturity, 
the  sheep  themselves  aid  in  the  dislodgement  with  acts  of 
snorting,  sneezing,  and  coughing.  I 

Inflammation  of  the  Eye. — Inflammation  of  the  eye  is  very 
rapidly  detected  by  an  acute  redness  which  pervades  the  lining 
membranes  of  the  eyelids  and  that  which  affords  a partial 


SHEEP. 


329 


covering  to  the  eyeball.  The  afflicted  animal  keeps  the  eye- 
lids partly  closed;  an  effusion  of  tears  runs  over  the  lower 
angle  of  the  eye;  there  is  intolerance  to  light,  and  the  animal 
appears  to  suffer  considerable  pain. 

Treatment. — Separate  the  patient  from  the  flock,  and 
bathe  the  eye  occasionally  with  the  following  lotion: 

1 ounce  of  sugar  of  milk. 

1 drachm  of  fluid  extract  of  hops. 

6 ounces  of  rain  water.  Mix. 

Should  the  disease  run  on  to  cataract,  the  sight  cannot  be 
restored. 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. — Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is 
usually  the  result  of  exposure;  or,  it  may  arise  in  consequence 
of  herding  too  many  sheep  together;  sometimes  it  makes  its 
appearance  without  any  perceptible  cause.  An  impure  atmos- 
phere, however,  may  be  set  down  as  the  ordinary  exciting 
cause  of  this  malady. 

Treatment. — Place  upon  the  tongue  ten  drops  of  fluid 
extract  of  gelseminum,  morning  and  evening.  Dissolve  one 
ounce  of  chlorate  of  potass  in  half  a pint  of  flaxseed  tea,  and 
give  it  daily  as  a drench  until  the  animal  improves.  Let  the 
patient  be  placed  in  a secluded  spot,  under  cover,  and,  if  the 
case  is  curable,  health  will  soon  return. 

The  most  marked  symptoms  of  pneumonia  are  panting  and 
heaving  at  th  ^ ks,  quickened  respiration,  discharge  from  the 
nose,  and  coug...  There  is  also  a cessation  of  rumination.  In 
short,  the  same  symptoms  prevail  in  this  disease  as  in  pneumo- 
nia of  cattle. 

Common  Catarrh. — This  affection  prevails  most  extensively 
among  sheep  that  have  been  exposed  to  rains  and  unpleasant 
weather.  The  disease  manifests  itself  in  the  form  of  a deflux- 
ion from  the  nostrils  of  a muco-serous  discharge,  accompanied 
by  frequent  sneezing,  and  occasional  cough.  As  soon  as  the 
disease  is  discovered,  the  affected  animals  should  be  placed  in 
comfortable  quarters.  Then  prepare  the  following  drench: 

2 ounces  of  composition  powder. 

1 quart  of  boiling  water. 

Pour  the  boiling  water  on  the  powder;  let  the  mixture  stand 
in  a warm  place  for  an  hour;  pour  off  the  clear  liquor,  and  add 
two  ounces  of  sugar  of  milk.  Dose:  A wine-glassful  once  or 
twice  daily. 

Malignant  epizootic  catarrh  may  be  treated  in  the  same 
manner,  with  the  addition  of  one  ounce  of  chlorate  of  potass 
per  day,  which  can  be  dissolved  in  the  above  drench. 

Diarrhoea  and  Dysentery. — Curable  cases  of  the  above 


330 


SHEEP. 


character  are  brought  to  a favorable  termination  by  using  the 
following  drench: 

1 ounce  of  finely  pulverized  animal  charcoal. 

1 gill  of  scalded  cow’s  milk. 

1 drachm  of  hyposulphite  of  soda.  Mix. 

The  above  constitutes  a dose.  It  may  be  repeated  as  often 
as  the  emergency  seems  to  require;  but/ should  the  subject  be 
a young  lamb,  one-half  the  above  quantity  will  suffice. 

Constipation  of  the  Bowels. — Constipation  is  almost  always 
the  result  of  a deranged  condition  of  the  digestive  organs.  A 
deranged  condition  of  the  liver,  for  example,  will  result  in 
costiveness,  for  which  the  following  drench  is  recommended: 

2 ounces  of  Glauber  salts. 

1 teaspoonful  of  fluid  extract  of  leptandra. 

y2  pint  of  thin  gruel. 

Dissolve  the  salts  in  the  gruel,  and  drench  the  animal  with 
the  same. 

Tympanites. — This  disease  is  very  easily  recognized  by  the 
bloated  appearance  of  the  animal.  It  is  occasioned  by  the 
food  running  into  fermentation  and  generating  gas.  The  fol- 
lowing remedy  is  a sure  cure  for  tympanites,  administered  as  a 
drench: 

4 drachms  of  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

1 drachm  of  fluid  extract  of  golden  seal. 

2 drachms  of  fluid  extract  of  ginger. 

1 wine-glassful  of  water. 

Colic. — Sheep  are  occasionally  seen,  particularly  in  the 
winter,  lying  down  and  rising  every  moment  or  two,  and  con- 
stantly stretching  their  fore  and  hind  legs  so  far  apart  that 
their  bellies  almost  touch  the  ground.  They  appear  to  be  in 
much  pain,  refuse  all  food,  and  not  unfrequently  die  unless 
relieved.  This  disease,  popularly  known  as  the  “stretches,”  is 
erroneously  attributed  to  an  inyolution  of  one  part  of  the 
intestine  with  another;  it  being,  in  reality,  a species  of  flatulent 
colic  induced  by  costiveness. 

Treatment. — Half  an  ounce  of  epsom  salts,  a drachm  of 
Jamaica  ginger,  and  sixty  drops  of  essence  of  peppermint.  The 
salts  alone,  however,  will  effect  a cure;  as  will,  also,  an  equiva- 
lent dose  of  linseed  oil,  or  even  hog’s  lard. 

Fractures  — If  there  be  no  wound  of  the  soft  parts,  the 
bone  simply  being  broken,  the  treatment  is  extremely  easy. 
Apply  a piece  of  wet  leather,  taking  care  to  ease  the  limb  when 
swelling  supervenes.  W'hen  the  swelling  is  considerable,  and 
fever  present,  the  best  course  is  to  open  a vein  of  the  head  or 
neck,  allowing  a quantity  of  blood  to  escape,  proportioned  to 
the  size  and  condition  of  the  animal,  and  the  urgency  of  the 
symptoms.  Purgatives  in  such  cases  should  never  be  neglected. 


SHEEP. 


331 


Epsom  salts,  in  ounce  doses,  given  either  as  a gruel  or  a drench, 
will  be  found  to  answer  the  purpose  well.  If  the  broken  bones 
are  kept  steady,  the  cure  will  be  complete  in  from  three  to  four 
weeks,  the  process  of  reunion  always  proceeding  faster  in  a 
young  than  in  an  old  sheep.  Should  the  soft  parts  be  injured 
to  any  extent,  or  the  ends  of  the  bone  protrude,  recovery  is 
very  uncertain;  and  it  will  become  a question  whether  it  would 
not  be  better  to  convert  the  animal  at  once  into  mutton. 


A TYPICAL  POLAND-CHINA.’ 


SWINE 


Skeleton  op  the  Hog  as  Covered  by  the  Muscles. 


1.  The  lower  jaw.  2. — The  teeth.  3. — The  nasal  bones.  4. — The  upper  jaw.  5. — The 
frontal  bone.  6.— The  orbit  or  socket  of  the  eye.  7.— The  occipital  bone.  8.— The 
first  vertebrae  of  the  neck.  9. — The  vertebrae  of  the  neck.  10. — The  vertebrae  of  the 
back.  11.— The  vertebrae  of  the  loins.  12— The  bones  of  the  tail.  13,— 14.— The  true 
and  false  ribs.  15.— The  shoulder-blade.  16.— The  round  shoulder-bone.  17— The 
breast-bone.  18.— The  elbow.  19.— The  bone  of  the  fore-arm.  20.— The  navicular 
bone.  21.— The  first  and  second  bone  of  the  foot.  22.— The  bones  of  the  hoof.  23.— 
The  haunch  bones.  24.— The  thigh  bone.  25.— The  stifle  bone.  26.— The  upper  bona 
of  the  leg.  27.— The  hock  bones.  28.— The  navicular  bone.  29.— The  first  digits  of 
the  foot.  30.— The  second  digits  of  the  foot. 

American  Swine. — In  the  United  States,  swine  have  been 
an  object  of  attention  since  its  earliest  settlement,  and,  when- 
ever a profitable  market  has  been  found  for  pork  abroad,  it 
has  been  exported  to  the  full  extent  of  the  demand.  Swine 
are  not,  however,  indigenous  to  this  country,  but  were  doubt- 
less originally  brought  hither  by  the  early  English  settlers; 
and  the  breed  thus  introduced  may  still  be  distinguished  by 
the  traces  they  retain  of  their  parent  stock.  France,  also. 


334 


SWINE. 


as  well  as  Spain,  and,  during  the  existence  of  the  slave  trade, 
Africa,  have  also  combined  to  furnish  varieties  of  this  animal, 
so  much  esteemed  throughout  the  whole  of  the  country,  as 
furnishing  a valuable  article  of  food.  For  nearly  twenty 
years,  following  the  commencement  of  the  general  European 
wars,  soon  after  the  organization  of  our  national  government, 
pork  was  a comparatively  large  article  of  commerce;  but 
exports  for  a time  diminished,  and  it  was  not  until  within  s 
more  recent  period  that  this  staple  has  been  brought  up  to  its 
former  standard  as  an  article  of  exportation  to  that  country. 
The  recent  use  which  has  been  made  of  its  carcass  in  con- 
verting it  into  lard  oil,  has  tended  to  still  further  increase 
its  consumption. 

They  are  read  in  every  part  of  the  Union,  and,  when 
properly  managed,  always  at  a profit.  At  the  extreme  North, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  large  markets,  and  on  such  of  the 
Southern  plantations  as  are  particularly  suited  to  sugar  or  rice, 
they  should  not  be  raised  beyond  the  number  required  for  the 
consumption  of  the  coarse  or  refuse  food  produced.  Swine  are 
advantageously  kept  in  connection  with  a dairy  or  orchard; 
since,  with  little  additional  food,  besides  what  is  thus  afforded, 
they  can  be  put  in  good  condition  for  the  butcher. 

On  the  rich  bottoms  and  other  lands  of  the  West,  however, 
where  Indian  corn  is  raised  in  profusion  and  at  small  expense, 
they  can  be  reared  in  the  greatest  numbers  and  yield  the 
largest  profit.  The  Scioto,  Miami,  Wabash,  Illinois,  and  other 
valleys,  and  extensive  tracts  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri, 
and  some  adjoining  States,  have  for  many  years  taken  the  lead 
in  the  production  of  swine;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  climate 
and  soil,  which  are  peculiarly  suited  to  their  rapid  growth,  as 
well  as  that  of  their  appropriate  food,  will  enable  them  to  hold 
their  position  as  the  leading  pork  producers  of  the  North 
American  Continent. 

The  breeds  cultivated  in  this  country  are  numerous;  and, 
like  our  native  cattle,  they  embrace  many  of  the  best,  and  a few 
of  the  worst,  to  be  found  among  the  species.  Great  attention 
has  been  paid,  for  many  years,  to  their  improvement  in  the 
Eastern  States;  and  nowhere  are  there  better  specimens  than 
in  many  of  their  yards.  This  spirit  has  rapidly  extended  West 


SWINE. 


335 


and  South;  and  among  most  of  the  intelligent  farmers,  who 
make  them  a leading  object  of  attention  on  their  rich  corn- 
grounds,  swine  have  attained  a high  degree  of  excellence.  This 
does  not  consist  in  the  introduction  and  perpetuity  of  any 
distinct  races,  so  much  as  in  the  breeding  up  to  a desirable 
size  and  aptitude  for  fattening,  from  such  meritorious  individ- 
uals of  any  breed,  or  their  crosses,  as  come  within  their  reach. 

The  Byefield. — This  breed  was  formerly  in  good  repute  in 

the  Eastern  States,  and  did  much  good  among  the  species 
generally.  They  are  white,  with  fine  curly  hair,  well  made  and 
compact,  moderate  in  size  and  length,  with  broad  backs,  and 
at  fifteen  months  attaining  some  three  hundred  to  three 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  net. 

The  Bedford. — The  Bedford  or  Woburn  is  a breed  origin- 
ating with  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  on  his  estate  at  Woburn,  and 
brought  to  their  perfection  probably  by  judicious  crosses  of 
the  Chinese  hog  on  some  of  the  best  English  swine.  A pair 
was  sent  by  the  Duke  to  this  country,  as  a present  to  General 
Washington;  but  they  were  dishonestly  sold  by  the  messenger, 
in  Maryland,  in  which  State,  and  in  Pennsylvania,  they  were 
productive  of  much  good  at  an  early  day,  by  their  extensive 
distribution  through  different  States.  Several  other  importa- 
tions of  this  breed  have  been  made  at  various  times,  and 
especially  by  the  enterprising  masters  of  the  Liverpool  packets, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York.  They  are  a large,  spotted 
animal,  well  made,  and  inclining  to  early  maturity  and  fatten- 
ing. This  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  hog,  but  nearly  extinct, 
both  in  England  and  in  this  country,  as  a breed 

The  Leicester. — The  old  Leicestershire  breed,  in  England, 
was  a perfect  type  of  the  original  hogs  of  the  midland  counties; 
large,  ungainly,  slab-sided  animals,  of  a light  color,  and  spotted 
with  brown  or  black.  The  only  good  parts  about  them  were 
their  heads  and  ears,  which  showed  greater  traces  of  breeding 
than  any  other  portions.  These  have  been  materially  improved 
by  various  crosses,  and  the  original  breed  has  nearly  lost  all 
its  peculiarities  and  defects.  They  may  now  be  characterized 
as  a large,  white  hog,  generally  coarse  in  the  bone  and  hair, 
great  eaters,  and  slow  in  maturing.  Some  varieties  differ 


336 


SWINE. 


essentially  in  these  particulars,  and  mature  early  on  a moderate 
amount  of  food.  The  crosses  with  small  compact  breeds  are 
generally  thrifty,  desirable  animal 

The  Yorkshire. — The  old  Yorkshire  breed  was  one  oi  the 
very  large  varieties,  and  one  of  the  most  unprofitable  for  a far- 
mer, being  greedy  feeders,  difficult  to  fatten,  and  unsound  in 
constitution.  They  were  of  a dirty  white  or  yellow  color, 
spotted  with  black,  had  long  legs,  flat  sides,  narrow  backs, 
weak  loins  and  barge  bones.  Their  hair  was  short  and  wiry, 
and  intermingled  with  numerous  bristles  about  the  head  and 
neck,  and  their  ears  long.  When  full  grown  and  fat,  they 
seldom  weighed  more  than  from  three  hundred  and  fifty  to  four 
hundred  pounds. 

These  have  been  crossed  with  pigs  of  the  improved  Leices- 
ter breed;  and  where  the  crossings  have  been  judiciously 
managed,  and  not  carried  too  far,  a fine  race  of  deep-sided, 
short-legged,  thin-haired  animals  has  been  obtained,  fattening 
kindly,  and  rising  to  a weight  of  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to 
four  hundred  pounds,  when  killed  between  one  and  two  yea1  s 
old;  and,  when  kept  over  two  years,  reaching  even  from  five 
hundred  to  seven  hundred  pounds. 

They  have  also  been  crossed  with  the  Chinese,  Neapolitan, 
and  Berkshire  breeds,  and  hardy,  profitable,  well-proportioned 
animals  thereby  obtained.  The  original  breed,  in  its  purity, 
size,  and  defectiveness,  is  now  hardly  to  be  met  with,  hav’ng 
shared  the  fate  of  the  other  large  old  breeds,  and  given  place 
to  smaller  and  more  symmetrical  animals.  The  Yorkshire 
white  is  among  the  large  breeds  deserving  commendation 
among  us.  To  the  same  class  belong  also  the  large  Miami 
white,  and  the  Kenilworth;  each  frequently  attaining,  when 
dressed,  a weight  of  from  six  hundred  to  eight  hundred 
pounds. 

The  Chinese. — This  hog  is  to  be  found  in  the  south-eastern 
countries  of  Asia,  as  Siam,  Cochin  China,  the  Burman  Empire, 
Cambodia,  Malacca,  Sumatra,  and  in  Batavia  and  other  East- 
ern islands;  and  is,  without  doubt,  the  parent  stock  of  the  best 
European  and  American  swine. 

There  are  two  distinct  varieties,  the  white  and  the  black; 


SWINE. 


33? 


both  fatten  readily,  but  from  their  diminutive  size  attain  no 
great  weight.  They  are  small  in  limb,  round  in  body,  short 
in  the  head,  wide  in  the  cheek,  and  high  in  the  chine;  covered 
with  very  fine  bristles  growing  from  an  exceedingly  thin  skin; 
and  not  peculiarily  symmetrical,  since,  when  fat,  the  head  is  so 
buried  in  the  neck  that  little  more  than  the  tip  of  the  snout  is 
visible.  The  pure  Chinese  is  too  delicate  and  susceptible  to 
cold  ever  to  become  a really  profitable  animal  in  this  country; 
it  is  difficult  to  rear,  and  the  sows  are  not  good  nurses;  but 
one  or  two  judicious  crosses  have,  in  a manner,  naturalized  it. 
This  breed  will  fatten  readily,  and  on  a comparatively  small 
quantity  of  food;  the  flesh  is  exceedingly  delicate,  but  does 
not  make  good  bacon,  and  is  often  too  fat  and  oily  to  be 
generally  esteemed  as  pork.  They  are  chiefly  kept  by  those 
who  rear  sucking-pigs  for  the  market,  as  they  make  excellent 
roasters  at  three  weeks  or  a month  old.  Five,  and  even  seven, 
varieties  of  this  breed  are  distinguished,  but  these  are  doubt- 
less the  results  of  different  crosses  with  our  native  kinds; 
among  these  are  black,  white,  black  and  white,  spotted,  blue 
and  white,  and  sandy. 

Many  valuable  crosses  have  been  made  with  these  animals; 
for  the  prevalent  fault  of  the  old  English  breeds  have  been 
coarseness  of  flesh,  unwieldiness  of  form,  and  want  of  aptitude 
to  fatten,  an  admixture  of  the  Chinese  breed  has  materially 
corrected  these  defects.  Most  of  our  smaller  breeds  are  more 
or  less  indebted  to  the  Asiatic  swine  for  their  present  com- 
pactness of  form,  the  readiness  with  which  they  fatten  on  a 
small  quantity  of  food,  and  their  early  maturity;  but  these 
advantages  are  not  considered,  in  the  judgment  of  some,  as 
sufficiently  great  to  compensate  for  the  diminution  in  size,  the 
increased  delicacy  of  the  animals,  and  the  decrease  of  number 
in  the  litters.  The  best  cross  is  between  the  Berkshire  and 
Chinese. 

The  Suffolk. — The  old  Suffolks  are  white  in  color,  long- 
legged,  long-bodied,  with  narrow  backs,  broad  foreheads, 
short  hams,  and  abundance  of  bristles.  They  are  by  no  means 
profitable  animals.  A cross  between  the  Suffolk  and  Lincoln 
has  produced  a hardy  animal,  which  fattens  kindly,  and  attains 
the  weight  of  from  four  to  five  hundred  and  fifty,  and  even 
20 


338 


SWINE. 


seven  hundred,  pounds.  Another  cross  much  approved  by 
farmers  is  that  of  the  Suffolk  and  Berkshire. 

There  are  few  better  breeds,  perhaps,  than  the  improved 
Suffolk — that  is,  the  Suffolk  crossed  with  the  Chinese.  The 
greater  part  of  the  pigs  on  the  late  Prince  Albert’s  farm,  near 
Windsor,  were  of  this  breed.  They  are  well-formed,  compact, 
1 of  medium  size,  with  round,  bulky  bodies,  short  legs,  small 
I heads,  and  fat  cheeks.  Many,  at  a year  or  fifteen  months  old, 
weigh  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  pounds;  at 
which  age  they  make  fine  bacon  hogs.  The  sucking-pigs  are 
also  very  delicate  and  delicious. 

Those  arising  from  Berkshire  and  Suffolk  are  not  so  well 
shaped  as  the  latter,  being  coarser,  long-legged,  and  more 
prominent  about  the  hips.  They  are  mostly  white,  with  thin, 
fine  hair;  some  few  are  spotted,  and  are  easily  kept  in  fine  con- 
dition; they  have  a decided  aptitude  to  fatten  early,  and  are 
likewise  valuable  as  store-pigs. 

The  Berkshire. — The  Berkshire  pigs  belong  to  the  large 
class,  and  are  distinguished  by  their  color,  which  is  a sandy  or 
whitish  brown,  spotted  regularly  with  dark  brown  or  black 
spots,  and  by  their  having  no  bristles.  The  hair  is  long,  thin, 
somewhat  curly,  and  looks  rough;  the  ears  are  fringed  with 
long  hair  round  the  outer  edge,  which  gives  them  a ragged  or 
feathery  appearance;  the  body  is  thick,  compact,  and  well 
formed;  the  legs  short,  the  sides  broad,  the  head  well  set  on, 
the  snout  short,  the  jowl  thick,  the  ears  erect,  the  skin  exceed- 
ingly thin  in  texture,  the  flesh  firm  and  well  flavored,  and  the 
bacon  very  superior.  This  breed  has  generally  been  considered 
one  of  the  best  in  England,  on  account  of  its  smallness  of  bone, 
early  maturity,  aptitude  to  fatten  on  little  food,  hardihood, 
and  the  females  being  good  breeders.  Hogs  of  the  pure 
original  breed  have  been  known  to  weigh  from  eight  hundred 
to  nine  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

Numerous  crosses  have  been  made  from  this  breed;  the 
principal  foreign  ones  are  those  with  the  Chinese  and  Neapoil- 
tan  swine,  made  with  the  view  of  decreasing  the  size  of  the 
animal,  improving  the  flavor  of  the  flesh,  and  rendering  it  more 
delicate;  and  the  animals  thus  attained  are  superior  to  almost 
any  other  in  their  aptitude  to  fatten;  but  are  very  susceptible 


SWINE. 


339 


to  cold,  from  being  almost  entirely  without  hair.  A cross 
with  the  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  also  is  much  improved,  which 
produces  a hardy  kind,  yielding  well  when  sent  to  the  butcher; 
although,  under  most  circumstances,  the  pure  Berkshire  is  the 
best. 

No  other  breeds  have  been  so  extensively  diffused  in  the 
United  States,  within  comparatively  so  brief  a period,  as  the 
Berkshires,  and  they  have  produced  a marked  improvement  in 
many  of  our  former  races.  They  weigh  variously,  from  two 
hundred  and  fifty  to  four  hundred  pounds  net,  at  sixteen 
months,  according  to  their  food  and  style  of  breeding;  and 
some  full-grown  have  dressed  to  more  than  eight  hundred 
pounds.  They  particularly  excel  in  their  hams,  which  are 
round,  full,  and  heavy,  and  contain  a large  proportion  of  lean, 
tender,  and  juicy  meat,  of  the  best  flavor. 

None  of  our  improved  breeds  afford  long,  coarse  hair,  or 
bristles;  and  it  is  a gratifying  evidence  of  our  decided  improve- 
ment in  this  department  of  domestic  animals,  that  our  brush- 
makers  are  obliged  to  import  most  of  what  they  use  from 
Russia  and  northern  Europe.  This  improvement  is  manifest 
not  only  in  the  hair,  but  in  the  skin,  which  is  soft  and  mellow 
to  the  touch;  in  the  finer  bones,  shorter  head,  upright  ears, 
dishing  face,  delicate  muzzle,  and  wild  eye;  and  in  the  short 
legs,  low  flanks,  deep  and  wide  chest,  broad  back,  and  early 
maturity. 

Formation  of  the  Teeth. — The  hog  has  fourteen  molar 
teeth  in  each  jaw,  six  incisors,  and  two  canines;  these  latter  are 
curved  upward,  and  commonly  denominated  tushes.  The 
molar  teeth  are  all  slightly  different  in  structure,  and  increase 
in  size  from  first  to  last;  they  bear  no  slight  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  human  being.  The  incisors  are  so  fantastic  in 
form  that  they  cannot  well  be  described,  and  their  destined 
functions  are  by  no  means  clear.  Those  in  the  lower  jaw  are 
long,  round,  and  nearly  straight;  of  those  in  the  upper  jaw, 
four  closely  resemble  the  corresponding  teeth  in  the  horse; 
while  the  two  corner  incisors  bear  something  of  the  shape  of 
those  of  the  dog.  These  latter  are  placed  so  near  the  tushes 
as  often  to  obstruct  their  growth,  and  it  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  draw  them,  in  order  to  relieve  the  animal  and  enable 
him  to  feed 


340 


4 SWINE. 


The  hog  is  born  with  two  molars  on  each  side  of  the  jaw; 
by  the  time  he  is  three  or  four  months  old,  he  is  provided  with 
his  incisive  milk-teeth  and  the  tushes;  the  supernumerary 
molars  protrude  between  the  fifth  and  seventh  months,  as  does 
the  first  back  molar;  the  second  back  molar  is  cut  at  about  the 
age  of  ten  months;  and  the  third,  generally,  not  until  the  ani- 
mal is  three  years  old.  The  upper  corner  teeth  are  shed  at 
about  the  age  of  six  or  eight  months;  and  the  lower  ones  at 
about  seven,  nine,  or  ten  months  old,  and  replaced  by  the 
permanent  ones.  The  milk  tushes  are  also  shed  and  replaced 
between  six  and  ten  months  old.  The  age  of  twenty  months, 
and  from  that  to  two  years,  is  denoted  by  the  shedding  and 
replacement  of  the  middle  incisors,  or  pincers,  in  both  jaws, 
and  the  formation  of  a black  circle  at  the  base  of  the  tushes. 
At  about  two  years  and  a half  or  three  years  of  age,  the  adult 
middle  teeth  in  both  jaws  protrude,  and  the  pincers  are  becom- 
ing black  and  rounded  at  the  ends. 

After  three  years,  the  age  may  be  computed  by  the  growth 
of  the  tushes;  at  about  four  years,  or  rather  before,  the  upper 
tushes  begin  to  raise  the  lip;  at  five  they  protrude  through  the 
lips;  and,  at  six  years,  the  tushes  of  the  lower  jaw  begin  to  show 
themselves  out  of  the  mouth,  and  assume  a spiral  form.  These 
acquire  a prodigious  length  in  old  animals,  and  particularly  in 
uncastrated  boars;  and,  as  they  increase  in  size,  they  become 
curved  backward  and  outward,  and  at  length  are  so  crooked 
as  to  interfere  with  the  motion  of  the  jaws  to  such  a degree 
that  it  is  necessary  to  cut  off  those  projecting  teeth,  which  is 
done  with  the  file,  or  with  nippers. 

Houses  and  Piggeries. — An  inclosure,  proportionate  to  the 
number  of  swine  which  you  intend  to  keep,  and,  if  possible,  so 
managed  as  to  admit  of  extending  the  accommodation,  if  ne- 
cessary, will  be  found  the  best  for  general  purposes.  It  should 
be  provided  with  a range  of  sheds,  so  situated  as  to  be  thor- 
oughly sheltered  from  north  and  east  winds,  and  snow,  rain, 
and  inclement  weather;  paved  or  flagged  at  the  bottom,  and 
sloping  outwards.  We  cannot  too  frequently  reiterate  our  ob- 
servations relative  to  the  paramount  necessity  of  cleanliness 
and  dryness;  let,  therefore,  both  enclosure  and  sheds  possess 
the  means  of  being  kept  so.  To  insure  both  these  desiderata, 


SWINE. 


341 


as  far  as  possible,  very  efficient  drainage  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary; and  it  will  be  a great  advantage  if  the  bottom  is  of  con- 
crete as  well  as  drained.  The  whole  pig-cote  should  slope 
towards  one  corner,  and  be  intersected  by  channels  in  the  flag- 
stone or  pavement;  the  former  is  by  far  the  best,  and  to  this 
a common  metal  stench-trap  should  be  placed.  This  is  in 
every  respect  the  best.  It  admits  of  being  taken  up  and  re- 
placed, for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  out  the  sediment  which 
will  from  time  to  time  accumulate.  Connected  with  this  drain 
should  be  a tank;  or  it  might  communicate  with  the  drainage 
of  the  rest  of  the  buildings.  The  interior  or  covered  shed 
should  be  kept  constantly  littered;  and  so  indeed  should  be 
the  court-yard,  if  the  object  of  the  pig-keeper  be  to  convert  his 
straw  into  manure.  If  not,  it  should  be  swept  and  washed 
clean,  and  occasionally  sprinkled  with  fresh  saw  dust.  There 
is  no  better  absorbent — no  cleanlier  material  than  this,  and  it 
is  cheaper  than  straw,  when  both  have  to  be  purchased,  much 
more  portable,  easier  obtained,  carried  or  stowed  away,  and 
should  be  the  sheet-anchor  of  the  amateur  pig-keeper. 

Here  is  a general  plan  of  such  a piggery  for  those  who  fol- 


A.  Sties.  B.  Doors  at  back.  C.  Doors  in  the  front,  and  troughs.  D.  Drain. 
E.  Tank.  The  stream  to  the  right  can  be  admitted  at  pleasure,  to  pass  through 
the  piggery. 

low  this  branch  of  rural  economy  on  a moderately  extensive 
scale. 

The  ground  on  which  the  piggery  is  established  should  like- 
wise be  divided  into  two  parts  by  a drain,  which  should  run 


342 


SWINE. 


through  it;  and  towards  this  drain  each  section  should  slope. 
This,  the  main  drain,  to  which  communication  should  be 
established  from  the  other  already  described,  should  be  carried 
beyond  the  fold,  and  fall  into  a large  tank  or  pit  formed  for 
that  purpose.  The  reasons  for  this  recommendation  will,  of 
course,  be  obvious  to  every  person.  The  object  in  view  is  a 
double  one,  viz.:  at  once  to  keep  the  pig-fold  and  sties  in  a 
clean  and  dry  state,  and  to  preserve  the  valuable  liquid  manure 
which  comes  from  the  animals  you  keep.  The  value  of  liquid 
manure  has  been  for  some  years  neglected  or  lost  sight  of.  It 
is  now  becoming  generally  understood  and  recognized;  and  in 
no  available  instance  should  measures  for  its  proper  collection 
and  preparation  be  omitted.  There  are  some  who  will  probably 
inquire  whether  it  would  not  rather  be  better  to  suffer  the 
moisture  to  soak  into  earth  or  straw,  or  other  substances  on 
the  floor,  so  to  speak,  of  the  inclosure,  and  then  to  clear  it  all 
away  periodically,  then  to  drain  off  the  liquid  into  a tank.  For 
the  information  of  such  persons,  it  may  be  observed  that  by 
drawing  off  the  liquid  you  add  to  the  cleanliness  of  your  swine, 
and,  in  proportion,  to  their  health  and  capacity  for  thriving; 
and,  also,  that  the  collection  of  liquid  manure  into  tanks  is 
less  troublesome  than  the  removal  of  substances  saturated  with 
it  from  the  floor  of  the  fold  would  be.  The  liquid  contained 
in  the  tank  (if  you  keep  cows,  of  course  they  contribute  their 
quota  as  well  as  the  pigs)  is  not  to  be  applied  to  the  land  in- 
tended to  be  manured  in  a liquid  state,  but  is  previously  to  be 
absorbed  by  suitable  composts.  This  subject,  however,  is 
altogether  foreign  to  the  design  of  the  present  work;  and  there 
are,  besides,  many  treatises  on  this  point  easily  procurable  and 
perfectly  intelligible.  It  is  therefore  unnecessary  that  we 
should  here  enter  upon  such  a disquisition. 

You  should  also  have  your  sties  so  constructed  as  to  admit 
of  being  closed  up  altogether  when  desirable;  for  swine,  even 
of  our  hardiest  breeds,  are  susceptible  of  cold;  and, if  they  be 
exposed  to  it  in  severe  weather,  it  will  materially  retard  their 
fattening.  The  sty  should  be  kept  constantly  supplied  with 
clean  straw.  It  will  be  found  that  carting  the  refuse  into  the 
tank  will,  in  the  form  of  manure,  more  than  repay  the  value  of 
the  straw  thus  expended. 


SWINE. 


343 


DESCRIPTION. 

This  piggery  suits  the  largest  size  of  farms,  on  which  the 
roots  and  crops  are  grown,  to  feed  swine  in  large  numbers. 
There  are  seventeen  sties,  with  yards,  to  accommodate  two 
animals  in  each  division;  the  inner  wall  being  six  feet,  and  the 
front  wall  three  feet,  in  height.  The  boar  and  brood  sows  will 
occupy  three  sties;  and  two  lots  of  fat  pigs  yearly  from  the 
other  sties  will  accommodate  fifty-six  animals 

Points  of  a Good  Hog. — It  may  not  be  amiss  to  group 
together  what  is  deemed  desirable  under  this  head.  No  one 
should  be  led  away  by  mere  name  in  his  selection  of  a hog.  It 
may  be  called  a Berkshire,  or  a Suffolk,  or  any  other  breed 


Exercise  is  as  necessary  for  swine  as  it  is  for  horses,  and 
the  manure  heap  in  the  yard  will  be  benefitted  by  their  root- 
ing. The  odd  corns  will  be  picked  up,  and  the  fermenting  mass 
will  form  a warm  and  healthy  bed,  highly  suited  to  the  somno- 
lent habits  of  the  pig  in  winter.  Where  this  is  adopted,  the 
circular  range  of  houses  here  given  is  well  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose. 


344 


SWINE. 


most  in  estimation,  and  yet,  in  reality,  may  possess  none  jf 
this  valuable  blood.  The  only  sure  way  to  avoid  imposition  is 
to  make  name  always  secondary  to  points.  If  a hog  is  found 
possessing  such  points  of  form  as  are  calculated  to  insure  early 
maturity  and  faculty  of  taking  on  flesh,  one  needs  to  care  but 
little  by  what  name  he  is  called;  since  no  mere  name  can  be- 
stow value  upon  an  animal  deficient  in  the  qualities  already 
indicated. 

The  true  Berkshire — that  possessing  a dash  of  the  Chinese 
and  Neapolitan  variety — comes,  perhaps,  nearer  to  the  desired 
standard  than  any  other. 

The  chief  points  which  characterize  such  a hog  are  the  fol- 
lowing:— In  the  first  place,  sufficient  depth  of  carcass,  and  such 
an  elongation  of  body  as  will  insure  a sufficient  lateral  expan- 
sion. The  loin  and  breast  should  be  broad.  The  breadth  of 
the  former  denotes  good  room  for  the  play  of  the  lungs,  and, 
as  a consequence,  a free  and  healthy  circulation,  essential  to 
the  thriving  or  fattening  of  any  animal.  The  bone  should  be 
small  and  the  joints  fine — nothing  is  more  indicative  of  high 
breeding  than  this;  and  the  legs  should  be  no  longer  than, 
when  fully  fat,  would  just  prevent  the  animal’s  belly  from 
trailing  upon  the  ground.  The  leg  is  the  least  profitable  por- 
tion of  the  hog,  and  no  more  of  it  is  required  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  support  of  the  rest.  The  feet  should  be  firm 
and  sound;  the  toes  should  lie  well  together,  and  press 
straightly  upon  the  ground;  the  claws,  also,  should  be  even, 
upright  and  healthy. 

The  form  of  the  head  is  sometimes  deemed  of  little  or  no 
consequence,  it  being  generally,  perhaps,  supposed  that  a good 
hog  may  have  an  ugly  head;  but  the  head  of  all  animals  is 
one  of  the  very  principal  points  in  which  pure  or  impure 
breeding  will  be  most  obviously  indicated.  A high-bred  ani- 
mal will  invariably  be  found  to  arrive  more  speedily  at  maturity, 
to  take  flesh  more  easily,  and  at  an  earlier  period,  and 
altogether  to  turn  out  more  profitably  than  one  of  questionable 
or  impure  stock.  Such  being  the  case,  the  head  of  the  hog  is 
a point  by  no  means  to  be  overlooked.  The  description  of 
head  most  likely  to  promise — or,  rather  to  be  the  accompani- 
ment of — high  breeding,  is  one  not  carrying  heavy  bones,  not 


SWINE. 


345 


too  flat  on  the  forehead  or  possessing  a snout  too  elongated; 
the  snout  should  be  short,  and  the  forehead  rather  convex, 
curving  upward;  and  the  ear,  while  pendulous,  should  incline 
somewhat  forward,  and  at  the  same  time  be  light  and  thin. 
The  carriage  of  the  pig  should  also  be  noticed.  If  this  be  dull, 
heavy,  and  dejected,  one  may  reasonably  suspect  ill-health,  if 
not  some  concealed  disorder  actually  existing,  or  just  about  to 
break  forth;  and  there  cannot  be  a more  unfavorable  symptom 
than  a hung-down,  slouching  head.  Of  course,  a fat  hog  for 
slaughter,  and  a sow  heavy  with  young,  have  not  much  spright- 
liness or  deportment. 

Color  is,  likewise,  not  to  be  disregarded.  Those  colors  are 
preferable  which  are  characteristic  of  the  most  esteemed  breeds. 
If  the  hair  is  scant,  black  is  desirable,  as  denoting  connection 
with  the  Neapolitan;  if  too  bare  of  hair,  a too  intimate  alli- 
ance with  that  variety  may  be  apprehended,  and  a consequent 
want  of  hardihood,  which — however  unimportant,  if  pork  be 
the  object — renders  such  animal^  a hazardous  speculation  for 
store  purposes,  on  account  of  their  extreme  susceptibility  of 
cold,  and  consequent  liability  to  disease.  If  white,  and  not 
too  small,  they  are  valuable  as  exhibiting  connection  with  the 
Chinese.  If  light,  or  sandy,  or  red  with  black  marks,  the 
favorite  Berkshire  is  detected;  and  so  on,  with  reference  to 
every  possible  variety  of  hue. 

Breeding. — In  the  selection  of  a boar  and  sow  for  breeding, 
much  more  attention  and  consideration  are  necessary  than 
people  appear  generally  to  imagine.  With  a very  little  judgment 
and  management,  and  much  less  expense  than  is  generally 
incurred,  it  as  easy  to  procure  a good  breed  as  an  inferior  one; 
and,  as  the  former  is  infinitely  more  lucrative  and  remuner- 
ative, in  proportion  to  the  outlay,  than  the  latter  can  ever  be,  a 
little  attention  to  the  subject  may  be  advantageous. 

In  choosing  the  parents  of  your  future  stock,  you  must 
diligently  bear  in  mind  the  precise  objects  you  may  have  in 
view,  whether  the  rearing  for  pork  or  bacon;  and  whether  you 
desire  to  meet  the  earliest  market,  and  thus  realize  a certain 
profit,  with  the  least  possible  outlay  of  money,  or  loss  of  time; 
or  whether  you  mean  to  be  contented  to  meet  a heavier, 
although  somewhat  protracted  return. 


SWINE. 


34-G 


If  bacon  and  the  late  market  be  your  object,  you  will 
do  well  to  select  the  large  and  heavy  varieties,  taking  care  to 
ascertain  that  the  breed  has  the  character  of  being  at  once 
possessed  of  those  qualities  most  likely  to  ensure  a heavy  return, 
viz.,  growth,  and  facility  of  taking  fat. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  your  object  be  to  produce  pork,  you 
will,  of  course,  find  your  account  in  the  smaller  varieties;  such 
a£  arrive  with  greatest  rapidity  at  maturity,  and  which  are  likely 
to  produce  the  most  delicate  flesh.  In  producing  pork,  it  is 
not  advisable  that  it  should  be  too  fat,  without  a corresponding 
proportion  of  lean;  and,  on  this  account,  we  would  recommend 
that  you  rather  take  a cross-bred  sow  than  a pure  Chinese 
stock,  from  which  the  over-fattening  results  might- be  naturally 
apprehended.  The  Leicester  or  Berkshire,  crossed  with  Chi- 
nese, is  about  the  best  porker. 

In  every  case,  whether  your  object  be  pork  or  bacon,  the 
points  to  be  looked  for  are, — in  the  sow,  a small,  lively  head, 
a broad  and  deep  chest,  round  ribs,  capacious  barrel,  a haunch, 
falling  almost  to  the  hough,  deep  and  broad  loin,  ample  hips, 
and  considerable  length  of  body  in  proportion  to  its  height. 
Nor  must  the  broad,  flat,  table-like  back,  the  broad,  thick, 
shoulders  and  ham  be  forgotten.  The  flesh  should  rise  full 
and  round  behind  the  ears.  One  qualification  should  ever 
be  kept  in  view,  and,  perhaps,  should  be  the  first  point  to 
which  the  attention  should  be  directed,  viz.:  smallness  of 
bone  in  proportion  to  the  flesh,  and  fineness  of  the  best  parts, 
with  lightness  of  offal. 

Let  the  boar  be  less  in  size  than  the  sow,  shorter  and  more 
compact  in  form,  with  a raise  and  brawny  neck,  lively  eye, 
small  head,  firm,  hard  flesh,  and,  if  of  the  large  breed,  his  neck 
well  furnished  with  bristles.  In  other  respects,  look  for  the 
same  points  as  described  in  reference  to  the  sow.  Breeding 
within  too  close  degrees  of  consanguinity,  or,  as  it  is  technic- 
ally styled,  breeding  in  and  in,  is  sometimes  said  to  be 
calculated  to  produce  degeneracy  in  size,  and  also  to  impair 
the  animal’s  fertility;  it  is  certainly  to  be  avoided  where  the 
breed  is  not  of  great  culture,  although  some  breeders  maintain 
that  a first  cross  does  not  harm;  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  it 
produces  offsprings  which  are  predisposed  to  arrive  earlier  at 


SWINE. 


347 


maturity,  and  take  fat  with  greater  facility.  This  may,  in  some 
instances  be  the  case;  it  is  so  with  horned  cattle, — but,  as  far 
as  swine  are  concerned,  it  is  a matter  of  some  question,  though 
it  must  be  confessed  the  producers  of  the  finest  animals  are 
very  close  breeders. 

Differences  of  opinion  exist  as  to  the  precise  age  of  boar 
and  sow  at  which  breeding  is  most  advisable.  They  will,  if 
permitted,  breed  at  the  early  age  of  six  and  seven  months;  but 
this  is  a practice  not  to  recommend.  Good  advice  is,  to  let 
the  sow  be  at  least  one  year  old,  and  the  boar  at  least  eighteen 
months;  but,  if  the  former  have  attained  her  second  year,  and 
the  latter  his  third,  a vigorous  and  numerous  offspring  are 
more  likely  to  result.  The  boar  and  sow  retain  their  ability  to 
breed  for  about  five  years;  that  is,  until  the  former  is  upwards 
of  eight  years  old,  and  the  latter  seven.  We  do  not  recom- 
mend using  a boar  after  he  has  passed  his  fifth  year,  nor  a sow 
after  she  has  passed  her  fourth,  unless  she  has  proved  a peculi- 
arly valuable  breeder;  in  which  case  she  might  be  suffered  to 
produce  two  or  three  more  litters.  When  you  have  done  with 
the  services  of  the  boar,  have  him  emasculated — an  operation 
that  can  be  performed  with  perfect  safety  at  any  age — fatten 
and  kill  or  sell  him.  When  it  is  no  longer  desirable  to  breed 
from  the  sow,  kill  her  also.  Perhaps  it  is  the  most  economical 
way,  where  the  breeding  and  fattening  of  pigs  are  carried  on 
simultaneously,  to  take  no  more  than  three  litters  from  a sow 
before  she  is  killed.  If  less  are  taken,  she  will  not  have 
arrived  at  her  full  maturity, — if  more,  she  will  be  injured  for 
bacon.  A sow  who  has  had  but  three  litters,  will  be  as  fine 
bacon  as  an  emasculated  hog;  but  if  she  has  more,  she  will  be 
coarse  and  strong  in  flavor.  Another  objection  to  keeping 
sows  to  a great  age  is,  that  they  usually  become  ravenous  and 
voracious  when  they  get  old,  and  often  take  to  the  worrying  of 
lambs  and  poultry.  They  are  sometimes  so  gross  and  indo- 
lent as  to  lie  upon  their  own  offspring.  Young  pigs  are  like- 
wise far  more  matronly  and  active,  and  their  litters  have  more 
energy  and  vital  power  than  those  of  older  animals,  though  the 
number  of  their  produce  is  often  smaller. 

If  a sow  be  of  a stock  characterized  by  an  unusual  tendency 
to  take  on  fat,  it  is  well  to  breed  from  her  at  an  early  age  (say 


348 


SWINE. 


eight  or  nine  months);  for  this  tendency  to  fat  in  a breeding 
sow  is  highly  objectionable,  as  materially  conducing  to  danger 
in  parturition.  Let  her  have  the  boar  a couple  of  months  after 
pigging,  and  let  her  breed  as  frequently  as  she,  is  capable  of 
doing.  This  will  effectually  check  the  tendency  to  fat;  and, 
( after  having  taken  a few  litters  from  her,  you  will  find  that  the 
rapidity  with  which  she  will  feed  will  soon  adapt  her  to  the 
butcher.  In  the  case  of  such  a sow,  do  not  give  her  the  boar 
before  putting  her  up  to  fatten;  but  as  soon  as  she  is  so  fat  as 
to  be  within  six  or  eight  weeks  of  being  fit  for  the  butcher,  she 
should  be  sqpt  to  the  boar.  The  reasons  for  this  are  obvious. 
Once  in  three  weeks  she,  being  highly  fed  and  in  a very  vigor- 
ous condition  of  body,  becomes  in  season,  frets,  gets  excited, 
is  often  off  her  food,  and  loses  several  days  of  fattening;  and 
if  you  should  wish  to  kill  her  during  these  seasons  of  excite- 
ment, or  a few  days  before  or  after,  there  is  every  probability 
of  her  bacon  becoming  bad,  or,  at  any  rate,  a certainty  of  its 
flavor  being  injured.  To  put  to  the  boar  when  first  put  up  to 
feed  would  be  injurious,  because  the  nutriment  of  the  foetus 
would  abstract  from  the  feeding  of  the  mother,  and  it  is  best 
to  risk  the  loss  of  the  seasons  of  periodical  disturbance;  but 
later  on  gestation  has  a sedative  effect,  and  no  injury;  but  the 
greatest  benefit  will  result  from  its  having  taken  place  in  its 
early  stages.  It  is  manifest  that  any  coarse,  indifferent  boar, 
in  this  case,  will  answer  the  purpose. 

Feed  the  breeding  boar  well;  keep  him  in  high  condition, 
but  not  fat;  the  sow,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  kept  some- 
what low,  until  after  conception,  when  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  her  food  should  be  gradually  and  judiciously  in- 
creased. The  best  times  for  breeding  swine  are  the  months  of 
April  and  July  or  August.  A litter  obtained  later  than  August 
has  much  to  contend  with,  and  seldom  proves  profitable. 
Some,  indeed,  state,  that  when  such  an  occurrence  does  take 
place,  whether  from  acident  or  neglect,  the  litter  is  not  worth 
keeping.  It  is  of  little  use,  however,  to  throw  anything  away. 
Should  you  at  any  time  have  a late  litter,  leave  them  with  the 
sow;  feed  both  her  and  them  with  warm  and  stimulating  food, 
and  you  will  thus  have  excellent  pork,  with  which  to  meet  the 
the  market  when  that  article  is  at  once  scarce  and  dear,  and 


SWINE. 


349 


consequently  profitable.  By  following  this  system  of  manage- 
ment you  will  not  only  turn  your  late  litter  to  account,  but 
actually  realize  almost  as  good  a profit  as  if  it  had  been  pro- 
duced at  a more  favorable  season. 

The  period  of  gestation  in  the  sow  varies.  The  most  usual 
period  during  which  she  carries  her  young  is  four  lunar  months, 
or  sixteen  weeks,  or  about  one  hundred  and  thirteen  days. 

The  sow  produces  from  eight  to  thirteen  young  ones  at  a 
litter;  some  times  even  more.  A sow  cannot  give  nourishment 
to  more  young  than  she  has  teats;  and,  as  the  number  of  teats 
is  twelve,  when  a thirteenth  little  one  is  littered,  he  does  not 
fare  very  well,  having  to  wait  until  some  one  of  his  more  for- 
tunate brothers  or  sisters  shall  have  had  their  fill.  The  suf- 
ferer on  these  occasions  is,  of  course,  the  smallest  and  weakest. 
A too  numerous  litter  are  all  generally  undersized  and  weakly, 
and  seldom  or  never  prove  profitable.  A litter  not  exceeding 
ten,  will  usually  be  found  to  turn  out  most  advantageously. 

On  account  of  the  discrepancy  subsisting  between  the  num- 
ber farrowed  by  different  sows,  it  is  a good  plan,  if  it  can  be 
managed,  to  have  more  than  one  breeding  at  the  same  time,  in 
order  that  you  may  equalize  the  number  to  be  sucked  by  each. 
The  sow  seldom  recognizes  the  presence  of  a strange  little  one, 
if  it  have  been  introduced  among  the  others  during  her 
absence,  and  has  lain  for  half  an  hour  or  so  amongst  her  off- 
spring in  their  sty 

Moubray  gives  a very  remarkable  instance  of  a sow,  which 
sucked  nineteen  pigs  at  the  one  time.  This  is  very  unusual, 
and  can  cnly  be  accomplished  by  dividing  the  litter  into  two 
divisions,  and  turning  the  sow  to  each  alternately.  Much 
greater  care  is  also  necessary  in  such  cases,  both  of  the  pigs 
and  their  mother,  than  when  the  litter  is  smaller;  and  they 
require  a warm  house,  amply,  but  not  over  littered,  with  fine, 
fresh  hay.  As  soon  as  the  inflammatory  stage  of  pigging  is 
over  the  mother  must  also  be  kept  on  the  most  nourishing 
food.  Neither  new  milk,  bean  meal,  oatmeal,  nor  any  other 
nourishing  food  must  be  grudged;  for  if  it  be  worth  while  to 
keep  the  animals  at  all,  it  is  desirable  to  sustain  them  as  well  as 
possible. 

Parturition. — The  pig  suffers  the  least  from  parturition, 


350 


SWINE. 


and  is  the  easiest  delivered,  of  all  domestic  animals.  She 
usually  shows  symptoms  of  uneasiness  first  by  great  anger  at 
all  other  pigs  within  her  reach,  by  collecting  straw  in  her  mouth, 
and  carrying  it  to  a remote  corner  of  the  yard  in  which  she  is 
running  loose.  She  must  not  be  stopped  here.  This  wild 
instinct  can  be  satisfied  only  by  exhaustion.  When  the  bed  is 
made  she  must  be  removed  to  a rather  dark  house,  well 
screened  on  every  side,  and  about  eight  or  nine  feet  square,  so 
that  she  may  have  ample  room  to  lie  and  turn  in  every  direc- 
tion. One  of  the  best  contrivances  is  to  have  a lath  run  round 
the  house,  six  inches  from  the  ground  and  six  from  all  sides  of 
the  house,  well  stayed  below  and  on  each  side  by  perpendicu- 
lar and  horizontal  pieces  of  wood.  She  will  thus  be  unable  to 
lie  close  to  any  one  side  of  the  house,  and  cannot  thereby 
crush  to  death  any  of  her  offspring  during  the  throes  of  par- 
turition. 

A little  attention  will  be  necessary,  in  the  first  stage,  to  see 
that  the  delivery  is  perfect.  She  must  be,  at  all  events,  kept 
lying  as  still  as  possible,  unless  she  needs  help,  which  will  not 
take  place  in  one  case  in  a thousaud.  These  cases  do,  how- 
ever, occur;  and  as  works  on  this  matter  are  scarce,  a few 
words  may  be  acceptable.  The  difficulty  can  only  occur  in 
one  of  three  ways,  viz.,  a false  presentation,  a sinking  of  the 
pig  into  the  uterus  instead  of  its  being  presented  in  the  vagina, 
or  a contracted  orifice.  In  the  latter  case  a veterinary  sur- 
geon of  correct  anatomical  knowledge,  is  utterly  indispensable. 

The  most  usual  false  presentation  is  when  the  pig  comes 
sideways,  and  so  chokes  the  passage.  Here  a mere  turn  with 
the  hand,  as  soon  as  the  effort  has  ceased,  will  set  all  right.  If 
the  pig  has  sunk  down,  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  more  care; 
the  best  and  safest  plan  is,  to  have  a child’s  hand  introduced, 
to  raise  up  the  young  animal  to  its  proper  position.  This  will 
^ succeed  when  all  other  methods  will  fail.  As  soon  as  each  pig 
is  delivered  it  should  be  placed  before  its  mother,  and  it  will 
soon  begin  to  select  its  teat.  Once  selected,  it  will  generally 
keep  to  it,  if  its  right  is  not  disputed  by  a stronger  brother.  In 
this  case,  as  in  others,  the  “weakest  goes  to  the  wall,”  and  the 
weakest  pig  has  to  take  to  the  first  or  last  brace  of  teats,  which 
are  the  least  productive  of  milk.  Thus  the  smallest  and  weak- 


SWINE. 


351 


est  are  kept  down.  If  any  pig  should  be  very  weak,  and  the 
weather  should  be  very  cold,  it  may  be  taken  near  the  fire  and 
wrapped  in  flannel.  This  usually  restores  vigor.  Some  par- 
ties so  confine  all  the  first  littered  animals,  when  there  is  an 
apprehension  of  a scarcity  of  milk.  This  is  by  no  means  a bad 
contrivance. 

As  soon  as  the  pigging  is  over,  she  will  begin  to  cleanse — 
or,  in  other  words,  eject  the  placenta.  This  is  usually  as  easily 
got  over  as  farrowing;  but  a little  more  watching  will  be  neces- 
sary than  even  in  pigging.  It  should  be  immediately  removed, 
or  she  will  begin  to  eat  it,  and  may  be  thus  taught  to  devour 
poultry,  lambs,  and  very  probably  her  own  produce. 

As  parturition  usually  produces  thirst,  let  the  sow  have  a 
quart  of  slightly  warmed  milk,  and  thickened  with  a little  bran. 
This  quenches  thirst,  keeps  off  constipation,  and  is  one  of  the 
finest  of  medicines.  As  soon  as  she  has  cleansed,  and  all  the 
young  ones  have  been  suckled^  she  should  be  gently  driven 
out  to  stale;  for  such  is  the  cleanliness  of  the  pig,  that  she 
would  damage  herself,  if  she  was  not  taken  out,  rather  than 
spoil  her  bed  by  staling,  or  disturb  her  young  ones.  A little 
care  of  her  bowels,  plenty  of  bran  and  milk  food,  given  in  small 
quantities,  frequently  turning  out  for  short  periods  in  a shel- 
tered place,  will  be  necessary  at  first.  If  much  fever  or  con- 
stipation should  take  place,  a little  sulphur — two  heaped  tea- 
spoonfuls— in  her  milk  will  relieve  her;  nor  will  she  refuse  the 
milk  which  contains  it,  if  it  be  thickened  with  a little  wheat 
meal.  Barley,  and  even  oatmeal,  must  be  avoided  for  the  first 
three  or  four  days.  Afterwards  she  may  have  any  kind  of  food 
whatever,  except  meal,  which,  useful  as  it  is  to  store  pigs,  should 
never  be  given  to  those  which  are  suckling. 

Feeding. — So  long  as  the  sow  is  carrying  her  young,  feed 
her  abundantly,  and  increase  the  quantity  until  parturition 
approaches  within  a week  or  so,  when  it  is  as  well  to  diminish 
both  the  quantity  and  quality,  lest  the  acquisition  of  fat  should 
be  productive  of  danger;  but  while  she  is  giving  suck  you  can- 
not feed  too  well.  You  may  wean  the  young  at  eight  weeks 
old,  and  should  remove  them  for  that  purpose  from  the  sow. 
Feed  them  well,  frequently,  abundantly,  and  sufficiently — but 
not  more — on  moist,  nutritious  food,  and  pay  particular  atten- 


352 


SWINE. 


tion  to  their  lodgmeut.  A warm,  dry,  comfortable  bed  is  of 
fully  as  much  consequence  as  feeding,  if  not  even  of  more. 
Should  the  sow  exhibit  any  tendency  to  devour  her  young,  or 
should  she  have  done  so  on  a former  occasion,  strap  up  her 
mouth  for  the  first  three  or  four  days,  and  only  release  it  to 
admit  of  her  taking  her  meals.  Some  sows,  as  we  have  said, 
are  apt  to  lie  upon  and  crush  their  young.  This  may  be  best 
avoided  by  not  keeping  the  sow  too  fat  or  heavy,  and  by  not 
leaving  too  many  young  upon  her.  Let  the  straw  forming  the 
bed  also  be  short,  and  not  in  too  great  quantity,  lest  the  pigs 
get  huddled  up  under  it,  and  the  sow  unconsciously  overlie 
them  in  that  condition. 

The  young  pigs  should  be  gradually  fed  before  perfectly 
weaning  them;  and  for  first  food  nothing  is  so  good  as  milk, 
which  may  be  succeeded  by  ordinary  dairy  wash,  thickened 
with  oat  or  barley  meal,  or  fipe  pollard;  this  is  better  scalded, 
or,  better  still,  boiled.  To  the  sow  some  dry  food  should  be 
given  once  daily,  which  might  consist  of  peas  or  beans.  Swed- 
ish turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  or  the  like,  either  well  boiled  or 
raw,  may  be  given;  but  the  food  should  be  always  boiled,  or, 
what  is  better,  steamed.  Some  wean  the  pigs  within  a few 
hours  after  birth.  It  can  hardly  be  conceived  under  what  cir- 
cumstances this  may  be  found  advantageous;  but  the  best 
mode  of  management  is  clearly  to  turn  the  boar  into  the  hog 
yard  a month  or  two  after  parturition,  at  which  time  it  is  proper 
to  remove  the  sows  for  a few  hours  daily  from  the  young,  and 
let  them  accept  their  overtures  when  they  please.  It  does  not 
injure  either  the  sow  or  her  young  if  she  take  the  boar  while 
sucking;  but  some  sows  will  not  do  so  until  the  cessation  of 
their  milk,  and  this  is  much  more  natural. 

Swill  Barrels  and  Troughs. — In  some  convenient  place, 
near  the  pig  pens,  there  should  be  a receptacle  for  the  wash 
from  the  house,  milk,  whey,  waste  vegetables,  and  other  refuse. 
This  is  often  nothing  more  than  an  old  pork  or  cider  barrel. 
It  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  anything  more  inconvenient.  It  is 
too  high,  and  too  circumscribed.  A far  more  convenient  and 
inexpensive  arrangement  is  to  make  a tub  out  of  two-inch  pine 
planks — say  six  feet  long,  two  and  a half  wide,  and  two  feet, 
or  two  and  a half  or  three  feet  high — according  to  the  number 


SWINE. 


353 


of  pigs  kept.  Or,  what  is  better  still,  make  such  a tub  out  of 
plank  twelve  feet  long,  and  have  a partition  in  the  middle.  In 
this  way  you  have  two  tubs  in  one.  The  food  for  the  store 
pigs  can  be  kept  in  one,  and  that  for  the  fattening  pigs  in  the 
other.  It  is  desirable  to  have  two  such  tubs,  each  twelve  feet 
long,  and  divided  in  the  middle.  Such  tubs  are  often  made 
flaring,  being  wider  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom.  It  should 
be  put  on  with  hinges,  and  made  of  planed  and  matched  inch 
boards,  and  divided  in  the  center  of  the  tub,  so  that  one  part 
may  be  closed  while  the  other  is  open,  if  desired. 

At  the  house,  a barrel  should  be  placed  in  some  convenient 

place,  for  the  reception  of  all 
dish-water  and  refuse.  If  this 
barrel  is  set  on  wheels,  as  shown 
in  the  engraving,  it  can  be 
easily  conveyed  to  the  pig  pens, 
and  emptied  into  one  of  the 
tubs  above  described.  It  should 
then  be  mixed  with  a little  meal, 
Portable  Swill  Barrel.  and  allowed  to  remain  until 

the  particles  of  meal  become  quite  soft.  It  is  then  much  more 
easily  digested.  If  a slight  fermentation  takes  place,  by 
which  the  starch  of  the  meal  is  converted  into  sugar,  and  a lit- 
tle of  it  into  alcohol,  the  pigs  appear  to  relish  it  all  the  better. 
A small  amount  of  meal  fed  to  store  pigs  in  this  manner,  in 
summer,  enables  us  to  obtain  much  more  benefit  from  the 
milk,  whey,  and  house  wash  than  when  fed  alone.  Every  pig 
pen  should,  be  provided 
with  two  troughs — one 
for  food,  and  the  other 
for  water. 

Cast-iron  pig  troughs, 
of  different  patterns,  are 
sold  at  the  agricultural 
implement  stores.  One 
of  them  is  shown  in  the 
cut;  the  weight  of  the  one  figured 
pounds. 

Castration. — In  castrating  hogs,  let  a 

21 


Cast-iron  Pig  Trough. 

hundred  and 


is  one 


person  grasp 


ten 


the 


354 


SWINE. 


young  pig,  which  should  be  from  fourteen  to  twenty-one  days 
old,  by  both  its  hind  legs,  with  its  face  to  the  person,  and  so 
as  to  expose  the  tests  on  a level  with  the  hands  of  the  opera- 
tor. The  skin  of  the  tests  is  loose;  and,  with  a lancet,  or 
sharp  round-pointed  knife — the  latter  being  generally  adopted 
— a longitudinal  cut  is  given  to  the  scrotum  over  each  of  the 
testes.  The  finger  and  thumb  are  then  pressed  gently  on  each 
side  of  the  incision,  until  the  testes  protrudes,  which  is  then 
grasped  gently  by  the  other  hand,  and  the  spermatic  cord  sep- 
arated by  the  knife.  The  operation  is  very  rapidly  done,  and 
need  not  occupy  more  than  three  minutes.  It  is  desirable  that 
the  pigs  should  fast  a few  hours  after  the  operation;  but  they 
seem  to  suffer  so  little  from  it,  that  they  will  seldom  be  even 
stiff  the  next  morning. 

When  the  pig  is  a greater  age,  the  operation  is  one  of 
greater  difficulty;  with  the  aged  boar,  especially,  it  is  a very 
difficult  affair,  as  he  cannot  be  held  up  in  the  way  the  young 
pigs  can  under  a month  old.  It  is  thus  necessary  to  lay  him 
on  his  side,  and  have  him  well  secured  before  the  operation  is 
performed.  He  should  also  fast  a little  before  the  operation, 
as  well  as  the  following  night,  and  be  supplied  only  with  bran 
and  milk  after.  Sows  in  season  should  be  kept  from  him  till 
the  wound  is  healed. 

There  is  more  difficulty,  however,  in  performing  the  opera- 
tion, either  in  the  old  or  young,  where  there  is  a rupture,  which 
is  not  unfrequently  the  case.  Greater  care  must  be  taken  in 
making  a perfectly  clean  cut.  The  pigs  should  fast  a day  be- 
fore, and  a night,  at  least,  after  the  operation;  and  the  scrotum 
should  be  carefully  stiched  up  after  the  operation,  otherwise 
inflammation  will  ensue. 

Spaying. — The  spaying  of  female  or  gilt  pigs,  is  a more 
difficult  operation,  and  requires  generally  much  more  care.  An 
ignorant  operator  often  makes  sad  mistakes,  and  frequently 
produces  irremediable  injury.  The  operation  is  usually  per- 
formed when  about  three  weeks  old,  and  the  whole  litter  is  cut 
at  prices  varying,  in  different  localities.  The  animal  is  first 
laid  on  its  right  side,  so  that  the  left,  or  near  side,  is  upwards. 
The  two  hind  legs  are  stretched  out  straight,  so  as  to  present 
the  mid-flank  fully  exposed  to  the  operation.  An  incision, 


SWINE. 


355 


about  two  inches  long,  is  then  made  with  the  round-pointed 
knife,  and  the  tumb  and  finger  are  introduced  to  search  for 
the  ovaries,  which  are  easily  found,  from  their  being  separate 
at  one  end  and  presenting  a convoluted  or  knotted  appearance 
to  the  eye.  These  are  collected  together,  and  folded  over  the 
edge  of  the  wound  downwards,  and  when  the  operator  is  satis- 
fied that  all  are  exposed,  he  cuts  them  by  a little  pressure  of 
the  knife  towards  the  skin,  and  the  uterus  falls  back  into  its 
place.  He  then  proceeds  to  stitch  up  the  orifice  with  three 
or  four  stiches.  A little  fasting  for  a short  time  is  generally 
required,  especially  from  large  quantities  of  liquid  food,  and 
they  usually  very  soon  recover.  The  only  care  the  operator 
has  to  take,  is  to  clean  his  knife  well  after  every  cut,  to  secure 
the  whole  of  the  ovaria,  and  to  avoid  stiching  up  any  of  the 
intestines  with  the  skin.  If  this  be  done,  death  is  almost  cer- 
tain to  follow.  Though  an  operation  usually  performed  at 
or  before  a month  old,  both  spaying  and  castrating  may  be  safely 
done  at  any  reasonable  age  of  the  animal. 

Weaning. — This  usually  takes  place  at  six  or  eight  weeks 
old.  Long  before  this,  a little  new  milk,  or  boiled  skim-milk, 
should  be  placed  before  them,  and  they  will  soon  be  taught  to 
drink.  Hence  the  weaning,  when  it  takes  place,  will  be  a 
much  smaller  privation  to  animals;  and  they  will  scarcely 
ever  know  it,  if  they  previously  eat  well  and  have  plenty  of 
milk,  with  a little  barley  or  bran  meal. 

At  weaning  time  the  young  pigs  may  be  rung.  This  opera- 
tion must,  of  course,  be  to  a certain  extent  a painful  one,  but, 
perhaps,  scarcely  so  much  so  as  the  noisy  demonstrations  on 
the  part  of  the  little  sufferers  would  seem  to  indicate.  No  young 
animals  like  to  be  rudely  meddled  with,  and  of  all  animals,  the 
pig  is  about  the  least  manageable  as  a patient.  Ringing,  is, 
however,  absolutely  necessary,  unless  the  cartilage  of  the  nose 
be  cut  away,  a practice  resorted  to  in  substitution  for  it  in 
some  parts  of  the  country.  The  latter  practice  is,  however, 
far  more  cruel  than  ringing,  and  its  efficacy  is  stated  by  many 
to  be  at  the  best  questionable.  A sow  in  pig  should  never  be 
rung;  it  often  produces  epilepsy  in  the  young  pigs. 

After  about  five  weeks’  high  and  careful  feeding,  subse- 
quent to  weaning,  the  young  pigs  may  be  put  up  for  stores^ 


356 


SWINE. 


porkers,  etc.,  according  to  the  owner’s  views  respecting  them. 
Very  young  pigs,  indeed,  immediately  after  being  weaned,  if 
fed  on  the  refuse  of  a dairy,  will  be  brought  up  for  delicious 
pork  in  five  or  six  weeks;  for  the  last  week  prior  to  killing, 
the  addition  of  beans,  peas,  or  bruised  corn,  will  impart  a 
degree  of  firmness  to  the  flesh,  which  is  considered  an  improve- 
ment. This  is  called  “ dairy  fed  pork,”  and  it  never  fails  to 
fetch  an  enhanced  price,  thereby  amply  remunerating  the 
producer. 

Fattening’. — Pigs  designed  for  pork  should  not  be  fattened 
to  the  same  extent  as  those  designed  for  bacon.  Porkers, 
when  intended  for  domestic  use,  may  be  allowed  to  run  at 
large.  Grazing,  or  the  run  of  a wood  in  which  roots  or  nuts 
may  be  met  with,  is  calculated,  in  an  eminent  degree,  to 
improve  the  quality  of  their  flesh.  Of  course,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  give  the  pigs  regular  meals,  independently  of  what  they 
can  thus  cater  for  themselves;  and  the  hours  for  so  doing 
should  be  in  the  morning,  before  the  pigs  are  let  out,  and  in  the 
evening,  before  they  are  returned  to  the  sty.  Pigs  are  more 
sagacious  than  they  generally  obtain  credit  for.  They  speedily 
become  habituated  to  the  afternoon  hour  of  feeding,  and  regu- 
larly resort  to  the  sties  for  their  accustomed  dinner,  thus 
saving  considerable  trouble  that  would  otherwise  arise  from 
the  necessity  of  collecting  and  driving  them  home.  But  when 
pork  feeding  is  carried  on  solely  for  profit,  there  can  be  no 
question  that  the  sty  is  the  only  place  where  they  should  be 
kept.  For  the  period  they  are  confined,  the  want  of  exercise, 
even  in  young  animals,  does  not  at  all  interfere  with  their 
health,  and  they  will  lay  on  fat  much  more  speedily  and  easily 
if  they  are  confined.  Sleep  seems  to  be  as  necessary  to  the 
pig  for  fattening  even  as  food.  Hence,  a warm,  comfortable 
bed  of  hay  will  always  compensate  the  pork-feeder,  and  so 
will  a supply  of  earth,  or,  what  is  even  better,  small  coals. 
When  confinement  is  adopted,  this  is  absolutely  necessary; 
and  the  want  of  this  is  often  so  great  that  the  sty  is  rooted  up, 
and  even  the  walls  are  attacked.  When  these  symptoms  take 
place,  it  is  by  no  means  indicative  of  a depraved  appetite,  to 
which  the  habit  is  generally  attributed,  but  to  a want  of 
management  in  supplying  edible  alkalies  to  the  animal  to  neu- 


SWINE. 


357 


tralize  the  acid  and  assist  digestion.  Too  many  swine  should 
‘not  be  kept  in  one  sty;  and  if  a young  one  appears  at  any  time 
to  have  become  an  object  of  persecution  to  the  rest,  he  should 
be  withdrawn.  The  introduction  of  strangers  should  likewise 
be  avoided. 

Bacon  pigs  fatten  best  by  themselves.  They  need  no 
liberty;  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the  sty  dry  and  clean, 
and  to  feed  abundantly,  in  order  to  prepare  them  for  the 
knife.  In  order  to  fatten  a pig,  his  comfort  must,  in  every 
respect,  be  attended  to;  and  there  cannot  be  a more  gratifying 
sound  to  the  ears  of  the  zealous  pig-feeder  than  that  peculiar 
self-satisfied,  contented  grunt,  with  which  the  huge  hog,  bask- 
ing, perhaps,  beneath  a summer’s  sun,  announces  to  his  admir- 
ing owner  that  all  his  wants  and  wishes  have  been  gratified. 
This  is  the  never-failing  omen  of  success,  and  you  may 
look  for  such  weight  and  condition  as  will  bring  to  your  purse 
the  remunerative  commendation  you  have  earned. 

Professor  Johnston,  who  may  always  be  safely  quoted  on 
all  matters  of  agricultural  science,  gives  a table  of  the  com- 
parative nutritive  elements  of  different  kinds  of  food,  and  from 
which  we  select  those  materials  used  in  pig-feeding,  omitting 
the  parts  of  the  table  not  applicable: 


Heat-producing. 

Starch,  Sugar,  Gum, 

&c. 

Flesh-and-bone-pro- 

DUCING. 

Gluten,  albumen,  legu- 
men,  &c. 

Fat-producing. 

Fatty  matter — per  cent. 

Wheat 

55 

Wheat 

...  15 

Wheat 

3 

Barley 

. 60 

Barley 

...  14 

Barley 

2 

Oats 

. 60 

Oats , 

...  16 

Oats 

6 

Rye 

. 60 

Rye .' 

. . . 13 

Rve  

3 

Indian  corn 

. 70 

Indian  corn 

...  12 

Indian  corn 

7 

Rice 

. 75 

Rice 

...  7 

Rice 

0.7 

Beans 

. 40 

Beans 

...  26 

Beans 

3 

Peas . . . 

. 50 

Peas 

...  24 

Peas 

2.1 

Potatoes 

18 

Potatoes 

. ..  2 

Potatoes 

0.3 

Turnips  

. 9 

Turnips 

1.5 

Turnips 

0.3 

Carrots 

. 10 

Carrots 

...  1.5 

Carrots 

0.4 

Mangel  wurzel 

11 

Mangel  wurzel 

...  2 

Mangel  wurzel 

Now,  as,  it  is  generally  economical  to  combine  roots  with 
grain,  potatoes  are  the  most  useful  as  a root  and  oats  as  a 
grain;  and,  therefore,  they  are  usually  selected  by  the  best  pig- 
feeders,  and  are  the  usual  aliments  where  large  and  fat  pigs 
are  the  desiderata. 

Wheat  meal,  now  that  grain  can  be  purchased,  husk  and 
flour,  cheaper  than  before,  is  by  far  the  cheapest  of  all  kinds 


358 


SWINE. 


of  grain;  but  it  is  hardly  so  well  relished  as  oatmeal,  because 
it  adheres,  from  its  glutinous  character,  to  the  teeth  of  the 
animals,  and  thus  annoys  them;  and  all  disturbances  invariably 
do  harm  to  fattening  animals. 

For  store  pigs  nothing  more  will  be  requisite  than  the  pick- 
ings of  the  fold-yard  (especially  where  cattle  are  fed  on  lin- 
seed cake,  for  they  will  carefully  collect  all  the  dung  in  this 
case  and  feed  upon  it),  with  a few  chopped  turnips  and  a little 
sour  wash  in  winter.  In  summer  they  may  run  out  in  the 
grass-fields,  and  have  a little  wash,  in  which  almost  any  refuse 
may  be  thrown.  A very  carefully  selected  breed  of  pigs  were 
fattened  on  nothing  but  grass  and  water  in  several  cases.  As 
the  pastures  fail,  and  before  the  stubbles  are  ready,  a handful 
of  old  dry  beans  in  the  morning,  per  animal,  will  exercise  a 
very  wonderful  influence  for  the  better;  the  binding  character 
of  the  beans  will  counteract  the  too  relaxing  wash  and  grass; 
and,  when  the  harvest  is  over,  the  stubbles  are  a very  valuable 
auxiliary.  When  these  are  finished,  the  pigs  should  at  once  be 
put  up  to  feed;  and  at  first  a large  quantity  of  roots  may  be 
given.  It  is  a great  satisfaction,  then,  that  diseased  potatoes 
will  not  only  have  no  injurious  tendency  on  either  the  live 
animal  or  its  bacon,  but  will  be  almost,  if  not  altogether,  as  fat- 
tening as  when  they  are  sound.  Hence  the  value  of  a stock  of 
pigs. 

As  the  feeding  progresses,  barley  or  oatmeal  should  be  given 
in  increasing  proportions;  and,  as  the  process  becomes  more 
nearly  completed,  the  whole  of  the  roots  may  be  abstracted 
with  advantage.  Boiling  and  steaming  the  food  is  absolutely 
essential  to  pigs. 

The  digestive  powers  of  the  pig  are  by  no  means  strong. 
They  partake  of  the  sluggishness  of  his  general  organism. 
Hence  he  must  have  his  roots  broken  down  by  steam  or  boil- 
ing, and  his  grain  not  merely  crushed,  but  absolutely  made 
into  flour.  He  will  feed  better  also  on  slop  food,  which  has 
undergone  one  process  of  decomposition — fermentation — than 
when  it  is  fresh. 

Those  who  make  pig  feeding  a business,  and  consequently 
keep  a number  of  these  animals,  should  so  manage  as  to  be 
enabled  to  provide  for  their  maintenance  and  fattening  from 


SWINE. 


359 


the  produce  of  their  crops.  They  should  therefore  cultivate 
for  p'ig-feeding,  Deans,  peas,  barley,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  flax, 
parsnips,  carrots,  cabbage,  lettuce,  Lucerne,  Italian  rye-grass, 
clover,  rape,  chicory,  and  vetches;  they  should  also  sow  thistle 
— which  is  a most  nutritious  article  of  diet  for  pigs,  but  sc 
much  neglected  that  it  is  as  yet  scarcely  ever  to  be  met  with  in 
a state  of  cultivation,  or  in  any  condition  but  that  of  a weed. 

Ere  leaving  this  subject,  we  must  mention  one  practice,  too 
little  known,  or  too  much  neglected  by  swine-feeders — a prac- 
tice, also,  that  will  be  found  to  conduct  materially  to  that 
great  object  of  all  swine-feeders,  the  production  of  bulk  and 
weight  at  the  lowest  possible  outlay.  The  practice  is  washing. 
A hog  washed  weekly  with  soap  and  a brush  will  be  found  to 
thrive,  and  put  up  flesh  in  a ratio  of  at  least  five  to  three,  ill 
comparison  with  a pig  not  so  treated.  This  fact  has  been  well 
tried.  There  can  be  no  possible  question  about  its  correct- 
ness; and  the  duty  is  not  a very  difficult  matter  to  perform — 
for  the  swine,  as  soon  as  they  discover  the  real  character  of 
the  operation,  are  far  from  being  disposed  to  resist;  and  after 
a couple  of  washings  they  submit  to  the  ceremony  with  the 
best  grace  imaginable. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  request  the  reader  to  observe  a few 
cautions  in  conjunction  with  the  directions  already  given  rela- 
tive to  feeding. 

Avoid  foul  feeding.  No  feed  fit  for  the  table  can  pro- 
ceed from  unclean  feeding. 

Add  salt  in  moderate  quantities  to  the  mess  given;  you 
will  find  your  account  in  attending  to  this. 

Feed  at  regular  intervals.  Nothing  is  more  essential 
to  a healthy  animal. 

Cleanse  the  trough  previous  to  feeding,  by  washing 
out  carefully.  Without  this  precaution  all  other  attempts  at 
cleanliness  will  be  in  vain. 

Do  not  overfeed;  give  only  as  much  as  will  be  consumed 
at  the  meal.  Never  allow  any  to  remain  in  the  trough;  clean 
it  out  for  the  store  pigs. 

Vary  your  bill  of  fare.  Variety  will  create,  or,  at  all 
events,  increase  appetite,  and  it  is  farther  most  conducive  to 
health.  Let  your  variations  be  guided  by  the  state  of  the  dung 


360 


SWINE. 


cast;  this  should  be  of  medium  consistence,  and  of  a greyish- 
brown  color;  if  hard,  increase  the  quantity  of  bran  and  succu- 
lent roots;  if  too  liquid,  dimish  or  dispense  with  bran;  give 
beans  or  acorns,  and  let  the  mess  be  firmer.  If  you  can  add  a 
portion  of  corn,  that  which  is  spoiled,  and  thus  rendered  unfit 
for  other  purposes,  will  be  found  to  answer  perfectly  well. 

Feed  your  stock  separately,  in  classes,  according  to 
their  relative  conditions;  keep  sows  in  young  by  themselves; 
stores  by  themselves;  and  bacon  pigs  and  porkers  by  them- 
selves. It  is  not  advisable  to  keep  your  stores  to  high  in 
flesh;  for  high  feeding,  however  strange  it  may  seem,  is  calcu- 
lated to  retard  development  of  form  and  bulk.  It  is  better  to 
feed  pigs  intended  to  be  put  up  for  bacon,  loosely,  and  not 
too  abundantly,  until  they  have  attained  their  full  stature. 
You  can  then  bring  them  into  the  highest  possible  condition  in 
an  inconceivably  short  space  of  time.  It  is  by  such  a system 
of  management  as  this  that  the  monstrous  swine  are  raised — 
their  weight  frequently  exceeding  twelve  hundred  pounds,  or, 
at  all  events,  half  a ton. 

DO  NOT  REGRET  THE  LOSS  OR  SCARCITY  OF  POTATOES  SO 
far  as  swine-feeding  is  concerned.  The  potato  is  capable  of 
being  replaced;  and  its  loss  has  been  the  means  of  stimulating 
inquiry,  and  producing  experiment,  which  has  resulted  in  the 
discovery  that  many  other  useful  vegetables  have  been  hitherto 
neglected,  and  foolishly  passed  aside. 

Do  NOT  NEGLECT  TO  KEEP  YOUR  SWINE  CLEAN,  DRY,  AND 
warm.  These  are  essentials,  and  not  a whit  less  imperative 
than  feeding;  for  an  inferior  description  of  food  will,  by  their 
aid,  succeed  far  better  than  the  highest  feeding  will  without 
them;  and  while  we  speak  of  cleanliness,  suffer  us  to  reiterate 
the  benefit  derivable  from  washing  your  pigs;  this  will  repay 
your  trouble  manifold.  They  are  always  washed  for  agricultu- 
ral shows,  where  they  must  be  exhibited  fat. 

Watch  the  markets.  Sell  when  you  see  a reasonable 
profit  before  you.  Many  a man  has  swamped  himself  by  his 
avidity,  and  by  desiring  to  realize  an  unusual  amount  of  gain. 
Recollect  how  very  fluctuating  are  the  markets,  and  that  a 
certain  gain  is  far  better  than  the  risk  of  loss.  Even  great 
capitalists  have  fallen  from  over-avidity.  Do  you  recollect  two 


SWINE. 


361 

homely  proverbs,  but  not  the  less  true: — “Make  your  hay  while 
while  the  sun  shines;”  and  “A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in 
the  bush.” 

Slaughtering’. — A pig  that  is  to  be  killed  should  be  kept 
without  food  for  from  twelve  to  sixteen  hours  previous  to 
slaughtering;  a little  water  must,  however,  be  within  his  reach. 
He  should,  in  the  first  place,  be  stunned  by  a blow  on  the 
head.  Some  advise  that  the  knife  should  be  thrust  into  the 
neck  so  as  to  sever  the  artery  leading  from  the  heart;  while 
others  prefer  that  the  animal  should  be  stuck  through  the 
brisket  in  the  direction  of  the  heart — care  being  exercised  not 
to  touch  the  first  rib.  The  blood  should  then  be  allowed  to 
drain  from  the  carcass  into  vessels  placed  for  the  purpose;  and 
the  more  completely  it  does  so,  the  better  will  be  the  meat. 

A large  tub,  or  other  vessel,  has  been  previously  got  ready, 
which  is  now  filled  with  boiling  water.  The  carcass  of  the  hog 
is  plunged  into  this,  and  the  hair  is  then  removed  with  the 
edge  of  a knife.  The  hair  is  more  easily  removed  if  the  hog  is 
scalded  before  he  stiffens,  or  becomes  quite  cold.  It  is  not, 
however,  necessary,  but  simply  brutal  and  barbarous,  to  scald 
him  while  there  is  yet  some  life  in  him.  Bacon-hogs  may  be 
singed  by  enveloping  the  body  in  straw,  and  setting  the  straw 
on  fire,  and  then  scraping  it  all  over.  When  is  this  done,  care 
must  be  observed  not  to  burn  or  parch  the  cuticle.  The  en- 
trails should  then  be  removed,  and  the  interior  of  the  body  well 
washed  with  lukewarm  water,  so  as  to  remove  all  blood  and 
impurities,  and  afterward  wiped  dry  with  a clean  cloth;  the 
carcass  should  then  be  hung  up  in  a cool  place  for  eighteen  or 
twenty  hours,  to  become  set  and  firm. 

For  cutting  up,  the  carcass  should  be  laid  on  the  back,  upon 
a strong  table.  The  head  should  then  be  cut  off  close  by  the 
ears,  and  the  hinder  feet  so  far  below  the  houghs  as  not  to  dis- 
figure the  hams,  and  leave  room  sufficient  for  hanging  them 
up;  after  which  the  carcass  is  divided  into  equal  halves,  up 
the  middle  of  the  back-bone,  with  a cleaving  knife,  and,  if 
necessary,  a hand-mallet.  Then  cut  the  ham  from  the  side  by 
the  second  joint  of  the  back-bone,  which  will  appear  on  divid- 
ing the  carcass,  and  dress  the  ham  by  paring  a little  off  the 
flank,  or  skinny  part,  so  as  to  shape  it  with  a half  round  point, 


362 


SWINE. 


clearing  off  any  top  fat  which  may  appear.  Next  cut  off  the 
sharp  edge  along  the  back-bone  with  a knife  and  mallet,  and 
slice  off  the  first  rib  next  the  shoulder,  where  there  is  a bloody 
vein,  which  must  be  taken  out,  since,  if  it  isdeft  in,  that  partis 
apt  to  spoil.  The  corners  should  be  squared  off  when  the  ham 
is  cut.  The  ordinary  practice  is  to  cut  out  the  spine  or  back 
bone.  Some  take  out  the  chine  and  upper  parts  of  the  ribs  in 
the  first  place;  indeed,  almost  every  locality  has  its  peculiar 
mode  of  proceeding 

Pickling1  and  Curing. — Bacon. — This  is  cured  in  very  dif- 
ferent ways.  For  domestic  use,  it  is  usually  laid  upon  a table, 
and  salt,  with  a little  nitre,  added,  well  rubbed  in,  first  on  one 
side  and  then  on  the  other,  either  with  the  bare  hand  or  the 
salting  glove.  Some  straw  is  then  placed  on  the  floor  of  an 
outhouse,  a flitch  is  laid  thereon,  with  the  rind  downwards — 
straw  laid  upon  this,  then  another  flitch,  and  so  on.  Above 
the  whole  is  placed  a board,  and  heavy  stones  or  weights  above 
all.  In  three  weeks  or  a month  the  meat  is  sufficiently  salted 
and  is  hung  up  to  hooks  in  the  kitchen  rafters.  The  general 
practice  of  burning  wood  and  turf  in  some  kitchens  imparts  a 
sweetness  to  the  bacon  thus  saved  that  is  not  to  be  met  with  in 
any  which  you  can  purchase. 

Another  mode  is  as  follows:  Prepare  a pickle,  by  boiling 
common  salt  and  nitre  in  water;  mix,  for  a single  pig  of  toler- 
able size,  one  pound  of  coarse  brown  sugar  with  half  a pound 
of  nitre,  and,  by  mixing  all  the  sugar  and  nitre  you  require  to 
use  in  the  first  instance,  you  will  prevent  its  being  purloined 
by  children  or  servants;  rub  this  well  in  with  the  salting  gloves; 
then  put  the  meat  into  the  pickle,  and  let  it  lie  in  this  for  two 
days;  afterwards  take  it  out  of  the  pickle,  and  rub  it  with  salt 
alone;  then  put  it  back  into  the  pickle. 

For  a Mild  Cure. — Form  sweet  pickle  by  boiling  molasses 
with  salt  and  water;  rub  the  meat  with  sugar  and  nitre;  add  a 
small  portion  of  strong  pickle  to  the  meat;  put  the  meat  into 
this,  and  let  it  lie  in  it  for  three  weeks.  If  there  be  any  spare 
room  in  the  cask,  fill  it  up  with  molasses.  Eight  pounds  of 
salt,  one  pound  of  nitre,  and  six  pints  of  molasses,  will  about 
suffice  for  each  hundred  weight  of  meat,  and  will  take  about 
five  gallons  pf  water.  In  about  three  weeks — less  or  rqore 


SWINE. 


363 


time  being  required  according  to  size — take  the  meat  out  of 
pickle,  and  hang  it  in  the  drying  house.  While  in  the  drying 
house  the  flitches  should  be  hung  neck  downwards.  You  may 
cut  out  the  ham  and  trim  the  flitch  according  to  fancy.  Nearly 
every  county  has,  in  this  respect,  a fashion  of  its  own.  Then, 
if  you  possess  the  means,  remove  your  hams  and  bacon  to  the 
smoking  house.  They  should  not  be  suffered  to  touch  each 
other.  With  this  precaution  you  may  hang  them  as  closely  as 
you  please.  Some  houses  are  of  every  dimension;  but  the 
smallest  answer  as  well  as  the  most  extensive.  Before  suspend- 
ing the  meat  in  the  smoke  house,  it  should  be  previously  well 
iubbed  over  with  bran.  The  fire  is  made  of  saw-dust,  which 
burns  with  a low,  smouldering  glow,  giving  out  far  more  smoke 
than  if  actually  flaming.  In  the  process  of  smoking,  your  meat 
will  lose  from  about  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  per  hundred 
weight — a fact  necessary  to  be  borne  in  mind. 

Sometimes  the  pigs  are  killed  before  they  arrive  at  full  size, 
and  their  hair  removed  by  singing;  the  bacon  and  hams  of  these 
are  said  to  possess  peculiar  delicacy  of  flavor. 

The  best  saw-dust  for  smoking  hams  or  bacon  is  that  made 
from  oak,  and  it  should  be  thoroughly  dry.  The  saw-dust  of 
common  deal  imparts  a flavor  of  a disagreeable  character,  not 
unlike  that  of  red  herrings. 

Westphalian  Hams. — The  genuine  Westphalian  bacon  is 
particularly  good;  but  all  sold  under  that  name  is  not  genuine. 
In  London,  especially,  spurious  Westphalian  hams  are  manu- 
factured to  a considerable  extent.  The  process  of  imitation  is 
not  difficult,  and  none  but  one  of  the  trade  can  detect  the  im- 
posture. The  fine  quality  of  Westphalian  bacon  depends  on 
several  causes;  the  healthy  and  semi- wild  life  the  swine  are 
permitted  to  enjoy — their  relationship  to  the  wild  boar — and 
not  being  fattened  to  the  fullest  extent  previous  to  the  killing. 
A large  portion  of  sugar  and  juniper-berries  are  used  in  curing, 
the  proportion  being  usually  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar 
to  three  of  salt,  and  two  ounces  of  nitre.  The  smoke  is  also., 
applied  in  a cold  state.  This  is,  perhaps,  the  principal  secret. 
The  hams  are  hung  at  the  top  of  a very  lofty  building,  and  by 
the  time  the  smoke  reaches  them  it  is  perfectly  cold. 

The  ham  of  the  Westphalian  hog  closely  resembles  that  of 


364 


SWINE. 


the  common  old  Irish  breed;  and  the  hams  of  that  animal, 
when  cured  as  has  been  described,  could  not  be  distinguished 
from  those  of  Westphalian  by  the  nicest  judges,  and  are,  there- 
fore, sometimes  used  to  deceive. 

Yorkshire  Bacon. — There  are  few  counties  where,  upon 
the  whole,  a finer  kind  of  bacon  is  procured  than  in  this  large 
county.  Commencing  by  a pure  breed — fed  by  farmers  in  the 
corn  districts,  and  dairymen  in  the  grazing  valleys,  on  the  very 
best  milk  and  barley,  with  a small  proportion  of  potatoes — it 
has  none  of  those  rancid  and  disagreeable  flavors  so  often  ap- 
plying to  Irish  and  American  bacon.  The  mode  of  curing 
adopted  is  the  following: 

The  pig,  after  hanging  twenty-four  hours,  is  thoroughly 
stiffened,  and  is  then  cut  up  in  the  ordinary  mode.  The 
shoulders  are  carefully  searched  for  the  large  veins  which  pro- 
ceed from  the  jugular,  and,  as  the  last  blood  is  frequently  found 
in  these  veins,  they  are  carefully  extracted  with  a fork.  The 
bacon  is  then  removed  to  leaden  bowls — salt  wiped  over  the 
smooth  side — the  shanks  carefully  stopped  for  four  to  six  in- 
ches deep  with  salt  and  saltpetre.  This  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant facts  in  curing  bacon.  The  skin  side  is  then  laid  down- 
wards, and  the  whole  flesh  side  covered  with  salt,  and  sprinkled 
with  saltpetre.  The  same  applies  to  the  hams  and  the  other 
sides,  and  the  proportion  of  coarse  salt — which  is  always  used 
for  the  purpose  in  preference  to  the  more  finely  powdered — 
allowed  for  a twenty  stone  pig,  is  one  stone  of  salt  and  one 
pound  of  saltpetre;  and  so  on  in  proportion.  Two  or  three 
pigs  may  be  laid  in  a leaden  bowl  exposed  to  a north  aspect, 
with  plenty  of  air,  and  in  a clean  place,  especially  free  from 
putrifying  matter.  In  three  days  all  the  sides  are  removed,  the 
bottom  ones  placed  uppermost,  and  the  whole  of  the  bare 
places  in  the  flesh  side  are  again  covered  with  salt.  In  this 
way  it  is  removed  three  or  four  times  in  a month,  during  which 
time  it  is  said  to  be  in  pickle.  At  the  end  of  this  period  it  is 
.taken  out  of  the  leaden  bowl,  set  on  an  edge,  and  wiped  with 
a cloth  to  dry  off  the  extraneous  salt.  It  is  hung  for  three 
weeks  more  in  the  kitchen,  and  is  then  fit  for  storing  away. 
This  is  generally  done  in  sacks,  strewed  with  bran,  where  it  re- 
mains until  taken  out  for  use. 


SWINE. 


305 

Limerick  and  Belfast  Hams. — Limerick  and  Belfast 
hams  are  cured  in  the  following  manner:  They  are,  as  we  have 
said,  cut  fresh  from  the  pig,  with  the  hip-bones  left  in  them, 
and  are  placed  on  a flagged  floor,  the  front  of  the  second  ham 
resting  upon  the  shank  of  the  first,  and  so  on  until  all  are 
placed;  they  are  then  sprinkled  with  strong  pickle  from  a 
watering-pot,  and  a small  quantity  of  salt  is  shaken  over  them. 
Next  day  the  hams  are  taken  up,  well  rubbed  with  salt  and 
laid  down  as  before,  when  saltpetre  is  shaken  over  them  in 
quantities  proportionate  to  their  size;  they  are  left  so  for  two 
days,  and  then  taken  up  and  rubbed  as  before,  when  they  are 
laid  down  again,  according  to  the  space  they  have  to  fill — 
from  three  to  six  hams  in  height,  with  layers  of  salt  between. 
After  six  days,  the  hams  are  reversed  in  the  piles;  that  is, 
those  that  were  packed  on  the  top  are  put  at  the  bottom. 
They  then  remain  for  six  days  longer  in  the  pile,  when  they 
are  considered  cured.  They  are  then  taken  up  and  washed, 
and  hung  up  to  dry  in  the  air.  When  they  are  to  be  smoked, 
they  are  placed  in  a house  for  that  purpose,  and  smoked — in 
Belfast,  with  wheaten  straw  and  saw-dust;  in  Limerick,  with 
peat  or  turf. 


DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 


PIG  TIED  FOR  “DRENCHING.” 


Drenching  Pigs. — A common  form  of  administering  medi- 
cine to  cattle,  sheep  and  pigs,  is  by  “ drenching  ” them.  The 


SWINL. 


3GG 

medicinal  ingredients  of  the  “ drench  ” are  mixed  with  some 
fluid,  as  ale  or  some  sort  of  gruel,  and  the  mixture  is  usually 
administered  by  means  of  a horn,  the  base  of  which  is  cut  off 
diagonally,  so  as  to  produce  a large  opening.  The  head  of  th*e 
animal  is  raised  a little  by  an  assistant,  while  the  operator 
pulls  away  the  cheek  of  the  right  side  of  the  mouth,  which 
forms  a pouch  or  pocket,  and  into  this  the  medicine  can  be 
poured  without  any  danger  of  causing  suffocation.  Owing  to 
their  obstinate  and  contrary  character,  there  is  generally  con- 
siderable more  difficulty  in  drenching  pigs  than  any  other 
domestic  animal.  When  small,  the  animal  is  usually  seized  by 
the  ears,  placed  between  the  holder’s  legs,  and  the  fore  legs 
are  raised  a few  inches  from  the  ground.  Another  person, 
having  the  medicine  properly  mixed  in  a basin  or  other  vessel, 
pours  a quantity  of  it  from  time  to  time  into  the  pig’s  mouth 
by  means  of  a large  spoon.  The  slight  elevation  forward  at 
which  the  animal  is  held  causes  the  liquid  to  flow  backward 
and  be  swallowed  without  risk  of  choking.  Larger  animals 
are  fastened  to  a post  or  rail  by  means  of  a running  noose,  as 
illustrated.  Here  the  medicine  is  poured  into  the  mouth  on 
the  right  side,  as  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  pigs,  the  cord 
being  raised  with  the  left  hand  whenever  the  head  has  to  be 
elevated.  By  this  means,  although  the  beast’s  dissatisfaction 
finds  utterance  in  loud  and  frequent  screams,  the  medicine 
can  be  readily  administered. 

Catching  the  Pig. — Swine  are  very  difficult  animals  to 
obtain  any  mastery  over,  or  to  operate  on,  or  to  examine.  Sel- 
dom tame,  or  easily  handled,  they  are  at  such  periods  most 
unmanageable — kicking,  screaming,  and  even  biting  fiercely. 
The  following  method  of  getting  hold  of  them  has  been 
recommended:  Fasten  a double  cord  to  the  end  of  a stick,  and 
beneath  the  stick  let  there  be  a running  noose  in  the  cord;  tie 
a piece  of  bread  to  the  cord,  and  present  it  to  the  animal;  and 
when  he  opens  his  mouth  to  seize  the  bait,  catch  the  upper 
jaw  in  the  noose,  run  it  tight,  and  the  animal  is  fast. 

Another  method  is  to  catch  one  foot  in  a running  noose 
suspended  from  some  place,  so  as  to  draw  the  imprisoned 
foot  off  the  ground;  or,  to  envelop  the  head  of  the  animal  in 
a cloth  or  sack. 

All  coercive  measures,  however,  should,  as  far  as  possible, 
be  avoided,  for  the  pig  is  naturally  so  averse  to  being  handled 
that  in  his  struggles  he  will  often  do  himself  far  more  mischief 
than  the  disease  which  is  to  be  remedied  or  investigated  would 
effect. 

Bleeding. — The  common  mode  of  drawing  blood  from  the 
pig  is  by  cutting  off  portions  of  the  ears  or  tail;  this  should 


SWINE. 


367 


only  be  resorted  to  when  local  or  instant  blood-letting  is 
requisite.  The  jugular  veins  of  swine  lie  too  deep,  and  are  too 
much  imbedded  in  fat,  to  admit  of  their  being  raised  by  any 
ligature  about  the  neck;  it  is,  therefore,  useless  to  attempt  to 
puncture  them,  as  it  would  only  be  striking  at  random. 

Those  veins,  however,  which  run  over  the  interior  surface 
of  the  ear,  and  especially  towards  the  outer  edge,  may  be 
opened  without  much  difficulty;  if  the  ear  is  turned  back  on 
the  poll,  one  or  more  of  them  may  easily  be  made  sufficiently 
prominent  to  admit  of  its  being  punctured  by  pressing  the 
fingers  on  the  base  of  the  ear  near  to  the  conch.  When  the 
necessary  quantity  of  blood  has  been  obtained,  the  finger  may 
be  raised,  and  it  will  cease  to  flow. 

The  palate  veins,  running  on  either  side  of  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  are  also  easily  opened  by  making  two  incisions,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  palate  about  half  way  between  the  centre  of 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  the  teeth.  The  flow  of  blood  may 
be  readily  stopped  by  means  of  a pledget  of  tow  and  a string, 
as  in  bleeding  the  horse. 

The  brachial  vein  of  the  fore  leg — commonly  called  the 
plate-vein — running  along  the  inner  side  under  the  skin,  affords 
a good  opportunity.  The  best  place  for  puncturing  it  is 
about  an  inch  above  the  knee,  and  scarcely  half  an  inch  back- 
ward from  the  radius,  or  the  bone  of  the  fore-arm.  'No  danger 
need  be  apprehended  from  cutting  two  or  three  times,  if 
sufficient  blood  cannot  be  obtained  at  once.  This  vein  will 
become  easily  discernable  if  a ligature  is  tied  firmly  around  the 
leg  just  below  the  shoulder. 

This  operation  should  always  be  performed  with  the  lancet 
if  possible.  In  cases  of  urgent  haste,  where  ho  lancet  is  at 
hand,  a small  penknife  may  be  used;  but  the  fleam  is  a 
dangerous  and  objectionable  instrument. 

Cleanliness. — This  is  the  great  point  to  be  insisted  upon  in 
swine  management;  if  this,  and  warmth,  be  duly  attended  to, 
the  animal  will  not,  in  one  case  in  a hundred,  become  affected 
with  any  ailment. 

The  pig-feeder  will  find  that  in  most  cases  his  pigs  will 
never  ail  anything  from  their  birth  to  their  slaughter.  There 
may  be  a few  attacked  with  disease;  but  the  feeder  will  gen- 
erally find  that  the  first  symptoms  of  it  will  give  way  before  a 
dose  of  flour  of  sulpur — say  half  an  ounce  for  a large  animal, 
combined  with  new  milk,  which  he  will  generally  drink, — with 
warmth  and  confinement.  As  it  is  almost  impossible  to  admin- 
ister medicine  by  force,  it  is  better  thus  to  take  the  disease  in 
its  first  stage,  and  give  it  them  by  enticement. 

As,  however,  even  under  the  most  careful  system  of  man- 
agement, an  occasional  disappointment  may  occur,  the  reader 


368 


SWINE. 


is  furnished  with  the  following  brief  view  of  the  principal  com- 
plaints, by  which  some  are,  under  the  most  unfavorable 
circumstances,  liable  to  be  attacked,  and  also  with  the  plainest 
effectual  mode  of  sanatory  treatment  to  be  adopted: 

Fever. — The  symptoms  are  redness  of  the  eyes,  dryness 
and  heat  of  the  nostrils,,  the  lips  and  the  skin  generally; 
appetite  gone,  or  very  defective,  and  the  presence,  usually,  of 
a very  violent  thirst.  Of  course,  no  symptom  can  be  regarded 
as  individually  indicative  of  the  presence  of  any  particular 
disease;  these,  which  we  have  named,  might,  individually, 
indicate  the  presence  of  many  other  diseases,  nay,  of  no  dis- 
order at  all,  but,  collectively,  they  point  to  the  presence  of  fever 
as  their  origin.. 

Treatment. — Let  the  animal,  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
appearance  of  these  symptoms,  be  bled,  by  cutting  the  veins  at 
the  back  of  the  ears.  The  pressure  of  the  finger  raises  the 
vein,  and  you  can  then  puncture  it  with  a lancet.  If  the  bleed- 
ing from  this  channel  be  not  sufficiently  copious,  you  must  cut 
off  a portion  of  his  tail;  and,  after  bleeding,  let  him  be  warmly 
housed;  but,  at  the  same  time,  while  protected  from  colds  and 
draughts,  let  the  sty  be  well  and  thoroughly  ventilated,  and  its 
inmate  supplied  with  a constant  succession  of  fresh  air.  The 
bleeding  will  usually  be  followed,  in  an  hour  or  two,  by  such  a 
return  of  appetite  as  to  induce  the  animal  to  eat  a sufficient 
quantity  of  food  to  admit  of  your  making  it  the  vehicle  for 
administering  such  internal  remedies  as  may  seem  advisable. 
The  best  vehicle  is  bread,  steeped  in  broth.  The  pig,  how- 
ever, sinks  so  rapidly,  when  once  he  loses  his  appetite,  that  no 
depletive  medicines  are  in  general  necessary  or  suitable.  The 
fever  will  usually  be  found  to  yield  to  the  bleeding,  and  your 
only  object  need  be  the  support  of  the  animal’s  strength,  by 
small  portions  of  nourishing  food  frequently  administered. 

Do  not,  however,  at  any  time  suffer  your  patient  to  eat  as 
much  as  his  inclination  might  prompt;  the  moment  he  appears 
to  be  no  longer  ravenous,  remove  the  mess,  and  do  not  offer  it 
again  until  after  a lapse  of  from  three  to  four  hours. 

It  is  a singular  fact,  that  as  the  hog  surpasses  every  other 
animal  in  the  facility  with  which  he  acquires  fat,  he  likewise 
surpasses  all  others  in  the  rapidity  with  which  his  strength 
becomes  prostrated  when  once  his  appetite  deserts  him.  The 
French  veterinarian  practice  recommends  the  addition  of  pep- 
permint to  the  bread  and  broth.  If  the  animal  be  not  disgusted 
by  the  smell,  it  may  be  added;  and,  if  the  bowels  be  confined, 
the  addition  of  castor  and  (unboiled)  linseed  oil,  in  equal 
quantities,  and  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  six  ounces,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  pig,  should  not  be  omitted. 

If  you  find  yourself  unable  to  restore  the  animal’s  appetite. 


SWINE. 


369 


the  case  is  nearly  hopeless,  and  you  may  legitimately  regard  its 
return  as  one  of  the  most  infallible  symptoms  of  returning  con- 
valescence. 

Leprosy. — The  fact  of  the  pig  being  subject  to  leprosy  was 
by  some  persons  supposed  to  be  the  reason  for  the  Divine  pro- 
hibition of  pig’s  flesh  to  the  peculiarly  chosen  Jews,  as  they 
were  themselves  subject  to  it  in  no  small  degree.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  however,  it  often  attacks  the  swine  in  very  hot  seasons 
in  this  country,  where  man  is  free  from  its  ravages.  * 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  this  complaint  usually  com- 
mence with  the  formation  of  a small  tumor  in  the  eye,  followed 
by  a general  prostration  of  spirits;  the  head  is  held  down;  the 
whole  frame  inclines  toward  the  ground;  universal  languor 
succeeds;  the  animal  refuses  food,  languishes,  and  rapidly  falls 
away  in  flesh;  blisters  soon  make  their  appearance, beneath  the 
tongue,  then  upon  the  throat,  the  jaws,  the  head,  and  the  en- 
tire body.  The  flesh  of  a leperous  pig  is  said  to  possess  moW 
pernicious  qualities,  and,  independent  of  our  disgust,  to  be 
wholly  unfit  for  human  food.  If  the  animal  be  killed  in  the 
very  first  stage  of  the  disease,  however,  the  affection  is  only 
superficial,  the  flesh  nothing  the  worse,  but  rather  improved  in 
tenderness,  and,  indeed,  not  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  a 
perfectly  sound  animal. 

Treatment. — The  cause  of  this  disease  is  want  of  cleanli- 
ness, absence  of  fresh  air,  want  of  due  attention  to  ventilation, 
and  foul  feeding.  The  obvious  cure,  therefore,  is — first,  bleed; 
clean  out  the  sty  daily;  wash  the  affected  animal  thoroughly 
with  soap  and  water,  to  which  soda  or  potash  has  been  added; 
supply  him  with  a clean  bed;  keep  him  dry  and  comfortable; 
let  him  have  gentle  exercise  and  plenty  of  fresh  air;  limit  the 
quantity  of  his  food,  and  diminish  its  rankness;  give  bran  with 
wash,  in  which  you  may  add,  for  an  average-sized  hog,  say  one 
of  twenty  stone  (8  lbs.  to  the  stone),  or  160  lbs.  weight,  a 
tablespoonful  of  the  flour  of  sulphur,  with  as  much  nitre  as 
will  cover  a sixpence,  daily.  A few  grains  of  powdered  anti- 
mony may  also  be  given  with  effect.  The  animal,  if  in  sum- 
mer, should  be  kept  in  the  shade,  and  placed  in  a house  facing 
the  north,  where  it  may  have  free  access  of  air  of  the  coolest 
kind. 

Murrain. — It  resembles  leprosy  in  its  symptoms,  with  the 
addition  of  staggering,  shortness  of  breath,  discharge  of  viscid 
matter  from  the  eyes  and  mouth.  The  treatment  should  consist 
of  cleanliness,  coolness,  bleeding,  purging,  and  limitation  of 
food.  Cloves  of  garlic  have  been  recommended  to  be  admin- 
istered in  cases  of  murrain.  Garlic  is  an  antiseptic;  and,  as 
in  all  those  ferbile  diseases,  there  exists  a more  or  less  degree 


370 


swinF. 


of  disposition  to  putrefaction,  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  may 
be  found  useful. 

Measles. — This  is  one  of  the  most  common  diseases  to 
which  pigs  are  liable.  The  symptoms  are  redness  of  the  eyes, 
foulness  of  the  skin,  depression  of  spirits,  decline  or  total  de- 
parture of  the  appetite,  small  pustules  about  the  throat,  and  red 
I and  purple  eruptions  on  the  skin.  These  last  are  more  plainly 
i visible  after  death,  when  they  impart  a peculiar  appearance  to 
I the  grain  of  the  meat,  with  fading  of  its  color,  and  distention 
of  the  fibre,  so  as  to  give  an  appearance  similar  to  that  which 
might  be  produced  by  puncturing  the  flesh. 

Treatment. — Suffer  the  animal  to  fast,  in  the  first  instance, 
for  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  administer  a warm  drink,  con- 
taining a drachm  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  an  ounce  of  bole 
armenian;  wash  the  animal,  cleanse  the  sty,  and  change  the 
bedding;  give  at  every  feeding,  say  thrice  a day,  thirty  grains 
of  flour  of  sulphur,  and  ten  of  nitre.  It  is  to  dirt,  combined 
with  a common  fault,  too  little  thought  of,  viz.,  giving  the 
steamed  food  or  wash  to  the  pigs  at  too  high  a temperature, 
that  this  disease  is  generally  to  be  attributed.  It  is  a 
troublesome  malady  to  eradicate,  but  usually  yields  to  such 
treatment  as  described,  and  is  rarely  fatal. 

Jaundice. — Symptoms. — Yellowness  of  the  conjunctive,  or 
“white  of  the  eye,”  a similar  hue  extending  to  the  lips,  with 
sometimes,  but  not  invariably,  swelling  of  the  under  part  of 
the  jaw.  Bleed  behind  the  ear,  diminish  the  quantity  of  food, 
and  give  a smart  aperient  every  second  day.  Aloes  are,  per- 
haps, the  best,  combined  with  colocynth;  the  dose  will  vary 
with  the  size  of  the  animal.  A decoction  of  woodbine  leaves 
and  shoots  has  ‘been  recommended  by  the  French  veterinar- 
ians. 

Foul  Skin. — A simple  irritability  or  foulness  of  skin  will 
usually  yield  to  cleanliness,  and  a washing  with  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime;  but,  if  it  has  been  neglected  for  any  length 
of  time,  it  assumes  a malignant  character;  scabs  and  blotches, 
or  red  and  fiery  eruptions  appear,  and  the  disease  rapidly 
passes  off. 

Mange. — If  the  foul  hide,  already  described,  had  been  pro- 
perly attended  to,  and  the  remedies  necessary  for  its  removal 
applied  in  sufficient  time,  this  very  troublesomedisorder  would 
not  have  supervened.  Mange  is  supposed,  by  most  medical 
men,  to  owe  its  existence  to  the  presence  of  a minute  insect, 
called  “acarus  scabiei,”  or  “mange-fly,”  — a minute  creature 
which  burrows  beneath  the  cuticle,  and  in  its  progress  through 
the  skin  occasions  much  irritation  and  annoyance.  Other5, 


SWINE. 


371 


again,  do  not  conceive  the  affection  styled  mange  to  be  thus 
produced,  but  refer  it  to  a diseased  state  of  the  blood,  which, 
as  is  usually  the  case,  eventually  conveys  its  morbid  influences 
to  the  superficial  tissues.  Much  has  been  said  and  still  might 
be  said  on  both  sides  of  the  question;  but  such  a discussion  is 
scarcely  suitable  to  the  pages  of  a popular  work. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  sufficiently 
well  known.  They  consist  of  scabs,  blotches,  and  sometimes 
multitudes  of  minute  pustules,  on  different  parts  of  the  body. 
If  neglected,  these  symptoms  will  become  aggravated;  the  dis- 
ease will  rapidly  spread  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  skin; 
and,  if  suffered  to  proceed  upon  its  course  unchecked,  it  will, 
ere  long,  produce  deep-seated  ulcers  and  malignant  sores,  until 
the  whole  carcass  of  the  poor  affected  animal  becomes  one 
mass  of  corruption. 

The  causes  of  mange  have  been  differently  stated;  some 
referring  them  to  too  high,  and  others  to  too  low,  a diet.  How 
too  low  a description  of  diet  can  apply  to  swine  it  is  not  easy 
to  conceive — the  feeders  of  that  animal  never  keeping  him  save 
for  the  purpose  of  making  profit  of  him.  Dogs,  and  other  such 
animals,  who  are  kept  only  for  ornament  or  pleasure,  might, 
indeed,  be  starved,  or,  at  all  events,  placed  by  their  unfeeling 
masters  upon  low  diet;  but  most  assuredly  no  swine  feeder 
would  commit  such  an  egregious  act  of  folly.  The  notion, 
therefore,  of  mange  in  swine  being  caused  by  under-feeding  is 
not  for  a single  instant  to  be  entertained.  No,  the  cause  is  to 
be  looked  for  in  dirt,  accompanied  by  hot-feeding.  Hot-feed- 
ing alone  would,  perhaps,  be  more  likely  to  produce  measles 
than  mange;  but  dirt  would  unquestionably  produce  the  latter 
disease,  even  if  unaided  by  the  concommitant  error  of  hot- 
feeding. 

Pigs,  however  well  and  properly  kept,  will  occasionally 
become  affected  with  this,  as  well  as  with  other  disorders,  from 
contagion.  Few  diseases  are  more  easily  propagated  by  con- 
tact than  mange.  The  introduction  of  a single  affected  pig 
into  your  establishment  may  in  one  night  cause  the  seizure  of 
scores,  and  probably  furnish  you  with  a three  months’  hospital 
experience.  Do  not,  therefore,  introduce  any  foul-skinned 
pigs  into  your  piggery;  in  fact,  it  would  be  a very  safe,  and 
scarcely  a very  troublesome,  process,  to  wash  every  new  pur- 
chase with  a strong  solution  of  chloride  of  lime — a prepara- 
tion to  be  had  from  any  druggist  or  apothecary,  if  not,  indeed, 
from  most  country  grocers.  This  substance  is  very  cheap,  and 
a little  trouble,  when  applied  as  a preventive,  is  surely  prefera- 
ble to  a great  deal  of  trouble  and  perhaps  disappointment,  when 
you  are  compelled  to  resort  to  it  as  a cure. 

Treatment. — If  a hog  be  only  afflicted  with  a mange  of 


372 


SWINE. 


moderate  virulence,  and  not  of  very  long  standing,  the  best 
mode  of  treatment  to  be  adopted  is — 

1.  Wash  the  animal  from  snout  to  tail,  leaving  no  portion  of 
the  body  uncleansed,  with  soft  soap  and  water. 

2.  Put  him  into  a dry  and  clean  sty  which  is  so  built  and 
situated  as  to  command  a constant  supply  of  fresh  air,  without, 
at  the  same  time,  being  exposed  to  cold  or  draught.  Let  him 
have  a bed  of  clean  fresh  straw. 

3.  Reduce  his  food,  both  in  quality  and  in  quantity.  Let 
boiled  or  steamed  roots,  with  buttermilk  or  dairy  wash,  supply 
the  place  of  half-fermented  brewer’s  grains,  house  wash  or  any 
other  description  of  feeding  calculated  to  prove  of  a heating  or 
inflammato'ry  character.  It  is,  of  course,  scarcely  necessary  to 
add  that  those  who  have  been  feeding  their  swine  on  horse- 
flesh, or  chandler’s  greaves,  cannot  be  surprised  at  the  occur- 
rence of  the  disease.  Let  them,  at  all  events,  desist  from  that 
rank  and  nasty  mode  of  feeding,  and  turn  to  such  as  has  been 
indicated. 

4.  Let  your  patient  fast  for  five  or  six  hours,  and  then 
give,  to  a pig  of  average  size,  epsom  salts,  2 ounces,  in  a warm 
bran  wash.  This  quantity  is,  of  course,  to  be  increased  or 
diminished  as  the  size  may  require  it.  The  above  would  suffice 
for  a pig  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-stone  weight  (8  lbs.  to  the 
stone).  It  should  be  previously  mixed  with  a pint  of  warm 
water.  This  should  be  added  to  about  half  a gallon  of  warm 
bran  wash.  It  will  act  as  a gentle  purgative. 

5.  Give  in  every  meal  afterwards — 

Of  flour  of  sulphur,  one  tablespoonful ; 

Of  nitre,  as  much  as  will  cover  a sixpence, 

for  from  three  days  to  a week,  according  as  you  observe  the 
state  of  the  disease.  When  you  observe  the  scabs  begin  to 
heal,  the  pustules  to  retreat,  and  the  fiery  sores  to  fade,  you 
may  pronounce  your  patient  cured.  But  before  that  pleasing 
result  will  make  its  appearance,  you  will  perceive  an  apparent 
increase  of  violence  in  all  the  symptoms — the  last  effort  of  the 
expiring  malady,  as  it  were,  ere  it  finally  yields  to  your  care 
and  skill. 

6.  There  are,  however,  some  very  obstinate  cases  of  mange 
occasionally  to  be  met  with,  which  will  not  so  readily  be 
subdued.  When  the  above  mode  of  treatment  has  been  put  in 
practice  for  fourteen  days  without  effecting  a cure,  prepare 
the  following: 

1 pint  of  train  oil ; 

2 clrachms  of  oil  of  tar ; 

2 drachms  spirits  of  turpentine ; 

1 drachm  of  naphtha, 

with  flour  of  sulphur,  as  much  as  will  form  the  above  into  the 
consistence  of  a thick  paste.  Rub  the  animal,  previously 


SWINE. 


373 


washed,  with  this  mixture,  and  let  no  portion  of  the  hide 
escape  you.  Keep  the  pig  dry  and  warm  after  this  application, 
and  suffer  it  to  remain  on  his  skin  for  three  entire  days.  On 
the  fourth  day,  wash  him  once  more  with  soft  soap,  adding  a 
small  quantity  of  soda  to  the  water.  Dry  the  animal  well  after- 
wards, and  suffer  him  to  remain  as  he  is,  having  again  changed 
his  bedding  for  a day  or  so.  Continue  the  sulphur  and  nitre 
as  before.  We  have  never  known  any  case  of  mange,  however 
obstinate,  that  would  not,  sooner  or  later,  give  way  before  this 
mode  of  treatment. 

7.  Your  patient  being  convalescent,  whitewash  the  sty; 
fumigate  it,  by  placing  a little  chloride  of  lime  in  a cup,  or 
other  vessel,  and  pouring  a little  vitriol  upon  it.  In  the 
absence  of  vitriol,  however,  boiling  water  will  answer  nearly  as 

well. 

Finally:  Recollect  the  trouble  you  have  had  in  curing  your 
patient,  and,  by  proper  attention  to  cleanliness  of  sty  and 
diet,  together  with  regularity  in  feeding  your  stock,  take  care 
that  you  do  not  have  to  incur  the  like  on  any  future  occasion. 
Recollect,  also,  that  all  mercurial  applications  are,  as  much  as 
possible,  to  be  avoided;  but,  above  everything,  avoid  the  use 
of  ointments  composed  of  hellebore,  corrosive  sublimate,  or 
tobacco-water;  or,  in  short,  any  poisonous  ingredient  what- 
ever. Very  few  cures  have  ever  been  effected  by  the  use  of 
these  so-called  remedies;  but  very  many  deaths  have  resulted 
from  their  adoption. 

Staggers. — Caused  by  excess  of  blood  to  the  head.  Bleed 
freely  from  behind  the  ears,  and  purge. 

Crackings — Will  sometimes  appear  on  the  skin  of  a pig, 
especially  about  the  root  of  the  ears  and  tail,  and  at  the  flanks. 
These  are  not  at  all  to  be  confounded  with  mange,  as  they 
never  result  from  anything  but  exposure  to  extremes  of  temper- 
ature, when  the  suffering  animal  is  not  able  to  avail  himself  of 
such  protection  as,  in  a state  of  nature,  instinct  would  have 
induced  him  to  adopt.  They  are  peculiarly  troublesome  in 
the  heats  of  summer,  if  the  hog  be  exposed  to  the  hot  sun  for 
any  length  of  time,  without  the  advantage  of  a marsh  or  pool 
in  which  to  lave  his  parched  limbs  and  half-scorched  carcass. 
This  is  an  inconvenience  sometimes  also  experienced  by  the 
hog’s  congener,  the  rhinoceros;  and  the  marshy  or  fenny  swamp 
is  also  by  him  resorted  to  for  relief.  This  will  suffice  to  inform 
the  reader  of  the  proper  means  to  be  adopted  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  occurrence  of  cracked  ears  or  skin.  Should  he  desire 
to  afford  aid,  where  neglect  has  already  done  its  work,  let  him 
anoint  the  cracked  parts  twice  or  thrice  a day  with  tar  and  lard, 
well  melted  together. 


374 


SWINE. 


Ratille,  or  Swelling  of  the  Spleen —The  symptom  most 
positively  indicative  of  this  disease  is  the  circumstance  of  the 
affected  animal  leaning  towards  one  side,  cringing,  as  it  were 
from  internal  pain,  and  bending  towards  the  ground.  The 
cause  of  the  obstruction  on  which  the  disease  depends  is  over- 
feeding, or  permitting  the  pig  to  indulge  its  appetite  to  the 
utmost  extent  that  gluttony  may  prompt,  and  the  capacity  of 
its  stomach  admit  of.  A very  short  perseverance  in  this  over- 
feeding will  produce  this,  as  well  as  other  maladies,  which 
derive  their  origin  from  a depraved  condition  of  the  secretions 
and  obstruction  of  the  excretory  ducts. 

Treatment. — On  first  perceiving  the  existence  of  the  com- 
plaint, clear  out  the  alimentary  canal  by  means  of  a strong 
aperient.  If  you  think  you  can  manage  it,  you  may  adminis- 
ter this  forcibly,  by  having  the  mouth  kept  open  by  two  cords, 
that  attached  to  the  upper  jaw  being  thrown  :*oss  a joist,  and 
drawn  just  so  tight  as  to  compel  the  patie:  t to  support  himself 
on  the  extremities  of  his  fore-toes;  but,  if  you  are  doubtful  of 
success  in  the  employment  of  violence, — and,  if  the  pig  be  a 
large  one,  your  doubts  will  be  anything  but  unreasonable, — 
allow  the  animal  to  fast  for  from  four  to  five  hours;  he  will  then 
take  a little  sweet  wash  or  broth,  and  in  it  you  may  mingle  a 
dose  of  epsom  salts,  proportioned  to  his  bulk.  This  will  gen- 
erally effect  that  which  is  desirable — a copious  evacuation;  and 
the  action  of  this  medicine  on  the  watery  secretions  will  further 
relieve  the  existing  diseased  state  of  the  spleen. 

Many  recommend  bleeding;  and,  if  the  affection  have  con- 
tinued for  any  length  of  time,  it  should  be  resorted  to  at  once. 
When  the  disease  is,  however,  discovered  ere  it  has  attained 
any  considerable  head,  the  aperient  will  suffice.  The  French 
veterinarians  recommend  the  expressed  juice  of  the  leaves 
and  tops  of  wormwood  and  liverwort  to  be  given,  half  a pint  for 
a dose.  The  decoction  of  these  plants,  produced  by  boiling 
them  in  soft  water  for  six  hours,  is  more  readily  obtained  than 
the  expressed  juice;  and  this  may  be  given  in  doses  of  from 
half  a pint  to  a pint  and  a half,  according  to  the  size,  age,  &c., 
of  the  patient. 

Scammony  and  rhubarb,  mixed  up  in  a bran  mash  or  with 
Indian  meal,  may  be  given  with  advantage  the  following  day, 
or  equal  portions  of  blue-pill  mass  and  compound  colocynth 
pill,  formed  into  a bolus  with  butter,  and  the  animal,  having 
been  kept  fasting  the  previous  night,  will  probably  swallow  it. 
If  he  will  not  do  so,  let  his  fast  continue  for  a couple  of  hours 
longer,  and  he  will  be  pretty  sure  to  comply  with  your  wishes. 
Lower  the  animal’s  diet,  and  keep  him  on  reduced  fare,  with 
exercise,  and,  if  you  can  manage  it,  grazing  until  the  malady 
has  quite  passed  away.  Lf  yo-u  then  wish,  to  fatten,  remember 


SWINE. 


375 


to  do  so  gradually.  Be  cautious  of  at  once  restoring  the  patient 
to  full  diet.  Indeed  my  advice  to  you  would  be  to  keep  him 
for  a month  as  a store;  and  then,  when  you  do  put  him  up  to 
fatten,  to  feed  at  regular  intervals  and  always  remove  whatever 
food  is  left  from  each  meal.  This  is  a practice  which  should 
never  be  neglected  by  pig-feeders;  and  they  will  find  it  not 
only  highly  preservative  of  health,  but  rapidly  conducive  to  a 
full  state  of  maturity  for  killing,  and  this  in  a degree  which 
those  who  have  not  tried  it  will  scarcely  expect. 

Surfeit. — Another  name  for  indigestion.  The  symptoms 
are  such  as  might  be  expected — panting,  loss  of  appetite,  swel- 
ling of  the  region  about  the  stomach,  &c.,  and  frequently  throw- 
ing up  the  contents  of  the  stomach.  This  affiection  will  gener- 
ally pass  away,  if  only  permitted  to  cure  itself,  and  all  food  be 
carefully  kept  from  the  patient  for  a few  hours.  A small 
quantity  of  sweet  grains,  with  a little  bran-wash,  may  then  be 
given,  but  not  nearly  as  much  as  the  animal  would  wish  to 
take.  For  a few  days  the  food  had  better  be  limited  in  quan- 
tity, and  of  a washy,  liquid  nature.  You  may  then  resume  the 
ordinary  food,  only  observing  to  feed  regularly.  As  already 
directed,  remove  the  fragments  remaining  after  each  meal. 

Lethargy. — Symptoms:  torpor  and  desire  to  sleep,  hanging 
of  the  head,  and  frequently  redness  of  the  eyes.  The  appar- 
ent origin  of  the  disease  is  the  same  as  the  last,  only  in  this 
instance  acting  upon  the  pig  with  a natural  tendency  to  a re- 
dundancy of  blood.  Bleed  at  the  back  of  both  the  ears  as  copi- 
ously as  you  can;  and,  if  you  cannot  obtain  a sufficient  quantity 
of  blood  from  these  sources,  have  recourse  to  the  tail.  Admin- 
ister an  emetic,  of  which  a decoction  of  chamomile  flowers  will 
be  the  safest;  but,  if  you  have  an  intelligent  apothecary  from 
which  to  obtain  it,  he  will,  on  your  informing  him  of  the  size 
of  your  patient,  be  able  to  give  you  a sufficient  dose  of  tartar 
emetic,  and  this  will  be  far  more  certain.  After  this,  as  in  the 
former  case,  reduce  fora  few  days  the  amount  of  the  animal’s 
food,  and  administer  a small  portion  of  sulphur  and  nitre  in 
each  morning’s  meal. 

Heavings,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs —This  disease, 
which  has  acquired  its  name  from  the  principal  symptom  by 
which  it  is  characterized,  is  scarcely  to  be  regarded  as  curable. 
If,  indeed,  it  was  observed  in  its  first  stage,  when  indicated  by 
loss  of  appetite,  and  a short,  hard  cough,  it  might  run  some 
chance  of  being  got  under  by  copious  bleeding,  and  friction 
with  stimulating  ointment  on  the  region  of  the  lungs.  Minute 
and  frequent  doses  of  tartar  emetic  should  also  be  given  in 
butter,  all  food  of  a stimulating  nature  carefully  avoided,  and 
the  aniroa}  kept  dry  and  warm,  Under  these  circumstances 


>76 


SWINE. 


there  would  be  no  reason  absolutely  to  despair  of  a cure;  but 
it  would  be  advisable  at  the  same  time,  if  the  pig,  when  this 
primary  stage  of  the  malady  was  discovered,  were  not  in  very 
poor  condition,  to  put  him  to  death.  If  once  the  heavings  set 
in,  it  may  be  calculated  with  confidence  that  the  formation  of 
tubercles  in  the  substance  of  the  lungs  has  begun,  and  when 
these  are  once  formed  they  are  very  rarely  absorbed.  The 
cause  of  this  disease  is  damp  lodging,  foul  air,  want  of  ventila- 
tion, and  unwholesome  food. 

Treatment. — It  is  difficult  to  suggest  what  should  be  done 
when  matters  have  reached  this  pass,  or  what  remedies  would 
prove  of  any  service.  It  is  now  too  late,  in  most  cases,  to  re- 
sort to  blood  letting;  and  the  hide  of  the  hog  is  so  tough  that 
it  is  not  easy  to  blister  it  for  the  purpose  of  counter-irritation. 
You  may,  however,  try  the  following,  though  perhaps  the  knife 
might  be  best,  if  only  to  relieve  the  poor  sufferer,  and  provide 
against  the  danger  of  infection.  It  may  be  as  well  to  state 
that  when  once  tubercular  formation  becomes  established,  the 
disease  may  be  communicated  through  the  medium  of  the 
atmosphere,  as  the  infections  influence  depends  upon  the  nox- 
ious particles  respired  from  the  lungs  of  the  diseased  animal. 
Nor  is  this  the  only  danger  to  be  apprehended.  It  is  yet  a 
question  whether  this  complaint  may  not  be  thus  communicated 
to  other  descriptions  of  live  stock,  producing  among  cattle  a 
disease  analogous  to,  if  not  identical  with,  that  malignant  epi- 
zootic which  recently  committed  so  much  devastation.  You 
may,  however,  try  the  following:  Shave  the  hair  away  from  the 
chest  and  beneath  each  foreleg;  wet  the  part  with  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, and  set  fire  to  it;  you  will,  of  course,  have  had  the 
patient  well  secured,  and  his  head  well  raised,  and  have  at 
hand  a flannel  cloth,  with  which  to  extinguish  the  flame,  when 
you  conceive  it  has  burned  a sufficient  time  to  produce  slight 
blisters.  If  carried  too  far^a  sore  would  be  formed,  which 
would  be  productive  of  no  good  effects,  and  cause  the  poor 
animal  unnecessary  suffering.  Calomel  may  also  be  used,  with 
a view  to  promote  the  absorption  of  tubercles;  but  the  success 
is  questionable. 

Diarrhoea. — The  symptoms,  of  course,  require  no  comment, 
as  they  constitute  the  disease.  Before  attempting  to  stop  the 
discharge — which,  if  permitted  to  continue  unchecked,  would 
rapidly  prostrate  the  animal’s  strength,  and  probably  terminate 
fatally — ascertain  the  quality  of  food  the  animal  has  recently 
had.  In  a majority  of  instances,  you  will  find  this  to  be  the 
origin  of  the  disease;  and,  if  it  has  been  perceived  in  its  incip- 
ient stage,  a mere  change  to  a more  binding  diet,  as  corn,  flour, 
&c.,  will  suffice  for  a cure.  If  you  have  reason  to  apprehend 
that  acidity  is  present,  produced,  in  all  probability,  by  the  pig 


SWINE. 


377 


having  fed  upon  coarse  rank  grasses  in  swampy  places,  give 
some  chalk  in  the  food,  or  powdered  egg-shells,  with  about 
half  a drachm  of  powdered  rhubarb;  the  dose,  of  course,  vary- 
ing with  the  size  of  the  pig.  In  the  acorn  season,  and  where 
facilities  for  obtaining  them  exist,  they  will  be  found  quite  suf- 
ficient to  effect  a cure.  When  laboring  under  this  complaint, 
dry  lodging  is  indispensible;  and  diligence  will  be  necessary 
to  maintain  it,  and  cleanliness. 

Quinsy. — Shave  away  the  hair,  and  rub  with  tartar  emetic 
ointment.  Steeping  with  very  warm  water  is  also  useful. 
When  external  suppuration  takes  place,  you  may  regard  it  as 
rather  a favorable  symptom  than  otherwise.  In  this  case,  wait 
until  the  swellings  are  thoroughly  ripe;  then,  with  a sharp 
knife,  make  an  incision  through  the  entire  length,  press  out 
the  matter,  wash  with  warm  water,  and  afterwards  dress  the 
wound  with  any  resinous  ointment,  which  you  can  obtain  from 
the  nearest  apothecary.  If  you  cannot  obtain  anything  of  the 
kind,  you  may  form  a very  tolerable  substitute  by  blending 
yellow  soap  with  coarse  brown  sugar.  You  should,  however, 
never  have  your  house  without  a good  assortment  of  cattle 
medicines,  distinctly  labelled  with  their  names  and  qualities, 
and  a graduated  scale  of  doses.  These  can  be  obtained  from 
any  respectable  druggist,  at  a very  trifling  expense,  and  may 
possibly  save  you  the  loss  of  many  valuable  animals. 

Tumors. — These  hard  swellings  make  their  appearance  on 
different  parts  of  the  animal’s  body.  It  would  not  be  easy  to 
state  the  cause  which  gave  rise  to  these  tumors,  for  they  vary 
with  circumstances.  They  are  not  formidable,  and  require 
only  to  be  suffered  to  progress  until  they  soften;  then  make 
a free  incision,  and  press  out  the  matter.  Sulphur  and  nitre 
should  be  given  in  the  food,  as  the  appearance  of  these  swel- 
lings, whatever  be  the  cause,  indicates  the  necessity  of  altera- 
tive medicines. 

Catarrh. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  nose,  &c.,  if  taken  in  time,  is  easily  cured  by 
opening  medicine,  followed  up  by  warm  bran-wash,  a warm, 
dry  sty,  and  abstinence  from  rich  grains,  or  stimulating  farina- 
ceous diet.  The  cause  has  probably  been,  exposure  to  drafts 
of  air. 

Epilepsy. — This  is  a disease  quite  common,  and  often  arises 
from  the  ringing  of  the  mother  during  the  period  of  gestation. 
It  will  manifest  itself  by  trembling  and  staggering  of  the  litter 
when  young,  and  sometimes  show  its  effects  on  the  grown-up 
pigs.  It  is  far  best  to  pork  the  animals  at  once.  If  it  mani- 
fests itself  in  store  animals,  full  grown,  anoint  the  back  bone 
with  turpentine  and  tallow  in  equal  proportions,  melted  in 


378 


SWINE. 


ether;  and  give  half  an  ounce  of  sulphur,  with  a quart  oi  hot 
spiced  ale. 

Colic. — This  is  not  an  uncommon  disease,  resulting  from 
too  much  soured  food.  It  is  manifested  by  great  and  violent, 
but  intermittent  pains;  the  pig  will  roll  about  and  kick  its  belly, 
then  rise  up  and  walk  about  for  a few  minutes,  and  again  have 
a recurrence  of  the  paroxysm.  Administer  during  the  interval: 

1 gill  of  peppermint  water. 

40  drops  of  tincture  of  opium. 

The  animal  is  to  be  kept  warm,  and  supplied  with  food 
fnew  milk,  warm),  until  entirely  better. 

Cholera. — The  term  “cholera”  is  employed  to  designate  a 
disease  which  has  been  very  fatal  among  swine  in  different 
parts  of  the  United  States;  and,  for  the  reason,  that  its  symp- 
toms, as  well  as  the  indications  accompanying  its  termination, 
are  very  nearly  allied  to  what  is  manifested  in  the  disease  of 
that  name  which  visits  man. 

Epidemic  cholera  has,  for  several  years  past,  committed 
fearful  ravages  among  the  swine  of,  particularly,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
and  Kentucky.  Indeed,  many  farmers  who,  until  recently, 
have  been  accustomed  to  raise  large  numbers  of  these  animals, 
are,  in  a great  measure,  disinclined  to  invest  again  in  such 
stock,  on  account  of  the  severe  losses — in  some  instances  to 
the  extent  of  the  entire  drove  upon  particular  places. 

Various  remedies  have,  of  course,  been  prescribed;  but  the 
most  have  failed  in  nearly  every  case  where  the  disease  has 
secured  a firm  foothold.  Preventives  are,  therefore,  the  most 
that  can  at  present  be  expected;  and  in  this  direction  some?, 
thing  may  be  done.  Although  some  peculiar  change  in  the 
atmosphere  is,  probably,  an  impelling  cause  of  cholera,  its 
ravages  may  be  somewhat  stayed  by  removing  other  predis- 
posing associate  causes. 

Granting  that  the  hog  is  a filthy  animal  and  fond  of  rooting 
among  filth,  it  is  by  no  means  necessary  to  persist,  for  that 
reason,  in  surrounding  him  with  all  the  nastiness  possible;  for 
even  a hog,  when  penned  up  in  a filthy  place,  in  company  with 
a large  number  of  other  hogs — particularly  when  that  place  is 
improperly  ventilated — is  not  as  healthy  as  when  the  animals 
are  kept  together  in  smaller  numbers  in  a clean  and  well  ven- 
tilated barn  or  pen.  Look,  for  a moment,  at  a drove  of  hogs 
coming  along  the  street,  the  animals  all  fat  and  ready  for  the 
knife.  They  have  been  driven  several  miles,  and  are  scarcely 
able  to  crawl  along^  many  of  them  having  to  be  carried  on 
drays,  while  others  have  died  on  the  road.  At  last  they  are 
driven  into  a pen,  perhaps  several  inches  deep  with  the  manure 
and  filth  deposited  there  by  hundreds  of  predecessors;  every 
hole  in  the  ground  has  become  a puddle;  and  in  such  a place 


SWINE. 


379 


some  one  hundred  or  two  hundred  animals  are  piled  together, 
exhausted  from  the  drive  which  they  have  had.  They  lie  down 
in  the  mud,  and  in  a short  time  one  can  see  the  steam  beginning 
to  rise  from  their  bodies  in  volumes,  increasing  their  already 
prostrate  condition  by  the  consequent  inhalation  of  the  noxious 
gas  thus  thrown  off  from  the  system;  the  blood  becomes  im- 
pregnated with  poison;  the  various  functions  of  the  body  are 
thereby  impared;  and  disease  will  inevitably  be  developed  in 
one  form  or  another.  Should  the  disease,  known  as  hog  chol- 
era, prevail  in  the  neighborhood,  the  chances  are  greatly  in 
favor  of  their  being  attacked  by  it,  and  consequently  perishing. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  cholera  are  as  follows: 
The  animal  appears  to  be  instantaneously  deprived  of 
energy;  loss  of  appetite;  lying  down  by  himself;  occasionally 
moving  about  slowly,  as  though  experiencing  some  slight 
uneasiness  internally;  the  eyes  have  a very  dull  and  sunken 
appearance,  which  increases  with  the  disease;  the  evacuation; 
are  almost  continuous,  of  a dark  color,  having  a fetid  odor,, 
and  containing  a large  quantity  of  bile;  the  extremities  are 
cold,  and  soreness  is  evinced  when  the  abdomen  is  pressed; 
the  pulse  is  quickened,  and  sometimes  hardly  perceptible, 
while  the  buccal  membrane — that  belong  the  cheek — presents 
a slight  purple  hue;  the  tongue  has  a furred  appearance.  The 
evacuations  continue  fluid  until  the  animal  expires,  which  may 
be  in  twelve  hours  from  the  first  attack,  or  the  disease  may  run 
on  for  several  days. 

In  a very  short  time  after  death,  the  abdomen  becomes  of 
a dark  purple  color,  and  upon  examination,  the  stomach  is 
found  to  contain  but  a little  fluid;  the  intestines  are  almost 
entirely  empty,  retaining  a slight  quantity  of  the  dark  colored 
matter  before  mentioned;  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  exhibits  considerable  inflammation,  which  some- 
times appears  only  in  patches,  while  the  other  parts  are  filled 
with  dark  venous  blood — indicating  a breaking  up  of  the  capil- 
liary  vessels  in  such  places. 

Treatment. — As  a preventive,  the  following  will  be  found 
valuable:  Flour  of  sulphur,  six  pounds;  animal  charcoal,  one 
pound;  sulphate  of  iron,  six  ounces;  cinchona  pulverized,  one 
pound.  Mix  well  together  in  a large  mortar;  afterwards  give 
a tablespoonful  to  each  animal,  mixed  with  a few  potato-peel- 
ings and  corn  meal,  three  times  a day.  Continue  this  for  one 
week,  keeping  the  animal  at  the  same  time  in  a clean,  dry 
place,  and  not  allowing  too  many  together. 

Rabies. — This  is  one  of  those  afflictive  maladies  which  is, 
perhaps,  developed  in  the  greatest  possible  degree  in  the  pig. 
All  hope  of  recovery  should  be  at  once  abandoned,  and  the  pig 
at  once  slaughtered  by  shooting,  and  buried  whole, 


380 


SWINE. 


Lice. — These  are  sometimes  troublesome  in  store  pigs.  Let 
them  be  well  washed  with  soft  soap  and  water;  or,  if  this  fails, 
with  a decoction  of  tobacco. 

We  have  now  given  a summary  of  all  the  principal  diseases 
to  which  swine  are,  even  under  the  worst  of  circumstances, 
liable;  and  have  certainly  omitted  none  that  it  would  be  pos- 
sible for  any  but  a skillful  veterinary  surgeon,  personally  exam- 
ining the  patient,  to  treat  with  any  hope  of  success.  The 
instructions  which  have  been  given  comprise  all  that  the  ama- 
teur could  comprehend,  as  much  as  he  will  ever  find  necessary 
for  domestic  practice,  and  far  more  than  he  will  ever  find  occa- 
sion to  follow,  if  he  have  attended  to  what  has  been  so  fre- 
quently insisted  upon — cleanliness,  dry  lodgings,  regularity  of 
feeding,  the  use  of  salt  in  the  food,  and  the  addition  of  occa- 
sionally a small  quantity  of  sulphur  and  nitre  to  the  morning’s 
meal.  Attention  to  these  precautions  will  never  fail  to  pre- 
serve your  stock  in  health,  and  thus  obviate  the  necessity  of 
resorting  to  the  use  of  physic.  By  thus  consenting  to  take  a 
very  trifling  amount  of  trouble,  you  will  save  yourself  a vast 
deal  of  it;  nay,  you  will  not  only  save  yourself  trouble,  but 
money,  anxiety,  and  disappointment — and  all  by  merely  bear- 
ing in  mind,  and  adopting  in  your  practice,  the  old  adage — 
“Prevention  is  better  than  cure.” 


POULTRY 


Choice  varieties  of  fowls  add  a pleasant  feature  to  the  farm 
premises.  They  engage  the  attention  and  sympathy  of  the 
juvenile  farmers,  and  the  time  bestowed  to  the  poultry  yard 
keeps  them  from  mischief,  is  an  agreeable  and  salutary  relief 
for  toil  and  study,  and  elicits  the  taste,  the  judgment,  and  the 
kindlier  feelings  of  humanity,  which  are  to  be  matured  in  the 
future  accomplished  breeder.  When  properly  managed,  poul- 
try are  a source  of  considerable  profit,  yielding  more  for  the 
food  they  consume  than  any  other  stock,  although  their  value 
is  not  often  considered.  The  agricultural  statistics  of  the 
United  States,  for  1839 — forty-four  years  ago — gave  its  value 
at  over  $ 12,000,000,  and  the  current  value  of  the  poultry  in  the 
United  States  is  now  probably  thirty  millions  of  dollars,  and 
its  annual  product  in  eggs  and  flesh  is  much  greater.  It  is  esti- 
mated by  McQueen  that  the  poultry  of  England  exceeds 
$40,000,000,  and  yet  McCulloch  says  she  imports  60,000,000 
eggs  annually  from  France  (McQueen  states  it  at  near  70,000- 
000),  and  from  other  parts  of  the  continent,  25,000,000;  besides 
80,000,000  imported  from  Ireland.  The  people  of  the  United 
States  are  much  larger  egg  and  poultry  consumers  than  the 
English,  and  thus  they  are  a considerable  object  of  agricultural 
attention,  and  assume  an  important  place  among  the  other 
staples  of  the  farmer.  The  following  are  the  principal  breeds: 

The  Bantam. — The  original  of  the  Bantam  is  the  Bankiva 
fowl.  The  small  white,  and  also  the  colored  Bantams,  whose 
legs  are  heavily  feathered,  are  sufficiently  well-known  to  render 
a particular  description  unnecessary.  Bantam-fanciers  gener- 
ally prefer  those  which  have  clean,  bright  legs,  without  any 


382. 


POULTRY. 


vestige  of  feathers.  A thoroughbred  cock,  in  their  judgment, 
should  have  a rose  comb;  a well  feathered  tail,  but  without  the 
sickle  feathers;  a proud,  lively  carriage;  and  ought  not  to 
exceed  a pound  in  weight.  The  nankeen-colored  and  the 
black  are  general  favorites. 

These  little  creatures  exhibit  some  peculiar  habits  and 
traits  of  disposition.  Amongst  others,  the  cocks  are  so  fond 
of  sucking  the  eggs  laid  by  the  hen  that  they  will  often  drive 
her  from  the  nest  in  order  to  ‘obtain  them;  they  have  even 
been  known  to  attack  her,  tear  open  the  ovarium,  and  devour 
its  shell-less  contents.  To  prevent  this,  first  a hard-boiled,  and 
then  a marble  egg,  may  be  given  them  to  fight  with,  taking  care, 
at  the  same  time,  to  prevent  their  access  either  to  the  hen  or  to 
any  real  eggs.  Another  strange  propensity  is  a passion  for 
sucking  each  other’s  blood,  which  is  chiefly  exhibited  when 
they  are  moulting,  when  they  have  been  known  to  peck  each 
other  naked,  by  pulling  out  the  new  feathers  as  they  appear, 
and  squeezing  with  their  beaks  the  blood  from  the  bulbs  at  the 
base.  These  fowls  being  subject  to  a great  heat  of  the  skin, 
its  surface  occasionally  becomes  hard  and  tightened;  in  which 
cases  the  hard  roots  of  the  feathers  are  drawn  into  a position 
more  nearly  at  right-angles  with  the  body  than  at  ordinary 
times,  and  the  skin  and  superficial  muscles  are  thus  subjected 
to  an  unusual  degree  of  painful  irritation.  The  disagreeable 
habit  is,  therefore,  simply  a provision  of  nature  for  their  relief, 
which  may  be  successfully  accomplished  by  washing  with  warm 
water,  and  the  subsequent  application  of  pomatum  to  the  skin. 

The  Bolton  Gray. — These  fowls — called,  also,  Dutch  Every- 
day Layers,  Pencilled  Dutch  fowl,  Chittaprats,  and,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, Creole  fowl — were  originally  imported  from  Holland 
to  Bolton,  a town  in  Lancashire,  England,  whence  they  were 
named. 

They  are  small  sized,  short  in  the  leg  and  plump  in  the 
make;  color  of  the  genuine  kind,  invariably  pure  white  in  the 
whole  cappel  of  the  neck;  the  body  white,  thickly  spotted  with 
black,  sometimes  running  into  a grizzle,  with  one  or  more  black 
bars  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  A good  cock  of  this  breed 
may  weigh  from  four  to  four  and  a half  pounds;  and  a hen 
from  three  to  three  and  a half  pounds. 


POULTRY. 


383 


The  superiority  of  a hen  of  this  breed  does  not  consist  so 
much  in  rapid  as  in  continued  laying.  She  may  not  produce 
as  many  eggs  in  a month  as  some  other  kinds,  but  she  will,  it 
is  claimed,  lay  more  months  in  the  year  than,  probably,  any 
other  variety.  They  are  said  to  be  very  hardy;  but  their  eggs, 
in  the  judgment  of  some,  are  rather  watery  and  innutritious. 

The  Cochin  China. — The  Cochin  China  fowl  are  said  to 
have  been  presented  to  Queen  Victoria  from  the  East  Indies. 
In  order  to  promote  their  propagation,  her  majesty  made  pres- 
ents of  them  occasionally  to  such  persons  as  she  supposed 
likely  to  appreciate  them.  They  differ  very  little  in  their 
qualities,  habits  and  general  appearance  from  the  Shanghaes, 
to  which  they  are  undoubtedly  nearly  i elated.  The  egg  is 
nearly  the  same  size,  shape,  and  color;  both  have  an  equal  de- 
velopment of  comb  and  wattles — the  Cochins  slightly  differing 
from  the  Shanghaes,  chiefly  in  being  somewhat  fuller  and 
deeper  in  the  breast,  not  quite  so  deep  in  the  quarter,  and  be- 
ing usually  smooth-legged,  while  the  Shanghaes,  generally,  are 
more  or  less  heavily  feathered.  The  plumage  is  much  the 
same  in  both  cases;  and  the  crow  in  both  is  equally  sonorous 
and  prolonged,  differing  considerably  from  that  of  the  Great 
Malay. 

The  cock  has  a large,  upright,  single,  deeply-indented 
comb,  very  much  resembling  that  of  the  Black  Spanish,  and, 
when  in  condition,  of  quite  as  brilliant  a scarlet;  like  him, 
also,  he  has  sometimes  a very  large  white  ear-hole  on  each 
cheek,  which,  if  not  an  indispepsible  or  even  a required  quali- 
fication, is,  however,  to  be  preferred,  for  beauty  at  least.  The 
wattles  are  large,  wide,  and  pendent.  The  legs  are  of  a pale 
flesh-color;  some  specimens  have  them  yellow,  which  is  objec- 
tionable. The  feathers  on  the  breast  and  sides  are  of  a bright 
chestnut-brown;  large  and  well-defined,  giving  a scaly  or  im- 
bricated appearance  to  those  parts.  The  hackle  of  the  neck  is 
of  a light  yellowish  brown;  the  lower  feathers  being  tipped 
with  dark  brown,  so  as  to  give  a spotted  appearance  to  the 
neck.  The  tail-feathers  are  black,  and  darkly  iridescent;  back, 
scarlet-orange;  back-hackle,  yellow-orange.  It  is,  in  short, 
altogether  a flame-colored  bird.  Both  sexes  are  lower  in  the 
leg  than  either  the  Black  Spanish  or  the  Malay. 


384 


POULTRY. 


The  hen  approaches  in  her  build  more  nearly  to  the  Dork- 
ing than  to  any  other  breed,  except  that  the  tail  is  very  small 
and  proportionately  depressed;  it  is  smaller  and  more  hori- 
zontal than  in  any  other  fowl.  Her  comb  is  of  moderate  size, 
almost  small;  she  has,  also,  a small,  white  ear-hole.  Her  color- 
ing is  flat,  being  composed  of  various  shades  of  very  light 
brown,  with  light  yellow  on  the  neck.  Her  appearance  is 
quiet,  and  only  attracts  attention  by  its  extreme  neatness, 
cleanliness  and  compactness. 

The  eggs  average  about  two  ounces  each.  They  are  smooth, 
of  an  oval  shape,  equally  rounded  at  both  ends,  and  of  a rich 
buff  color,  nearly  resembling  those  of  the  Silver  Pheasant.  The 
newly-hatched  chickens  appear  very  large  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  egg.  They  have  light,  flesh-colored  bills,  feet,  and 
legs,  and  are  thickly  covered  with  down,  of  the  hue  commonly 
called  “carroty.”  They  are  not  less  thrifty  than  any  other 
chickens,  and  feather  somewhat  more  uniformly  than  either 
the  Black  Spanish  or  the  Malay.  It  is,  however,  most  desir- 
able to  hatch  these — as  other  large-growing  varieties — as  early 
in  the  spring  as  possible;  even  so  soon  as  the  end  of  February. 
A peculiarity  in  the  cockerels  is  that  they  do  not  show  even 
the  rudiments  of  their  tail-feathers  till  they  are  nearly  full- 
grown.  They  increase  so  rapidly  in  other  directions  that 
there  is  no  material  to  spare  for  the  production  of  these  dec- 
ora .ive  appendages. 

The  merits  of  this  breed  are  such  that  it  may  safely"  be 
recommended  to  people  residing  in  the  country.  For  the  in- 
habitants-of  towns  it  is  less  desirable,  as  the  light  tone  of  its 
plumage  would  show  every  mark  of  dirt  and  defilement;  and 
the  readiness  with  which  they  sit  would  be  an  inconvenience, 
rather  than  otherwise,  in  families  with  whom  perpetual  layers 
are  most  in  requisition.  Expense  apart,  they  are  equal  or 
superior  to  any  other  fowl  for  the  table;  their  flesh  is  delicate, 
white,  tender,  and  well-flavored. 

The  Cuckoo. — The  fowl  so  termed  in  Norfolk,  England  is, 
very  probably,  an  old  and  distinct  variety;  although  they  are 
generally  regarded  as  mere  barn-door  fowls — that  is,  the 
merely  accidental  result  of  promiscuous  crossing. 

The  name  probably  originated  from  its  barred  plumage, 


POULTRY. 


385 


which  resembles  that  on  the  breast  of  the  Cuckoo.  The  pre- 
vailing color  is  a slaty  blue,  undulated,  and  softly  shaded  with 
white  all  over  the  body,  forming  bands  of  various  widths.  The 
comb  is  very  small;  irides,  bright  orange;  feet  and  legs,  light 
flesh  color.  The  hens  are  of  good  size;  the  cocks  are  large, 
approaching  the  heaviest  breeds  in  weight.  The  chickens,  at 
two  or  three  months  old,  exhibit  the  barred  plumage  even 
more  perfectly  than  the  full-grown  birds.  The  eggs  average 
about  two  ounces  each,  are  white,  and  of  porcelain  smooth- 
ness. The  newly-hatched  chickens  are  gray,  much  resembling 
those  of  the  Silver  Polands,  except  in  the  color  of  the  feet  and 
legs. 

This  breed  supplies  an  unfailing  troop  of  good  layers,  good 
sitters,  good  mothers  and  good  feeders-,  and  is  well  worth  pro- 
motion in  the  poultry-yard. 

The  Dominique. — This  seems  to  be  a tolerably  distinct  and 
permanent  variety,  about  the  size  of  the  common  dunghill 
fowl.  Their  combs  are  generally  double — or  rose,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called — and  the  wattles  small.  Their  plumage  pre- 
sents, all  over,  a sort  of  greenish  appearance,  from  a peculiar 
arrangement  of  blue  and  v/hite  feathers,  which  is  the  chief 
characteristic  of  the  variety;  although,  in  some  specimens,  the 
plumage  is  invariably  gray  in  both  cock  and  hen.  They  are 
very  hardy,  healthy,  excellent  layers,  and  capital  incubators. 
No  fowl  have  better  stood  the  tests  of  mixing  without  deterior- 
ating than  the  pure  Dominique. 

Their  name  is  taken  from  the  island  of  Dominica,  from 

which  they  are  reported  to  have  been  imported.  Take  all  in 

all,  they  are  one  of  the  very  best  breeds  of  fowl  which  we  have; 

and,  although  they  do  not  come  in  to  laying  so  young  as  the 

Spanish,  they  are  far  better  sitters  and  nurses. 

% 

The  Dorking. — This  has  been  termed  the  Capon  Fowl  of 
England.  It  forms  the  chief  supply  for  the  London  market, 
and  is  distinguished  by  a white  or  flesh-colored  smooth  leg, 
armed  with  five,  instead  of  four  toes,  dn  each  foot.  Its  flesh 
is  extremely  delicate,  especially  after  caponization;  and  it  has 
the  advantage  over  some  other  fowls  of  feeding  rapidly,  and 
growing  to  a very  respectable  size  when  properly  managed. 

For  those  who  wish  to  stock  their  poultry  yards  with  fowls 
83 


386 


POULTRY. 


of  the  most  desirable  shape  and  size,  clothed  in  rich  and  vari- 
gated  plumage,  and,  not  expecting  perfection,  are  willing  to 
overlook  one  or  two  other  points,  the  Speckled  Dorkings — so 
called  from  the  town  of  Surrey,  England,  which  brought  them 
into  modern  repute — should  be  selected.  The  hens,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  gay  colors,  have  a large,  vertically  flat  comb,  which, 
when  they  are  in  high  health,  adds  very  much  to  their  brilliant 
appearance,  particularly  if  seen  in  bright  sunshine.  The  cocks 
are  magnificent.  The  most  gorgeous  hues  are  lavished  upon 
them,  which  their  great  size  and  peculiarly  square-built  form 
display  to  the  greatest  advantage.  Their  legs  are  short;  their 
breast  broad;  there  is  but  a small  proportion  of  offal;  and  the 
good,  profitable  flesh  is  abundant.  The  cocks  may  be  brought 
to  considerable  weight,  and  the  flavor  and  appearance  of  their 
meat  are  inferior  to  none.  The  eggs  are  produced  in  reason- 
able abundance;  and,  though  not  equal  in  size  to  those  of 
Spanish  hens,  may  fairly  be  called  large. 

They  are  not  everlasting  layers,  but  at  due  or  convenient 
intervals  manifest  the  desire  of  sitting.  In  this  respect,  they  are 
steady  and  good  mothers  when  the  little  ones  appear. 

With  all  these  merits,  however,  they  are  not  found  to  be  a 
profitable  breed,  if  kept  thoroughbred  and  unmixed.  Their 
powers  seem  to  fail  at  an  early  age.  They  are  also  apt  to  pine 
away  and  die  just  at  the  point  of  reaching  maturity.  They 
appear  at  a certain  epoch  to  be  seized  with  consumption — in 
the  Speckled  Dorkings,  the  lungs  seem  to  be  the  seat  of  the 
disease.  The  White  Dorkings  are,  however,  hardy  and  active 
birds,  and  are  not  subject  to  consumption  or  any  other  disease. 

As  mothers,  an  objection  to  the  Dorkings  is  that  they  are 
too  heavy  and  clumsy  to  rear  the  chickens  of  any  smaller  and 
more  delicate  bird  than  themselves. 

In  spite  of  these  drawbacks  the  Dorkings  are  still  in  high 
favor;  but  a cross  is  found  to  be  more  profitable  than  the  true 
breed,  A glossy,  energetic  game-cock,  with  Dorking  hens, 
produces  chickens  in  size  and  beauty  little  inferior  to  their 
maternal  parentage,  and  much  more  robust.  The  supernu- 
merary toe  on  each  foot  almost  always  disappears  with  the  first 
cross;  but  it  is  a point  which  can  very  well  be  spared  without 
much  disadvantage.  In  other  respects  the  appearance  of  the 


POULTRY. 


387 


newly  hatched  chickens  is  scarcely  altered.  The  eggs  of  the 
Dorkings  are  large,  pure  white,  very  much  rounded,  and 
nearly  equal  in  size  at  each  end.  The  chickens  are  brown* 
ish-yellow,  with  a broad  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  a narrow  one  on  each  side;  feet  and  legs  yellow. 

The  Black  Dorking. — The  bodies  of  this  variety  are  of 
a large  size,  with  the  usual  proportions  of  the  race,  and  of  a jet 
black  color.  The  neck-feathers  of  some  of  the  cocks  are 
tinged  with  a bright  gold  color,  and  those  of  some  of  the  hens 
bear  a silvery  complexion.  Their  combs  are  usually  double, 
and  very  short,  though  sometimes  cupped,  rose,  or  single,  with 
wattles  small;  and  they  are  usually  very  red  about  the  head. 
Their  tails  are  rather  shorter  and  broader  than  most  of  the 
race,  and  they  feather  rather  slowly.  Their  legs  are  short  and 
black,  with  five  toes  on  each  foot,  the  bottom  of  which  is  some- 
times yellow.  The  two  back  toes  are  very  distinct,  starting 
from  the  foot  seperately;  and  there  is  frequently  a part  of  an 
extra  toe  between  the  two. 

W 

This  breed  commence  laying  when  very  young,  and  are 
very  thrifty  layers  during  winter.  Their  eggs  are  of  a large 
size,  and  hatch  well;  they  are  perfectly  hardy,  as  their  color 
indicates,  and  for  the  product  are  considered  among  the  most 
valuable  of  the  Dorking  breed. 

The  Game  Fowl. — It  is  probable  that  these  fowl,  like  other 
choice  varieties,  are  natives  of  India.  It  is  certain  that  in  that 
country  an  original  race  of  some  fowl  exists,  at  the  present  day, 
bearing  in  full  perfection  all  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
species.  In  India,  as  is  well  known,  the  natives  are  infected 
with  a passion  for  cock-fighting.  These  fowls  are  carefully 
bred  for  this  barbarous  amusement,  and  the  finest  birds  become 
articles  of  great  value. 

The  game  fowl  is  one  of  the  most  gracefully  formed  and 
beautifully  colored  of  any  of  our  domestic  breeds  of  poultry; 
and  in  its  form,  aspect,  and  that  extraordinary  courage  which 
characterizes  its  natural  disposition,  exhibits  all  that  either  the 
naturalist  or  the  sportsman  would  at  once  recognize  as  the 
purest  type  of  high  blood,  embodying,  in  short,  all  the  most 
indubitable  characteristics  of  gallinaceous  aristocracy. 

The  flesh  is  beautifully  white,  as  well  as  tender  and  delicate. 


388 


POULTRY. 


The  hens  are  excellent  layers,  and,  although  the  eggs  are  under 
the  average  size,  they  are  not  to  be  surpassed  in  excellence  of 
flavor.  Such  being  the  character  of  this  variety  of  fowl,  it 
would  doubtless  be  much  more  extensively  cultivated  than  it  is, 
were  it  not  for  the  difficulty  attending  the  rearing  of  the  young; 
their  pugnacity  being  such  that  a brood  is  scarcely  feathered 
before  at  least  one-half  are  killed  or  blinded  by  fighting. 

With  proper  care,  however,  most  of  the  difficulties  to  be 
apprehended  may  be  avoided.  It  is  exceedingly  desirable  to 
perpetuate  the  race,  for  uses  the  most  important  and  valuable. 
As  a cross  with  other  breeds,  they  are  invaluable  in  improving 
the  flavor  of  the  flesh,  which  is  an  invariable  consequence.  The 
plumage  of  all  fowl  related  to  them  is  increased  in  brilliancy; 
and  they  are,  moreover,  very  prolific,  and  eggs  are  always 
enriched. 

The  Wild  Indian  Game. — This  variety  was  originally 
imported  into  this  country  from  Calcutta.  The  hen  has  a long 
neck,  like  a wild  goose;  neither  comb  nor  wattles;  of  a dark, 
glossy  green  color;  very  short  or  fan  tail;  lofty  in  carriage, 
trim  built,  and  wild  in  general  appearance;  legs  very  large  and 
long,  spotted  with  blue;  ordinary  weight  from  four  and  a half 
to  six  pounds.  As  a layer,  she  is  equal  to  any  other  fowls  of 
the  game  variety. 

The  cock  stands  as  high  as  a large  turkey,  and  weighs  nine 
pounds  and  upward;  the  plumage  is  of  a reddish  cast,  inter- 
spersed with  spots  of  glossy  green;  comb  very  small;  no  wat- 
tles; and  bill  unlike  any  other  foul,  except  the  hen. 

The  Spanish  Game. — This  variety  is  called  the  English 
fowl  by  some  writers.  It  is  more  slender  in  the  body,  the 
neck,  the  bill,  and  the  legs,  than  the  other  varieties,  and  the 
colors,  particularly  of  the  cock,  ap  very  bright  and  showy. 
The  flesh  is  white,  tender  and  delicate,  and  on  this  account 
marketable;  the  eggs  are  small  and  extremely  delicate.  The 
plumage  is  very  beautiful — a clear,  dark  red,  very  bright, 
extending  from  the  back  to  the  extremities,  while  the  breast  is 
beautifully  black.  The  upper  convex  side  of  the  wing  is  equally 
red  and  black,  and  the  whole  of  the  tail-feathers  white.  The 
beak  and  legs  are  black;  the  eyes  resemble  jet  beads,  very  full 


POULTRY. 


389 


and  brilliant;  and  the  whole  contour  of  the  head  gives  a most 
ferocious  expression. 

The  Spangled  Hamburgh. — The  Spangled  Hamburgh  fowl 
are  divided  into  two  varieties,  the  distinctive  characteristics 
being  slight,  almost  dependent  upon  color;  these  varieties  are 
termed  the  Gold  and  Silver  Spangled. 

The  Golden  Spangled  is  one  of  no  ordinary  beauty;  it  is 
well  and  very  neatly  made,  has  a good  body,  and  no  very  great 
offal.  On  the  crest,  immediately  above  the  beak,  are  two  small, 
fleshy  horns,  resembling,  to  some  extent,  an  abortive  comb. 
Above  the  crest,  and  occupying  the  place  of  a comb,  is  a very 
large  brown  or  yellow  tuft,  the  feathers  composing  it  darkening 
toward  their  extremities.  Under  the  insertion  of  the  lower 
mandible — or  that  portion  of  the  neck  corresponding  to  the 
chin  in  man — is  a full,  dark-colored  tuft,  somewhat  resembling 
a beard.  The  wattles  are  very  small;  the  comb,  as  in  other 
high  crested  fowls,  is  very  diminutive;  the  skin  and  flesh  white. 
The  hackles  on  the  neck  are  of  a brilliant  orange,  or  golden 
yellow;  and  the  general  ground  color  of  the  body  is  of  the 
same  hue,  but  somewhat  darker.  The  thighs  are  of  a dark 
brown  or  blackish  shade,  and  the  legs  and  feet  are  of  a bluish 
gray. 

In  the  Silver  Spangled  variety,  the  only  perceptible  differ- 
ence is  that  the  ground  color  is  a silvery  white.  The  extremity 
and  a portion  cf  the  extreme  margin  of  each  feather  are  black, 
presenting,  when  in  a state  of  rest,  the  appearance  of  regular 
semicircular  marks,  or  spangles  — and  hence  the  name, 
“Spangled  Hamburgh;”  the  varieties  being  termed  gold  or 
silver,  according  to  the  prevailing  color  being  bright  yellow  or 
silvery  white. 

The  eggs  are  of  moderate  size,  but  abundant;  chickens 
easily  reared.  In  mere  excellence  of  flesh  and  as  layers,  they 
are  inferior  to  the  Dorking  or  Spanish.  They  weigh  from  four 
and  a half  to  five  and  a half  pounds  for  the  male,  and  three 
and  a half  for  the  female.  The  former  stands  some  twenty 
inches  in  height,  and  the  latter  about  eighteen  inches. 

The  Malay  . — This  majestic  bird  is  found  on  the  peninsula 
from  which  it  derives  its  name,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  many, 
forms  a connecting  link  between  the  wild  and  domesticated 


390 


POULTRY. 


races  of  fowls.  Something  very  like  them  is,  indeed,  still  to  be 
found  in  the  East.  This  native  Indian  bird — the  Gigantic 
Cock,  the  Kulm  Cock  of  Europeans — often  stands  considerably 
more  than  two  feet  from  the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  ground. 
The  comb  extends  backward  in  a^line  with  the  eyes;  it  is  thick, 
a little  elevated,  rounded  upon  the  top,  and  has  almost  the 
appearance  of  having  been  cut  off.  The  wattles  of  the  under 
mandible  are  comparatively  small,  and  the  throat  is  bare.  Pale, 
golden-reddish  hackles  ornament  the  head,  neck,  and  upper 
part  of  the  back,  and  some  of  these  spring  before  the  bare  part 
of  the  throat.  The  middle  of  the  back  and  smaller  wing- 
coverts  are  deep  chestnut,  the  webs  of  the  feathers  disunited; 
pale  reddish-yellow,  long,  drooping  hackles  cover  the  rump  and 
base  of  the  tail,  which  last  is  very  ample,  and  entirely  of  a 
glossy.green,  of  which  color  are  the  wing-coverts:  the  secon- 
daries and  quills  are  pale  reddish-yellow  on  the  outer  webs.  All 
the  under  parts  are  deep  glossy  blackish-green,  with  high  re- 
flections; the  deep  chestnut  of  the  base  of  the  feathers  appears 
occasionally,  and  gives  a mottled  and  interrupted  appearance 
to  those  parts. 

The  weight  of  the  Malay  in  general,  exceeds  that  of  the 
Cochin-China;  the  male  weighing,  when  full-grown,  from  eleven 
to  twelve,  and  even  thirteen  pounds,  and  the  female  from  eight 
to  ten  pounds;  height,  from  twenty-six  to  twenty-eight  inches. 
They  present  no  striking  uniformity  of  plumage,  being  of  all 
shades,  from  black  to  white;  the  more  common  color  of  the 
female  is  a light  reddish-yellow,  with  sometimes  a faint  tinge  of 
dunnish-blue,  especially  in  the  tail. 

The  cock  is  frequently  of  a yellowish-red  color,  with  black 
intermingled  in  the  breast,  thighs  and  tail.  He  has  a small, 
but  thick  comb,  generally  inclined  to  one  side;  he  should  be 
snake-headed,  and  free  from  the  slightest  trace  of  top-knot;  the 
wattles  should  be  extremely  small,  even  in  an  old  bird;  the  legs 
are  not  feathered,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Shanghaes,  but,  like 
them  and  the  Cochin-Chinas,  his  tail  is  small  compared  with 
his  size.  In  the  female  there  is  scarcely  any  show  of  comb 
or  wattles.  Their  legs  are  long  and  stout;  their  flesh  is  very 
well  flavored,  when  they  have  been  properly  fattened;  and 
their  eggs  are  so  large  and  rich  that  two  of  them  are  equal  to 
three  of  those  of  our  ordinary  fowls. 


POULTRY. 


391 


The  Malay  cock,  in  his  perfection,  is  a remarkable  courage- 
ous and  strong  bird.  His  beak  is  very  thick,  and  he  is  a for- 
midable antagonist  when  offended.  His  crow  is  loud,  harsh 
and  prolonged,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Cochin-China,  but  broken 
off  abruptly  at  the  termination;  this  is  quite  characteristic  of 
the  bird. 

The  chickens  are  at  first  very  strong,  with  yellow  legs,  and 
are  thickly  covered  with  light  brown  down;  but,  by  the  time 
they  are  one-third  grown,  the  increase  of  their  bodies  has  so  far 
outstripped  that  of  their  feathers,  that  they  are  half  naked  about 
their  back  and  shoulders,  and  extremely  susceptible  of  cold  and 
wet.  The  great  secret  of  rearing  them  is  to  have  them  hatched 
very  early  indeed,  so  that  they  may  have  safely  passed  through 
this  period  of  unclothed  adolescence  during  the  dry  and  sunny 
part  of  May  and  June,  and  reached  nearly  their  full  stature 
before  the  midsummer  rains  descend. 

The  Plymouth  Rock. — This  name  has  been  given  to  a very 
good  breed  of  fowls,  produced  by  crossing  a China  cock  with  a 
hen,  a cross  between  the  fawn-colored  Dorking,  the  Great 
Malay,  and  the  Wild  Indian. 

At  a little  over  a year  old,  the  cocks  stand  from  thirty-two 
to  thirty-five  inches  high,  and  weigh  about  ten  pounds;  and  the 
pullets  from  six  and  a half  to  seven  pounds  each.  The  latter 
commence  laying  when  five  months  old,  and  prove  themselves 
very  superior  layers.  Their  eggs  are  of  a medium  size,  rich, 
and  reddish-yellow  in  color.  Their  plumage  is  rich  and  varie- 
gated; the  cocks  usually  red  and  speckled*  and  the  pullets  dark- 
ish brown.  The  have  very  fine  flesh,  and  are  fit  for  the  table 
at  an  early  age.  The  legs  are  very  large,  and  usually  blue  or 
green,  but  occasionally  yellow  or  white,  generally  having  five 
toes  upon  each  foot.  Some  have  their  legs  feathered,  but  this 
is  not  usual.  They  have  large  and  single  combs  and  wattles, 
large  cheeks,  rather  short  tails,  and  small  wings  in  proportion 
to  their  bodies. 

They  are  domestic  and  not  so  destructive  to  gardens  as 
smaller  fowls.  There  is  the  same  uniformity  in  size  and  gene- 
ral appearance,  at  the  same  age  of  the  chickens,  as  in  those  of 
the  pure  bloods  of  primary  races. 

The  Poland. — The  Poland,  or  Polish  fowl,  is  quite  unknown 


392 


POULTRY. 


in  the  country  which  would  seem  to  have  suggested  the  name, 
which  originated  from  some  fancied  resemblance  between  its 
tufted  crest  and  the  square-spreading  crown  of  the  feathered 
caps  worn  by  the  Polish  soldiers. 

The  Polish  are  chiefly  suited  for  keeping  in  a small  way, 
and  in  a clean  and  grassy  place.  They  are  certainly  not  so  fit 
for  the  farm-yard,  as  they  become  blinded  and  miserable  with 
dirt.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  procure  them  genuine,  since 
there  is  no  breed  of  fowls  more  disfigured  by  mongrelism  than 
this.  They  will,  without  any  cross-breeding,  occasionally  pro- 
duce white  stock  that  are  very  pretty,  and  equally  good  for  lay- 
ing. If,  however,  an  attempt  is  made  to  establish  a separate 
breed  of  them,  they  become  puny  and  weak.  It  is,  therefore, 
better  for  those  who  wish  for  them  to  depend  upon  chance; 
every  brood  almost  of  the  black  produces  one  white  chicken, 
as  strong  and  as  lively  as  the  rest. 

These  fowls  are  excellent  for  the  table,  the  flesh  being 
white,  tender  and  juicy;  but  they  are  quite  unsuitable  for  be- 
ing reared  in  any  numbers,  or  for  general  purposes,  since  they 
are  so  capricious  in  their  growth,  frequently  remaining  station- 
ary in  this  respect  for  a whole  month,  getting  no  larger;  and 
this,  too,  when  they  are  about  a quarter  or  half  grown — the 
time  of  their  life  when  they  are  most  liable  to  disease.  As 
aviary  birds,  they  are  unrivalled  among  fowls.  Their  plumage 
often  requires  a close  inspection  to  appreciate  its  elaborate 
beauty;  the  confinement  and  fretting  seem  not  uncongenial  to 
their  health;  and  their  plumage  improves  in  attractiveness  with 
almost  every  month. 

The  great  merit,  however,  of  all  the  Polish  fowls  is  that 
for  three  or  four  years  they  continue  to  grow  and  gain  in  size, 
hardiness  and  beauty — the  male  birds  especially.  This  fact 
certainly  points  out  a very  wide  deviation  in  constitution  from 
these  fowls  which  attain  their  full  stature  and  perfect  plumage 
in  twelve  or  fifteen  months.  The  similarity  of  coloring  in  the 
two  sexes — almost  a specific  distinction  of  Polish  and,  perhaps, 
Spanish  fowls — also  separates  them  from  those  breeds,  like  the 
Game,  in  which  the  cocks  and  hens  are  remarkably  dissimilar. 
Their  edible  qualities  are  as  superior,  compared  with  other 
fowls,  as  their  outward  apparel  surpasses  in  elegance.  They 


POULTRY. 


393 


have  also  the  reputation  of  being  everlasting  layers,  which 
further  fits  them  for  keeping  in  small  enclosures;  but,  in  this 
respect,  individual  exceptions  are  often  encountered — as  in  the 
case  of  the  Hamburghs — however  truly  the  habit  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  race. 

There  are  four  known  varieties  of  the  Polish  fowl,  one  of 
which  appears  to  be  lost  to  this  country. 

The  Silver  Pheasant. — This  variety  of  fowls  is  remarkable 
for  great  brilliancy  of  plumage  and  diversity  of  colors.  On  a 
white  ground,  which  is  usually  termed  silvery,  there  is  an 
abundance  of  black  spots.  The  feathers  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  head  are  much  longer  than  the  rest,  and  unite  together  in 
a tuft.  They  have  a small,  double  comb,  and  the  wattles  are 
also  comparatively  small.  A remarkable  peculiarity  of  the  cock 
is  that  there  is  a spot  of  blue  color  on  the  cheeks,  and  a range 
of  feathers  under  the  throat,  which  has  the  appearance  of  a 
collar. 

The  hen  is  a smaller  bird,  with  plumage  similar  to  that  of 
the  cock,  and  at  a little  distance  seems  to  be  covered  with 
scales.  On  the  head  is  a topknot  of  very  large  size,  which 
droops  over  it  on  every  side.  The  Silver  Pheasants  are  beau- 
tiful and  showy  birds,  and  chiefly  valuable  as  ornamental 
appendages  to  the  poultry  yard. 

The  Spanish. — This  name  is  said  to  be  a misnomer,  as  the 
breed  in  question  was  originally  brought  by  the  Spaniards  from 
the  West  Indies;  and,  although  subsequently  propagated  in 
Spain,  it  has  for  some  time  been  very  difficult  to  procure  good 
specimens  from  that  country.  From  Spain,  they  were  taken  in 
considerable  numbers  into  Holland,  where  they  have  been  care- 
fully bred  for  many  years;  and  it  is  from  that  quarter  that  our 
best  fowls  of  this  variety  come. 

The  Spanish  is  a noble  race  of  fowls,  possessing  many  mer- 
its; of  spirited  and  animated  appearance;  of  considerable  size; 
excellent  for  the  table,  both  in  whiteness  of  flesh  and  skin,  and 
also  in  flavor;  and  laying  exceedingly  large  eggs  in  consider- 
able numbers.  Among  birds  of  its  own  breed  it  is  not  defic- 
ient in  courage;  though  it  yields,  without  showing  much  fight, 
to  those  which  have  a dash  of  game  blood  in  their  veins.  It  is 
a general  favorite  in  all  large  cities,  for  the  additional  advan- 


394 


POULTRY. 


tage  that  no  soil  of  smoke  or  dirt  is  apparent  on  its  plumage. 

The  thoroughbred  birds  should  be  entirely  black,  as  far  as 
feathers  are  concerned;  and,  when  in  high  condition,  display  a 
greenish,  metallic  lustre.  The  combs  of  both  cock  and  hen 
are  exceedingly  large,  of  a vivid  and  most  brilliant  scarlet;  that 
of  the  hen  droops  over  upon  one  side.  Their  most  singular 
feature  is  a large,  white  patch,  or  ear-hole,  on  the  cheek — in 
some  specimens  extending  over  a great  part  of  the  face — of  a 
fleshy  substance,  similar  to  the  wattle;  it  is  small  in  the  female, 
but  large  and  very  conspicuous  in  the  male.  This  marked 
contrast  of  black,  bright  red,  and  white,  makes  the  breed  of 
the  Spanish  cock  as  handsome  as  that  of  any  variety  which  we 
have;  in  the  genuine  breed  the  whole  form  is  equally  good. 

Spanish  hens  are  celebrated  as  good  layers,  and  produce 
very  large,  quite  white  eggs,  of  a peculiar  shape,  being  very 
thick  at  both  ends,  and  yet  tapering  off  a little  at  each.  They 
are,  by  no  means,  good  mothers  of  families,  even  when  they  do 
sit — which  they  will  not  often  condescend  to  do — proving  very 
careless,  and  frequently  trampling  half  their  brood  under  foot. 
The  inconveniences  of  this  habit  are,  however,  easily  obviated 
by  causing  the  eggs  to  be  hatched  by  some  more  motherly  hen. 

Fowls  for  Layers. — The  layers  must  be  of  a breed  that 
affords  chickens  easily  reared,  for  success  in  the  nursery  depart- 
ment is  all-important;  they  must  be  at  the  head  of  the  list  of 
prolific  layers  of  fair-sized  eggs.  None  but  a non-sitting  race 
will  answer,  for  sitters  make  fully  double  the  labor  during 
half  of  the  year;  and  the  feathers  must  be  light,  because  dark 
ones  show  badly  when  chickens  are  dressed.  There  is  at  pres- 
ent no  breed  that  fulfills  all  these  conditions  so  well  as  the 
White  Leghorn.  It  may  degenerate  in  time,  as  other  races  of 
fowls  have  done,  by  being  bred  for  fancy  instead  of  utility,  but 
it  possesses  now  more  vigor  than  any  other  non-sitting  breed. 
In  breeding  poultry,  show  and  utility  do  not  get  on  well 
together  in  the  long  run.  To  fanciers  unquestionably  belongs 
the  credit  of  originating  improved  breeds,  but  afterwards,  in 
fixing  conventional  points  for  the  show-room,  the  stock  is 
often  ruined  on  our  hands.  To  prevent  the  freezing  of  their 
combs  and  wattles  during  severe  winters,  they  should  be 
"dubbed”  when  the  birds  are  two  thirds  grown.  The  opera- 


POULTRY. 


395 


tion  is  not  so  painful  as  might  appear,  and,  if  shears  are  used, 
the  blood-vessels  are  pinched,  and  but  little  blood  will  flow. 

The  layers  are  relied  upon  to  produce  the  principal  part  of 
the  income,  and,  as  they  are  chief  in  point  of  numbers,  the 
detached  stations  where  they  are  kept  from  the  main  part  of 
the  establishment,  to  which  the  breeding  and  sitting  depart- 
ments are  merely  tributary.  Most  of  the  layers  must  be  kept 
only  until  the  age  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  months,  and  then 
killed  for  sale,  and  their  places  supplied  by  young  pullets. 
This  course  is  necessary,  because  the  yield  of  eggs  is  greatest 
during  the  first  laying  season  if  the  hens  are  of  an  early-matur- 
ing breed,  and  are  fed  high,  and  stimulated  to  the  utmost,  as 
they  must  be,  to  secure  the  highest  profit.  For  though  hens 
are  still  vigorous  at  two  years,  it  will  be  found  that  after  a 
course  of  forcing  to  their  greatest  capacity  through  the  first 
season,  they  cannot  be  made  to  lay  profusely  during  the 
second.  If  we  choose  not  to  put  on  the  full  pressure  of  diet 
the  first  year,  but  to  feed  moderately  high  for  two  or  three 
years,  a fair  yield  of  eggs  would  be  afforded  during  each. 
But  such  a course  would  not  pay  so  well  as  to  keep  pullets 
only,  and  maintain  a forcing  system  constantly  from  the  time 
they  commence  to  lay  until  they  stop,  and  then  market  them 
before  they  eat  up  the  profits  in  the  idleness  of  fall  and  winter. 
Pullets  grow  fast  during  the  early  part  of  their  lives,  and  give 
a return  in  flesh  for  what  they  eat  then.  After  they  commence 
laying,  their  eggs  are  prompt  dividends,  and,  besides,  their 
bodies  increase  in  weight  until  the  age  of  a year  or  more. 
Young  hens  may  be  killed  a fortnight  after  ceasing  to  lay,  and 
if  they  have  been  skillfully  fed,  their  flesh  will  prove  excellent 
for  the  table  as  compared  with  fowls  that  are  two  or  three  years 
old.  It  is  no  wonder  that  there  is  little  liking  for  the  adult 
fowls  the  markets  ordinarily  afford,  for  they  comprise  many 
that  are  very  old  and  unfit  for  food.  But  regular  customers 
will  soon  approve  fowls  a year  old,  which  have  been  supplied 
with  the  cleanest  food,  and  brought  to  just  the  proper  fatness, 
and  delivered  freshly  killed  and  neatly  dressed,  and  our  experi- 
ence proves  that  the  families  upon  the  egg  route  will  order 
all  that  the  establishment  has  to  dispose  of.  The  high-pressure 
mode  of  feeding  and  turning  off  while  yet  young,  is  then  the 


396 


POULTRY. 


true  policy.  The  point  is,  there  is  a certain  consumption  of 
food  to  enable  an  animal  to  keep  alive.  The  ordinary  vital 
operation,  aside  from  laying  or  increase  of  size,  demand  force, 
obtained  through  food — which  is  money — and  we  should  aim 
to  support  only  such  fowls  as  are  all  the  while  giving  returns 
in  either  growth  or  eggs.  The  long  period  of  moulting  and 
recovering  from  its  consequent  exhaustion,  costs,  as  does  the 
maintenance  of  the  vital  fires  during  the  cold  of  winter.  It 
is  a matter  of  quick  balancing  of  profits  and  expenses  with 
animals,  which,  like  fowls,  consume  the  value  of  their  bodies  in 
about  six  months.  If  it  is  urged  that  the  stimulating  diet  and 
unnatural  prolificness  will  subject  the  stock  to  disease,  the 
reply  is  that  the  regimen  is  not  continued  more  than  six  or 
eight  months,  and  in  that  time  evil  effects  will  not  ordinarily 
follow,  for  the  birds  are  allowed  freedom,  sun,  and  air,  and 
special  provision  is  made  for  daily  exercise.  As  none  of  the 
fowls  to  which  this  forcing  system  is  applied  leave  descendants, 
no  evil  effects  are  accumulated  and  entailed  upon  the  stock. 
The  layers  are  from  the  eggs  of  fowls  that  have  not  been  sub- 
jected to  any  such  pressure,  and  during  the  period  of  their 
principal  growth  they  have  been  given  a nutritious  but  not 
especially  stimulating  food — like  a colt  at  pasture.  When  they 
arrive  at  the  laying  age,  they  are  kept  like  the  horse — broken 
to  work,  and  put  to  constant  and  severe  labor,  and  fed  as  high 
as  he  will  bear. 

Fowls  and  Sitters. — The  sitters  are  of  a breed  chosen  for 
persistence  and  regularity  in  incubation,  fidelity  to  their  chick- 
ens, and  gentleness  of  disposition.  The  Light  Brahmas  can 
not  be  excelled  for  hatching  and  rearing.  Pure  bloods,  how- 
ever, are  not  used;  but  to  give  less  awkwardness  and  greater 
spread  of  wings,  they  are  crossed  with  snow-white  barn-yard 
fowls.  The  half-bloods  resemble  the  Brahmas  the  most  in 
form  and  other  characteristics,  and  are  almost  uniformly  docile. 
The  half-blood  Brahmas  are  extremely  valuable  for  hatching 
and  taking  care  of  chickens.  The  results  of  the  labors  of 
poultry  fanciers  in  producing  two  6uch  breeds  as  the  White 
Leghorns  and  Light  Brahmas  are  enough  to  compensate  for 
all  the  humbug  practiced  by  many  members  of  the  guild.  The 
sitters  are  not  kept  at  detached  stations  like  the  layers,  for 


POULTRY. 


397 


several  reasons.  One  is,  they  should  all  be  near  together,  be- 
cause of  the  great  amount  of  attendance  necessary  in  connec- 
tion with  hatching.  Then  the  buildings  should  be  large  enough 
for  the  keeper  to  enter,  in  order  to  take  care  of  the  nests  and 
chickens,  but  the  size  of  the  structure  and  the  risk  of  jaring 
eggs  will  prevent  moving.  Nor  can  the  system  of  indirect  feed- 
ing and  no  yards  be  pursued,  for  the  sitters  should  be  fed  at 
the  attendant’s  feet,  and  tamed  so  as  to  submit  quietly  to  the 
handling  they  receive  while  hatching  and  rearing.  Their  yards 
are  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  exercise,  and  for  the  same 
reason  their  dry  grain  is  buried  in  the  ground  or  under  straw. 
In  very  cold  weather  they  are  confined  to  their  houses  for 
warmth,  and  are  given  a stimulating  diet  to  promote  winter 
laying,  not  so  much  for  the  value  of  the  eggs  as  to  render  it 
certain  that  there  shall  be  a considerable  number  of  birds  ready 
to  sit  in  February,  and  many  more  in  March.  The  fowls 
chiefly  depended  upon  for  this,  consist  of  the  earliest  pullets 
of  the  previous  year,  and  also  the  old  hens  that  have  been  em- 
ployed much  of  the  time  the  preceeding  summer  in  hatching 
two  or  three  broods.  The  prevention  of  laying  by  hatching 
and  rearing,  causes  birds  thus  occupied  to  lay  earlier  the  next 
season.  By  a little  management  there  is  no  difficulty  in  pro- 
curing plenty  of  offers  to  sit  from  February  to  June.  One 
half  the  sitting  stock  are  two  years  old,  and  of  the  pullets  of 
the  sitting  class  raised  yearly,  some  are  hatched  in  February 
and  March,  and  some  in  the  first  week  of  September,  the  bet- 
ter to  secure  sitting  in  various  parts  of  the  year.  Except  in 
winter,  the  sitters  should  not  be  fed  with  a view  to  encourage 
laying,  but  the  aim  should  be  to  keep  them  on  as  moderate  an 
allowance  as  possible,  and  not  have  them  become  poor.  Their 
specific  purpose  is  incubation,  and  they  should  be  made  to  do 
as  much  of  this  as  possible.  By  uniting  broods,  when  a hen 
has  hatched  one  nest  full  of  eggs  she  may  be  given  another 
immediately,  and,  if  managed  rightly,  she  will  not  be  injured 
by  sitting  a double  term.  Each  hen  must  hatch  two  broods 
per  year  at  least,  and  some  will  hatch  three.  In  this  way  the 
stock  of  500  sitters  will  produce  10,000  chickens  yearly,  or  an 
average  of  20  apiece. 

Management  of  Breeding  Stock— The  proper  management 


398 


POULTRY. 


of  the  breeding  stock  is  a very  important  part  of  the  scheme, 
for  there  must  annually  be  raised  a large  supply  of  pullets  of 
the  right  quality.  The  profits  of  the  establishment  depend 
largely  on  the  excellence  of  the  fowls,  and  as  they  can  be  mul- 
tiplied very  fast  from  a chosen  few,  no  pains  should  be  spared 
to  secure  the  very  best  as  a source  from  which  to  stock  the 
whole  farm.  There  is  but  one  way  to  do  this,  and  that  is  to 
keep  individual  birds  in  experimental  yards  in  order  to  test 
their  merits,  recording  the  degree  of  excellence  and  the  pedi- 
gree of  the  best  with  as  much  care  as  would  be  given  to  breed- 
ing cows  or  horses. 

We  will  suppose  it  is  designed  to  produce  a strain  of  Leg- 
horns that  shall  excel  in  prolificness,  laying  at  an  early  age, 
and  in  other  requisites.  Procure  a pullet  from  A and  a cock- 
erel from  B,  and  put  them  in  yard  No.  i;  purchase  from  C and 
D one  bird  from  each,  for  yard  No.  2,  and  so  on,  always  taking 
care  that  no  specimens  are  obtained  from  any  locality  where 
disease  has  prevailed.  The  smaller  breeding  yards  are  used  as 
experimental  yards,  and  to  allow  each  cock  a proper  number 
of  mates,  two  or  more  half-blood  Brahmas  pullets  (whose  eggs 
can  be  distinguished  by  their  color)  are  added.  Give  each 
Leghorn  a name  or  number,  and  enter  in  a book  all  details 
necessary  for  testing  progress  in  improving  the  breed,  such  as 
weight,  the  age  at  which  laying  commenced,  and  the  yield  of 
eggs  during  the  first  year,  at  the  expiration  of  which  banish  all 
but  the  best  hens.  The  second  year  set  the  eggs  of  the  reserved 
extra  fowls,  and  keep  the  chickens  produced  by  each  pair  sep- 
arate from  all  others.  At  the  age  of  five  or  six  months,  cull 
out  the  most  promising  pullets  and  cockerels,  and  pair  them 
for  testing  and  recording  pedigree  and  prolificness  as  before. 
By  mating  the  produce  of  the  original  birds  from  A and  B with 
the  produce  of  those  from  C and  D,  finally  the  four  stocks  will 
become  blended  in  one.  Proceed  in  this  manner  a number  of 
years,  and  when  in  the  course  of  time  a very  extra  prolific  and 
vigorous  hen  has  been  found,  which  reached  full  size  and  com- 
menced laying  early,  and  whose  ancestry  have  excelled  in  the 
same  respects  for  several  generations,  as  shown  by  the  book, 
then  from  her  eggs  cocks  are  raised  from  which  to  breed  to 
replenish  the  main  stock  of  layers  at  the  itenirant  stations. 


POULTRY. 


399 


These  cocks  are  put  in  the  large  breeding  yards,  each  with  a 
fiock  of  ten  hens,  and  no  further  accounts  are  kept  of  the  pro- 
lificness of  individuals. 

After  new  stock  is  introduced  to  the  experimental  yards,  as 
must  be  done  yearly,  care  is  taken  for  a series  of  years  to  avoid 
breeding  akin,  and  as  purchases  will  be  made  from  fanciers, 
who  to  fix  the  conventional  points  have  most  likely  bred  close 
and  impaired  strength,  crossing  will  immediately  give  a decided 
increase  of  vigor.  Towards  the  last,  however,  when  sufficient 
stamina  has  been  gained,  and  the  stations  are  to  be  stocked, 
close  breeding  is  resorted  to.  This  is  to  increase  the  yield  of 
eggs. 

In  the  breeding  and  experimental  yards,  the  fowls  must  be 
fed  and  managed  in  every  respect  with  the  greatest  care.  Over- 
fattening is  to  be  deprecated  above  all  other  things,  and  may 
be  avoided  by  burying  ail  the  grain  to  make  the  birds  exercise 
by  scratching.  The  supply  of  grain  should  be  moderate  ; meat 
should  be  given  very  often  in  very  small  quantities,  and  the 
allowance  of  fresh  vegetables  should  be  ample.  Free  range 
would  be  very  desirable  for  all  the  breeders,  but,  as  it  is  im- 
practicable, scrupulous  care  must  be  taken  to  furnish  artifi- 
cially natural  conditions.  Though  the  birds  of  the  laying  class 
in  the  experimental  yards  are  rated  according  to  their  prolific- 
ness, yet  the  test  is  merely  a relative  one,  for  they  are  not  forced 
to  profuse  laying  by  stimulating  food. 

Food. — The  food  of  hens  may  consist  of  different  kinds  of 
grain,  either  broken,  ground  or  cooked;  roots,  and,  especially, 
boiled  potatoes,  are  nutritious  and  economical  - green  herbage, 
as  clover  and  many  of  the  grains;  chickweed,  lettuce,  cabbage, 
etc.,  will  supply  them  with  much  of  their  food,  if  fresh  and 
tender.  Though  not  absolutely  essential  to  them,  yet  nothing 
contributes  so  much  to  their  laying,  as  unsalted,  animal  food. 
This  is  a natural  aliment,  as  is  shown  by  the  avidity  with  which 
they  pounce  on  every  fly,  insect  or  earth  worm  which  comes 
within  their  reach.  It  would  not,  of  course,  pay  to  supply  them 
with  valuable  meat,  but  the  blood  and  offal  of  the  slaughter 
houses,  refuse  meat  of  all  kinds,  and,  especially,  the  scraps  or 
crackings  to  be  had  at  the  melter’s  shops,  after  soaking  for  a 
few  hours  in  warm  water,  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  economi 


400 


POULTRY. 


cal  kinds  of  food.  Such,  with  boiled-meal,  is  a very  fattening 
food.  Grain  is  at  all  times  best  for  them  when  ground  and 
cooked,  as  they  will  lay  more,  fat  quicker,  and  eat  much  less 
when  it  is  fed  to  them  in  this  state;  and  it  may  be  thus  used 
unground,  with  the  same  advantage  to  the  fowls,  as  if  first 
crushed,  as  their  digestive  organs  are  certain  to  extract  the 
whole  nutriment.  All  grain  is  food  for  them,  including  millet, 
rice,  the  oleaginous  seeds,  as  the  sunflower,  flax,  hemp,  etc. 
It  is  always  better  to  afford  them  a variety  of  grain,  where  they 
can  procure  them  at  their  option,  and  select  as  their  appetite 
craves. 

They  are  also  fond  of  milk,  and  indeed  scarcely  any  edible 
escapes  their  notice.  They  carefully  pick  up  the  most  of  the 
waste  garbage  around  the  premises,  and  glean  much  of  their 
subsistence  from  what  would  otherwise  become  offensive,  and 
by  their  destruction  of  innumerable  insects  and  worms,  they 
render  great  assistance  to  the  gardener.  Of  course  their  ever 
busy  propensity  for  scratching  is  indiscriminately  indulged 
just  after  the  seeds  have  been  planted  and  while  the  plants  are 
young,  which  renders  it  necessary  that  they  be  confined  in 
some  close  yard  for  a time;  yet  this  should  be  as  capacious  as 
possible.  Their  food,  if  cooked,  is  better  when  given  to  them 
warm,  not  hot;  and  no  more  fed  at  a time  than  they  will  pick 
up  clean.  Besides  their  food,  hens  ought  to  be  at  all  times 
abundantly  supplied  with  clean  water,  egg  or  pounded  oyster 
shells,  old  mortar,  or  slaked  lime.  If  not  allowed  to  run  at 
large  where  they  can  help  themselves,  they  must  also  be  fur- 
nished with  gravel  to  assist  their  digestion;  and  a box  or  bed 
of  ashes,  sand  and  dust,  is  equally  essential  to  roll  in  for  the 
purpose  of  ridding  themselves  of  vermin. 

Hen  House. — The  hen  house  may  be  constructed  in  various 
ways  to  suit  the  wishes  of  the  owner,  and,  when  tastefully  built, 
it  is  an.  ornament  to  the  premises.  It  should  be  perfectly  dry 
throughout,  properly  lighted  with  glass  windows  in  the  roof,  if 
possible,  and  capable  of  being  made  tight  and  warm  in  winter, 
yet  afford  all  the  ventilation  desirable  at  any  season.  In  this, 
arrange  the  nest  in  boxes  on  the  sides  in  such  a manner  as  to 
humor  the  instinct  of  the  hen  for  concealment  when  she  resorts 
to  them.  When  desirable  to  set  the  hen,  these  nests  may  be  so 


POULTRY. 


40. 


placed  as  to  shut  out  the  others,  yet  open  into  another  yard  or 
beyond  the  enclosure,  so  that  they  can  take  an  occasional 
stroll  and  help  themselves  to  frod,  etc.  This  prev  nts  other 
hens  laying  in  their  nests  while  sitting,  and  may  be  easily 
managed,  by  having  their  boxes  hung  on  the  wall  of  he  build- 
ing, with  a movable  door  made  to  open  on  either  sid  • at  pleas- 
ure. Hens  will  lay  without  a nest  egg,  but,  when  brok  n up, 
they  ramble  off  and  form  new  nests,  if  they  are  not  confined. 
They  will  lay  if  kept  from  the  cock,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  they 
will  thus  yield  as  many  eggs.  Hens  disposed  to  sit  at  improper 
times,  should  be  dismissed  from  the  common  yard,  so  as  to  be 
out  of  reach  of  the  nests,  and  plentifully  fed  till  weaned  from 
this  inclination. 

The  Chickens. — The  chickens  require  to  be  kept  warm  and 
dry  for  the  first  few  days  after  hatching,  and  they  may  be  fed 
with  hard  boiled  eggs,  crumbs  of  bread  or  pudding,  and  milk 
or  water,  and  allowed  to  scratch  in  the  gravel  in  front  of  the 
hen,  which  should  be  confined  in  a coop  for  the  first  three  or 
four  weeks,  after  which  they  may  be  turned  loose,  when  they 
will  thrive  on  anything  the  older  ones  eat.  Many  use  them 
for  the  table  when  they  are  but  a few  weeks  old;  but  they  are 
much  less  valuable  for  this  purpose  till  they  have  attained  to 
near  or  quite  full  maturity.  The  white  legs  are  preferred  by 
some,  from  the  whiteness  and  apparent  delicacy  of  the  meat; 
but  the  yellow  and  dark-legged  are  good.  The  color  of  the 
feathers  does  not  seem  to  affect  the  quality  of  the  flesh  or  their 
character  for  laying.  If  we  consider  the  principle  of  the 
absorption  and  retention  of  heat,  we  should  assume  the  white 
coat  to  be  the  best,  as  it  is  coolest  in  summer  when  exposed  to 
the  sun,  and  warmest  in  winter.  Yet  some  of  the  white  breeds 
are  delicate  and  do  not  bear  rough  usage  or  exposure. 

The  Turkey. — Unknown  to  the  civilized  world  till  the  dis- 
covery of  this  Continent,  it  was  found  here  both  in  its  wild  and 
domesticated  state,  and  still  occupies  the  whole  range  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  though  the  wild  turkey  disappears  as  the 
country  becomes  settled.  The  wild  is  about  the  size  of  the 
domesticated  bird.  The  color  of  the  male  is  generally  of  a 
greenish  brown,  approaching  to  black,  and  of  a rich,  change- 
able, metallic  lustre.  The  hen  is  marked  somewhat  like  the 
24 


402 


POULTRY. 


cock,  but  with  duller  hues.  Domestication  through  successive 
generations  has  changed  the  color  of  their  plumage,  and  pro- 
duced a variety  of  colors — black,  buff,  pure  white,  or  speckled. 
They  give  evidence  to  the  comparative  recency  of  their  domes- 
tication in  the  instinct  which  frequently  impels  the  cock  to 
brood  and  take  care  of  the  young.  Nothing  is  more  common 
than  for  the  male  bird  to  supply  the  place  of  the  hen,  when  any 
accident  befalls  her,  and  bring  up  the  family  of  young  chicks 
with  an  equally  instinctive  regard  for  their  helplessness  and 
safety.  The  flesh  of  this  bird,  both  wild  and  tame,  is  exceed- 
ingly delicate  and  palatable;  and,  though  not  possessing  the 
high  game  flavor  of  some  of  the  smaller  wild  fowl,  and  especi- 
ally of  the  aquatic,  as  the  canvas-back  duck,  etc.,  it  exceeds 
them  in  its  digestibility  and  healthfulness.  The  turkey  is  use- 
ful principally  for  its  flesh,  as  it  seldom  lays  over  a nest  full  of 
eggs  at  one  clutch,  when  they  brood  on  these  and  bring  up 
their  young.  If  full  fed,  and  their  first  eggs  are  withdrawn 
from  them,  they  frequently  lay  a second  time.  We  have  had 
them  lay  throughout  the  summer  and  into  late  autumn. 

Breeding. — Those  intended  for  breeders  should  be  com- 
pact, vigorous,  and  large,  without  being  long-legged.  They 
should  be  daily,  yet  lightly,  fed,  through  the  winter,  on  grain 
and  roots,  and  some  animal  food  is  always  acceptable  and 
beneficial  to  them.  They  are  small-eaters,  and  without  caution 
will  soon  get  too  fat.  One  vigorous  male  will  suffice  for  a 
flock  of  ten  or  twelve  hens,  and  a single  connection  is  sufficient 
for  each.  They  begin  to  lay  on  approach  of  warm  weather, 
laying  once  a day,  or  every  other  day,  till  they  have  completed 
their  clutch,  which,  in  the  young  or  indifferently  fed,  may  be 
ten  or  twelve,  and,  in  the  older  ones,  sometimes  reaches  twenty. 
The  hen  is  sly  in  secreting  its  nest,  but  usually  selects  a dry, 
well  protected  place.  She  is  an  inveterate  sitter,  and  carefully 
hatches  most  of  her  eggs.  The  young  may  be  allowed  to 
remain  for  twenty-four  hours  without  eating,  then  fed  with  hard 
boiled  eggs,  made  fine,  or  crumbs  of  wheat  bread.  Boiled 
milk,  curds,  buttermilk,  etc.,  are  food  for  them.  As  they  get 
older,  oats  or  barley  meal  is  suitable,  but  Indian  meal,  uncooked, 
is  hurtful  to  them  when  quite  young.  They  are  very  tender, 
and  will  bear  neither  cold  nor  wet,  and  it  is  of  course  necessary 


POULTRY 


403 


to  confine  the  old  one  for  the  first  few  weeks.  When  able  to 
shift  for  themselves,  they  may  wander  over  the  fields  at  pleas- 
ure; and,  from  their  great  fondness  for  insects,  they  will  rid  the 
meadows  from  innumerable  grasshoppers,  etc.,  which  often  do 
incalculable  damage  to  the  farmer.  Early  chicke:  are  suffic- 
iently grown  to  fatten  the  latter  part  of  autumn  or  the  begin- 
ning of  winter,  which  is  easily  done  on  any  of  the  grains  or 
boiled  roots.  The  grain  is  better  for  cooking.  They  require  a 
higher  roosting  place  than  hens,  and  are  impatient  of  too  close 
confinement,  preferring  the  ridge  of  a barn,  or  a lofty  tree,  to 
the  circumscribed  limits  of  the  ordinary  poultry  house.  When 
rightly  managed  and  fed,  turkeys  are  subject  to  few  maladies, 
and  even  these  careful  attention  will  soon  remove. 

The  Peacock  and  Guinea  Hen. — The  peacock  is  undoubt- 
edly the  most  showy  of  the  feathered  race.  It  is  a native  of 
the  southern  part  of  Asia,  and  is  still  found  wild  in  the  islands 
of  Java  and  Ceylon,  and  some  parts  of  the  interior  of  Africa. 
They  are  an  ornament  to  the  farm  premises,  and  are  useful  in 
destroying  reptiles,  insects  and  garbage,  but  they  are  quarrel- 
some in  the  poultry  yard  and  destructive  in  the  garden.  Their 
flesh  is  coarse  and  dark,  and  they  are  worthless  as  layers.  The 
brilliant  silvery  green,  and  their  ever-varying  colors  give  place 
to  an  entire  white  in  one  of  the  varieties. 

The  Guinea  hen  is  a native  of  Africa  and  the  southern  part 
of  Asia,  where  it  abounds  in  its  wild  state.  Most  of  them  are 
beautifully  and  uniformly  speckled,  but  occasionally  they  are 
white  on  the  breast,  like  the  Pintados  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  and  some  are  entirely  white.  They  are  unceasingly 
garrulous,  and  their  excessively  pugnacious  character  renders 
them  uncomfortable  inmates  with  the  other  poultry.  Their 
flesh,  though  high  colored,  is  delicate  and  palatable,  but,  like 
the  peacock,  they  are  indifferent  layers.  Both  are  natives  of  a 
warm  climate,  and  the  young  are  tender  and  rather  difficult  to 
rear.  Neither  of  these  birds  is  a general  favorite,  and  we  omit 
further  notice  of  them. 

The  Goose. — There  are  many  varieties  of  the  goose.  Main 
enumerates  twenty-two,  most  of  which  are  wild;  and  the  tame 
are  again  variously  subdivided.  The  common  white  and  gray 
are  the  most  numerous  and  profitable.  The  white  Bremen  is 


404 


POULTRY. 


much  larger,  often  weighing  over  twenty  pounds  net.  It  is  of 
a beautiful  snowy  plumage,  is  domestic,  and  reared  without 
difficulty,  though  not  as  prolific  and  hardy  as  the  former.  The 
China  goose  is  smaller  than  the  gray,  and  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  family,  possessing  much  of  the  gracefulness 
and  general  appearance  of  the  swan.  There  are  three  varieties 
of  these  in  the  United  States;  the  small  brown,  with  black  bill 
and  legs;  the  larger  gray,  with  black  bill  and  reddish  legs;  and 
the  pure  white,  with  orange  bill  and  legs.  It  is  prolific  and 
tolerably  hardy,  but  has  thus  far  not  been  a successful  rival 
with  the  first.  The  Guinea  or  African  goose  is  the  largest  of 
the  species.  It  is  a majestic  and  graceful  bird,  and  very 
ornamental  to  water  scenery.  Several  other  varieties  are 
domesticated  in  the  United  States.  The  finest  goslings  we 
have  ever  reared  or  seen  were  a cross  from  the  China  gander 
and  common  gray  goose.  They  are  very  hardy  and  easy  to 
raise. 

Breeding.— Geese  pair  frequently  at  one  year  old,  and 
rear  their  young;  but  with  some  kinds,  especially  of  the  wild, 
this  is  deferred  till  two  and  sometimes  three.  They  require  a 
warm,  dry  place  for  their  nests,  and  when  undisturbed  they 
will  sit  steadily,  and  if  their  eggs  have  not  been  previously 
chilled  or  addled,  they  will  generally  hatch  them  all,  if  kept  on 
the  nest.  To  insure  this,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  with- 
draw the  first  hatched,  to  prevent  the  old  ones  wandering 
before  all  are  out.  They  should  be  kept  in  a warm,  sheltered 
place  till  two  or  three  weeks  old,  if  the  weather  be  cold  or 
unsettled.  The  best  food  for  the  goslings  is  barley  or  oats,  or 
Indian  meal  boiled,  and  bread.  Milk  is  also  good  for  them. 
They  require  green  food,  and  are  fond  of  lettuce,  young  clover, 
and  fresh,  tender  grass,  and  after  a few  weeks,  if  they  have  a 
free  range  on  this,  they  will  forage  for  themselves.  Geese  are 
not  a profitable  bird  to  raise,  except  in  places  where  they  can 
procure  their  own  subsistence,  or  at  least  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  This  they  are  enabled  to  do  wherever  there 
are  extensive  commons  of  unpastured  lands,  or  where  there  are 
streams  or  ponds,  lakes  or  marshes,  with  shoal,  sedgy  banks.  - 
In  these  they  will  live  and  fatten  throughout  the  year,  if 
unobstructed  by  ice  and  snow. 


POULTRY. 


405 


They  may  be  fattened  on  all  kinds  of  grain  and  edible 
roots,  but  it  is  more  economical  to  give  them  their  food 
cooked.  The  well-fattened  gosling  affords  one  of  the  most 
savory  dishes  for  the  table.  Geese  live  to  a great  age.  They 
have  been  known  to  exceed  forty  years.  When  allowed  a free 
range  on  good  food  and  clean  water,  they  will  seldom  get 
diseased.  When  well  fed,  they  yield  nearly  a pound  of  good 
feathers  in  a season,  at  three  or  four  pluckings,  and  the  largest 
varieties  even  exceed  this.  But  plucking  is  a cruel  business, 
and  should  not  be  done  clocely,  and  only  between  the  months 
of  May  and  October.  Goslings  intended  for  eating  should 
not  be  plucked  at  all  until  fatted  and  killed. 

DaCks — Are  more  hardy  and  independent  of  attention  than 
the  goose,  and  they  are  generally  the  most  profitable.  They 
are  omnivorous,  and  greedily  devour  everything  which  will 
afford  them  nourishment,  though  they  seldom  forage  on  the 
grass.  They  are  peculiarily  carnivorous,  and  devour  all  kinds 
of  meat,  putrid  or  fresh,  and  are  especially  fond  of  fish  and  such 
insects,  worms,  etc.,  as  they  can  find  imbeded  in  the  mud  or 
elsewhere.  They  ill  often  distend  their  crop  with  young 
frogs,  almost  to  the  ordinary  size  of  their  bodies.  Their  indis- 
criminate appetites  often  render  them  unfit  for  the  table, 
unless  fattened  out  of  the  reach  of  garbage  and  offensive 
m.  ters.  An  English  admiral  used  to  resort  to  well  fattened 
rats  for  ; fresh  meat,  when  at  sea,  and  justified  his  taste  by 
saying  they  were  more  cleanly  feeders  than  ducks,  which  were 
general  favorites. 

The  varieties  ' ducks  are  almost  innumerable.  Main 
describes  thirty-one,  and  some  naturalists  number  many  more. 
The  most  profitable  c >r  domestic  use,  aside  from  the  common 
one,  are  the  black  Cayuga,  the  Aylesbun,  and  Rouen,  all 
being  of  much  larger  size,  a’  A richer  and  more  delicate  flavor 
of  flesh.  They  lay  pr  .sely  in  the  spring,  win  n well  fed,  often 
producing  forty  or  fifty  eggs,  and  sometimes  a greater  number, 
if  kept  from  sitting.  They  are  much  larger  than  those,  of  the 
hen,  and  equally  rich  and  nourishing,  but  less  dc  icate.  They 
are  careless  in  their  habits,  and  generally  drop  their  eggs 
wherever  they  happen  to  be  through  the  night,  whether  in  the 
water,  the  road,  or  farm-yard;  and,  as  might  be  expected  from 


406 


POULTRY. 


such  prodigality  of  character,  they  are  indifferent  sitters  and 
nurses.  The  ducklings  are  better  reared  by  sitting  the  eggs 
under  a sedate,  experienced  hen,  as  the  longer  time  necessary 
for  hatching  requires  patience  in  the  foster-mother  to  develop 
the  young  chicks.  They  should  be  confined  for  a few  days, 
and  away  from  the  water.  At  first  they"  may  be  fed  with  bread, 
or  pudding  made  from  boiled  oat  barley,  or  Indian  meal;  and 
they  soon  acquire  strength  and  enterprise  enough  to  shift  for 
themselves,  if  afterwards  supplied  with  pond  or  river  water. 
They  are  fit  for  the  table  when  fully  grown,  and  well  fattened 
on  clean  grain.  This  is  more  economically  accomplished  by 
feeding  it  cooked.  We  omit  further  notice  of  other  varieties, 
and  of  the  swan,  brant,  pigeons,  etc.,  as  not  profitable  for 
general  rearing,  and  only  suited  to  ornamental  grounds. 

DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 

Most  of  the  diseases  to  which  fowls  are  subject  are  the 
results  of  errors  in  diet  or  management,  and  should  have  been 
prevented,  or  may  be  removed  by  a change,  and  the  adoption 
of  a suitable  regimen.  When  an  individual  is  attacked,  it 
should  be  forthwith  remo/ed,  to  prevent  the  contamination  of 
the  rest  of  the  flock.  Nature,  who  proves  a guardian  to  fowls 
in  health,  will  nurse  them  in  their  weakness,  and  act  as  a most 
efficient  physician  to  the  sick;  and  the  aim  of  all  medical  treat- 
ment should  be  to  follow  the  indications  which  Nature  holds 
out,  and  assist  in  the  effort  which  she  constantly  makes  for  the 
restoration  of  health. 

Asthma. — This  common  disease  seems  to  differ  sufficiently 
in  its  characteristics  to  warrant  a distinction  into  two  species. 
In  one  it  appears  to  be  caused  by  an  obstruction  of  the  air- 
cells,  by  an  accumulation  of  phlegm,  which  interferes  with  the 
exercise  of  their  functions.  The  fowl  labors  for  breath,  in 
consequence  of  not  being  able  to  take  in  the  usual  quantity 
of  air  at  an  inspiration.  The  capacity  of  the  lungs  is  thereby 
diminished,  the  lining  membrane  of  the  windpipe  becomes 
thickened,  and  its  minute  branches  are  more  or  less  affected. 

Another  variety  of  asthma  is  induced  by  fright,  or  undue 
excitement.  It  is  sometimes  produced  by  chasing  fowls  to 
catch  them,  by  seizing  them  suddenly,  or  by  their  fighting 
with  each  other.  In  these  cases,  a blood-vessel  is  often 
ruptured,  and  sometimes  one  or  more  of  the  air-cells.  The 
symptoms  are  short  breathing;  opening  of  the  beak  often,  and 
for  quite  a time;  heaving  and  panting  of  the  chest;  and,  in 


POULTRY. 


407 


case  of  a rupture  of  a blood-vessel,  a drop  of  blood  appearing 
on  the  beak. 

Treatment. — Confirmed  asthma  is  difficult  to  cure.  For 
the  disease  in  its  incipient  state,  the  fowl  should  be  kept  warm, 
and  treated  with  repeated  doses  of  hippo-powder  and  sulphur, 
mixed  with  butter,  with  the  addition  of  a small  quantity  of 
cayenne  pepper. 

Costiveness. — The  existence  of  this  disorder  will  become 
apparent  by  observing  the  unsuccessful  attempts  of  the  fowl  to 
relieve  itself.  It  frequently  results  from  continued  feeding  on 
dry  diet,  without  access  to  green  vegetables.  Indeed,  without 
the  use  of  these,  or  some  substitute — such  as  mashed  potatoes 
— costiveness  is  certain  to  ensue.  The  want  of  a sufficient 
supply  of  good  water  will  also  occasion  the  disease,  on  account 
of  that  peculiar  structure  of  the  fowl,  which  renders  them  un- 
able to  void  their  urine,  except  in  connection  with  the  faeces  of 
solid  food,  and  through  the  same  channel. 

Treatment. — Soaked  bread,  with  warm  skimmed  milk,  is 
a mild  remedial  agent,  and  will  usually  suffice.  Boiled  carrots 
cr  cabbage  are  more  efficient.  A meal  of  earth-worms  is  some- 
times advisable:  and  hot  potatoes,  mixed  with  bacon-fat,  are 
said  to  be  excellent.  Castor-oil  and  burned  butter  will  remove 
the  most  obstinate  cases;  though  a clyster  of  oil,  in  addition, 
may  sometimes  be  required  in  order  to  effect  a cure. 

Diarrhoea. — There  are  times  when  fowls  dung  more  losely 
than  at  others,  especially  when  they  have  been  fed  on  green  or 
soft  food;  but  this  may  occur  without  the  presence  of  disease. 
Should  this  state,  however,  deteriorate  into  a confirmed  and  con- 
tinued laxity,  immediate  attention  is  required  to  guard  against 
fatal  effects.  The  causes  of  diarrhoea  ard  dampness,  undue 
acidity  in  the  bowels,  or  the  presence  of  irritating  matter  there. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  lassitude  and  emaciation; 
and,  in  ver.y  severe  cases,  the  voiding  of  calcareous  matter, 
white,  streaked  with  yellow.  This  resembles  the  yolk  of  a stale 
egg,  and  clings  to  the  feathers  near  the  vent.  It  becomes  acrid, 
from  the  presence  of  ammonia,  and  causes  inflammation,  which 
speedily  extends  throughout  the  intestines. 

Treatment. — This,  of  course,  depends  upon  the  cause. 
If  the  disease  is  brought  on  by  a diet  of  green  or  soft  food,  the 
food  must  be  changed,  and  water  sparingly  given;  if  it  arises 
from  undue  acidity,  chalk  mixed  with  meal  is  advantageous, 
but  rice-flour  boluses  are  most  reliable.  Alum  water,  of  mod- 
erate strength,  is  also  beneficial.  In  cases  of  bloody  flux,  boiled 
rice  and  milk,  given  warm  with  a little  magnesia,  or  chalk,  may 
be  successfully  used. 


408 


POULTRY 


Fever. — The  most  decided  species  of  fever  to  which  fowls 
are  subject,  occurs  at  the  period  of  hatching,  when  the  animal 
heat  is  often  so  increased  as  to  be  perceptible  to  the  touch.  A 
state  of  fever  may  also  be  observed  when  they  are  about  to  lay. 
This  is,  generally,  of  small  consequence,  when  the  birds  are 
otherwise  healthy;  but  it  is  of  moment,  if  any  other  disorder  is 
present,  since,  in  such  case,  the  original  malady  will  be  aggra- 
vated. Fighting  also  frequently  occasions  fever  which  some' 
times  proves  fatal. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  an  increased  circulation  of 
the  blood;  excessive  heat;  and  restlessness. 

Treatment. — Light  food  and  change  of  air;  and,  if  neces- 
sary, aperient  medicine,  such  as  castor  oil,  with  a little  burned 
butter. 

Indigestion. — Cases  of  indigestion  among  fowls  are  com- 
mon, and  deserve  attention  according  to  the  causes  from  which 
they  proceed.  A change  of  food  will  often  produce  crop-sick- 
ness,  as  it  is  called,  when  the  fowl  takes  but  little  food,  and 
suddenly  loses  flesh.  Such  disease  is  of  little  consequence, 
and  shortly  disappears.  When  it  requires  attention  at  all,  all 
the  symptoms  will  be  removed  by  giving  their  diet  in  a warm 
state. 

Sometimes,  however,  a fit  of  indigestion  threatens  severe 
consequences,  especially  if  long  continued.  Every  effort  should 
be  made  to  ascertain  the  cause,  and  the  remedy  must  be  gov- 
erned by  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  heaviness,  moping,  keeping 
away  from  the  nest,  and  want  of  appetite. 

Treatment. — Lessen  the  quantity  of  food,  and  oblige  the 
fowl  to  exercise  in  an  open  walk.  Give  some  powdered  cayenne 
and  gentian,  mixed  with  the  usual  food.  Iron-rust,  mixed  with 
soft  food,  or  diffused  in  water,  is  an  excellent  tonic,  and  is  in- 
dicated when  there  is  atrophy,  or  diminution  of  the  flesh.  It 
may  be  combined  with  oats  or  grain.  Milk-warm  ale  has  also 
a good  effect,  when  added  to  the  diet  of  diseased  fowls. 

Lice. — The  whole  feathered  tribe  seem  to  be  peculiarly  lia- 
ble to  be  infested  with  lice;  and  there  have  been  instances 
when  fowls  have  been  so  covered  in  this  loathsome  manner 
that  the  natural  color  of  the  feathers  has  been  undistinguish- 
able.  The  presence  of  virmin  is  not  only  annoying  to  poultry, 
but  materially  interferes  with  their  growth,  and  prevents  their 
fattening.  They  are,  indeed,  the  greatest  drawback  to  the  suc- 
cess and  pleasure  of  the  poultry  fanciers;  and  nothing  but  un- 
remitting vigilance  will  exterminate  them,  and  keep  them  exter- 
minated. 


POULTRY. 


409 


Treatment. — To  attain  this,  whitewash  frequently  all  the 
parts  adjacent  to  the  roosting-pole,  take  the  poles  down  and 
run  them  slowly  through  a fire  made  of  wood  shavings,  dry 
weeds,  or  other  light  waste  combustibles.  Flour  of  sulphur, 
placed  in  a vessel,  and  set  on  fire  in  a close  poultry  house,  will 
penetrate  every  crevice,  and  effectually  exterminate  the  vermin 
When  a hen  comes  off  with  her  brood,  the  old  nest  should  be 
cleaned  out,  and  a new  one  placed;  and  dry  tobacco  leaves, 
rubbed  to  a powder  between  the  hands,  and  mixed  with  the 
hay  of  the  nest,  will  add  much  to  the  health  of  the  poultry. 

Flour  of  sulphur  may  also  be  mixed  with  Indian  meal  and 
water,  and  fed  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  sulphur  to 
two  dozen  fowls,  in  two  parcels,  two  days  apart.  Almost  any 
kind  of  grease,  or  unctuous  matter,  is  also  certain  death  to  the 
vermin  of  domestic  poultry.  In  the  case  of  very  young  chick- 
ens, it  should  only  be  used  in  a warm,  sunny  day,  when  they 
should  be-put  into  a coop  with  their  mother,  the  coop  darkened 
for  an  hour  or  two,  and  everything  made  quiet,  that  they  may 
secure  a good  rest  and  nap  after  the  fatigue  occasioned  by 
greasing  them.  They  should  be  handled  with  great  care,  and 
greased  thoroughly;  the  hen,  also.  After  resting,  they  may  be 
permitted  to  come  out  and  bask  in  the  sun;  and  in  a few  days 
they  will  look  sprightly  enough. 

To  guard  against  vermin,  however,  it  should  not  be  for- 
gotten that  cleanliness  is  of  vital  importance,  and  thtre  must 
always  be  plenty  of  slacked  lime,  dry  ashes,  and  sand,  easy  of 
access  to  the  fowls,  in  which  they  can  roll  and  dust  themselves. 

Loss  of  Feathers. — This  disease,  common  to  confined  fowls, 
should  not  be  confounded  with  the  natural  process  of  moulting. 
In  this  diseased  state,  no  new  feathers  come  to  replace  the  old, 
but  the  fowl  is  left  bald  and  naked;  a sort  of  roughness  also 
appears  on  the  skin;  there  is  a falling  off  in  appetite,  as  well  as 
moping  and  inactivity. 

Treatment. — As  this  affection  is,  in  all  probability,  con- 
stitutional rather  than  local,  external  remedies  may  not  always 
prove  sufficient.  Stimulants,  however,  applied  externally,  will 
serve  to  assist  the  operation  of  whatever  medicine  maybe  given. 
Sulphur  may  be  thus  applied,  mixed  with  lard.  Sulphur  and 
cayenne,  in  the  proportion  of  one  quarter  each,  mixed  with 
fresh  butter,  is  good  to  be  given  internally,  and  will  act  as  a 
powerful  alterative.  The  diet  should  be  changed;  and  cleanli- 
ness and  fresh  air  are  indispensable. 

Pip. — This  disorder,  known  also  as  the  gapes,  is  the  moc  t 
common  ailment  of  poultry  and  all  domestic  birds.  It  is  es- 
pecially the  disease  of  young  fowls,  and  is  most  prevalent  in 
the  hottest  months,  being  not  only  troublesome  but  frequently 
fatal. 


410 


POULTRY. 


Symptoms. — The  common  symptoms  of  this  malady  are  the 
thickened  state  of  the  membrane  of  the  tongue,  particularly 
toward  the  tip,  the  breathing  is  impeded,  and  the  beak  is  fre- 
quently held  open,  -as  if  the  creature  were  gasping  for  breath; 
the  beak  becomes  yellow  at  its  base;  and  the  feathers  on  the 
head  appear  ruffled  and  disordered;  the  tongue  is  very  dry;  the 
appetite  is  not  always  impaired;  but  yet  the  fowl  cannot  eat, 
probably  on  account  of  the  difficulty  which  the  act  involves, 
and  sits  in  a corner,  pining  in  solitude. 

Treatment. — Most  recommend  the  immediate  removal  of 
the  thickened  membrane,  which  can  be  effected  by  anointing 
the  part  with  butter  or  fresh  cream.  It  necessary,  the  scab 
may  be  pricked  with  a needle.  It  will  also  be  found  beneficial 
to  use  a pill,  composed  of  equal  parts  of  scraped  garlic  and 
horse-radish,  with  as  much  cayenne  pepper  as  will  outweigh  a 
grain  of  wheat;  to  be  mixed  with  fresh  butter,  and  given  every 
morning;  the  fowl  to  be  kept  warm. 

If  the  disease  is  in  an  advanced  state,  shown  by  the  chick- 
en’s holding  up  its  head  and  gaping  for  want  cf  breath,  the 
fowl  should  be  thrown  on  its  back,  and  while  the  neck  is  held 
straight,  the  bill  should  be  opened,  and  a quill  inserted  into  the 
windpipe,  with  a little  turpentine.  This  being  round,  will 
loosen  and  destroy  a number  of  small,  red  worms,  some  of 
which  >yill  be  drawn  up  by  the  feather,  and  others  will  be 
coughed  up  by  the  chicken.  The  operation  should  be  repeated 
the  following  day,  if  the  gaping  continues.  If  it  ceases,  the 
cure  is  effected. 

It  is  stated,  also,  that  the  disease  has  been  entirely  prevented 
by  mixing  a small  quantity  of  spirits  of  turpentine  with  the 
food  of  fowls,  from  five  to  ten  drops  to  a pint  of  meal,  to  be 
made  into  a dough.  Another  specific  recommended  is  to  keep 
iron  standing  in  vinegar,  and  put  a little  of  the  liquid  in  the 
food  every  few  days. 

Roup. — This  disease  is  caused  mainly  by  cold  and  moisture, 
but  it  is  often  ascribed  to  improper  feeding  and  want  of  clean- 
liness and  exercise.  It  affects  fowls  of  all  ages,  and  is  either 
acute  or  chronic;  sometimes  commencing  suddenly,  on  expos- 
ure; at  others  gradually,  as  the  consequence  of  neglected  colds, 
or  damp  weather  or  lodging.  Chronic  roup  has  been  known  to 
extend  through  two  years. 

Symptoms. — The  most  prominent  symptoms  are  difficult 
and  noisy  breathing  and  gaping,  terminating  in  a rattling  in 
the  throat;  the  head  swells,  and  is  feverish;  the  eyes  are  swol- 
len, and  the  eyelids  appear  livid;  the  sight  decays,  and  some- 
times total  blindness  ensues;  there  are  discharges  from  the 
nostrils  and  mouth,  at  first  thin  and  limpid,  afterwards  thick, 


POULTRY. 


411 


purulent  and  fetid.  In  this  stage,  which  resembles  the  glan- 
ders in  horses,  the  disease  becomes  infectious.  As  secondary 
symptoms,  it  may  be  noticed  that  the  appetite  fails,  except  for 
drink;  the  crop  feels  hard*  the  feathers  are  staring,  ruffled,  and 
without  the  gloss  that  appears  in  health;  the  fowl  mopes  by 
itself,  and  seems  to  suffer  much  pain. 

Treatment. — The  fowls  should  be  kept  warm,  and  have 
plenty  of  water  and  scalded  bran,  or  other  Hght  f^od.  When 
chronic,  change  < f food  and  air  is  advisable.  The  ordinary 
remedies — such  as  salt  dissolved  in  water — are  inefficacious.  A 
solution  oi  sulphate  f zinc,  as  an  eye-water,  is  u valuable 
cleansing  application.  Rue-pills,  and  a decoction  of  rue,  as  a 
tonic,  have  been  administered  with  apparc  it  benefit. 

The  following  is  recommended:  of  powdered  gentian  and 
Jamaica  ginger,  each  one  part;  Epsom  salts,  one  end  a half 
parts;  and  flour  of  sulphur,  one  part;  to  be  made  up  with 
butter  and  given  every  morning. 

The  following  method  of  treatment  is  practiced  by  some  of 
the  most  successful  poulterers  in  the  country:  As  soon  i s dis- 
covered, if  in  warm  weather,  remove  the  infected  fowls  to  seme 
well-ventilated  apartment  or  yard;  if  in  winter,  to  some  warm 
place;  then  give  a dessert-spoonful  of  castor-oil;  wash  their 
heads  with  warm  Castile-soap  suds,  and  let  ^hem  remain  till 
next  morning  fasting.  Scald  for  them  Indian-meal,  adding 
two  and  a half  ounces  of  Epsom  salts  for  ten  hens,  or  in  pro- 
portion for  a less  or  larger  number;  give  it  warm3  and  repeat 
the  dose  in  a day  or  two,  if  they  do  not  recover. 

Perhaps, .however,  the  best  mode  of  dealing  with  roup  and 
all  putrid  affections  is  as  follows:  Take  of  finely  pulverized 
fresh-burnt  charcoal,  and  of  new  yeast,  each  three  parte;  of 
pulverized  sulphur,  two  parte,  of  flour,  one  part;  of  water,  a 
sufficient  quantity;  mix  well,  and  make  into  two  doses,  rf  the 
size  of  a hazel  mt,  and  give  one  three  times  a day.  Cleanli- 
ness is  no  less  necessary  than  warmth;  and  it  will  sometimes 
be  desirable  to  bathe  the  eyes  and  nostrils  with  warm  milk  and 
water,  or  suds,  as  convenient. 

Wounds  and  Sores. — Fowls  are  exposed  to  wounds  from 
many  sources.  In  their  frequent  encounters  with  each  other, 
they  often  result;  the  poultry-house  is  beseiged  by  enemies  at 
night,  and,  in  spite  of  all  precaution,  rats,  weasels  and  other 
animals  will  assault  the  occupants  of  the  roost,  or  nest,  to  their 
damage.  These  wounds,  if  neglected,  often  degenerate  into 
painful  and  dangerous  ulcers. 

When  such  injuries  occur,  c.ca.  inezs  is  the  first  step 
towards  a cure.  The  wound  should  be  cleansed  from  all 
foreign  matter,  washed  with  tepid  milk  and  water,  and  excluded 
as  far  as  possible  from  the  air.  The  fowl  should  be  removed 


112 


POULTRY. 


f "ora  its  companions,  which,  in  such  cases,  seldom  or  never 
s iow  any  sympathy,  but  on  the  contary,  are  always  ready  to 
assault  the  invalid,  and  aggravate  the  injury.  Should  the 
wound  not  heal,  but  ulcerate,  it  may  be  bathed  with  alum-water. 
The  ointment  of  creosote  is  said  to  be  effectual,  even  when 
the  ulcer  exhibits  a fungous  character,  or  proud  flesh  is  present. 
Ulcers  may  also  be  kept  clean,  if  dressed  with  a little  lard,  or 
washed  with  a weak  solution  of  sugar  of  lead.  If  they  are 
indolent,  they  may  be  touched  with  blue-stone. 

When  severe  fractures  occur  to  the  limbs  of  fowls,  the  best 
course,  undoubtedly,  to  pursue — unless  they  are  very  valuable 
— is  to  kill  them  at  once,  as  an  act  of  humanity.  When,  how- 
ever, it  is  deemed  worth  while  to  preserve  them,  splints  may 
be  used,  when  practicable.  Great  cleanliness  must  be 
observed;  the  diet  should  be  reduced;  and  every  precaution 
taken  against  the  inflammation,  which  is  sure  to  supervene. 
When  it  is  established,  cooling  lotions — such  as  warm  milk 
and  water— may  be  applied. 


MEDICINAL 


The  Management  of  the  Sick-Room. — The  arrangements 
of  the  sick-room  require  attention,  and  demand  special  notice. 
They  influence  very  much  the  result,  and  may,  indeed,  where 
faulty,  baffle  the  efforts  of  medicine.  We  would  lay  down  the 
following  brief  rules: — 

1.  Fresh  Air. — Secure  a full  and  free  change  of  air  with- 
out chilling  the  patient.  According  to  the  state  of  the  weather, 
have  the  door,  or  window,  or  both  open.  In  the  summer  time 
the  upper  part  of  the  window  of  a sick-room  should  always  be 
opened;  in  cold  weather,  a fire  burning  acts  as  suction-pump 
to  draw  off  the  vitiated  air  of  the  room,  at  the  same  time  that 
it  diffuses  sufficient  warmth.  To  secure  purity  of  air,  as  well 
as  the  quiet  so  necessary  for  a sick-room,  no  more  persons  than 
are  required  should  be  in  the  room.  A crowd  of  people  leads 
to  gossiping,  and  often  exciting  talk. 

2.  The  temperature  of  a sick-room  should,  if  possible,  be 
maintained  as  near  to  60  ° as  possible.  In  the  winter  season, 
unless  great  care  is  taken,  it  will  easily  fall  below  this.  At 
other  times  of  the  year  it  is  more  readily  overheated. 

In  some  affections  of  the  respiratory  organs  there  is  a great 
advantage  in  cold  weather  in  keeping  the  air  of  the  room  warm 
and  moist  by  the  steam  from  the  spout  of  a kettle.  If  a piece 
of  tin  or  lead  pipe  be  attached  to  the  spout,  the  steam  can  be 
brought  further  into  the  room.  This  plan  has  the  additional 
advantage  of  securing  a tolerably  even  temperature  in  the 
room — an  important  point  in  the  treatment  of  croup  and  other 
inflammatory  affections  of  the  chest. 

3.  Light. — The  light  should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  be 
moderate,  according  to  the  sensibility  of  the  patient.  Some 


414 


MEDICINAL. 


persons  when  ill  like  a dark  room.  This  is  more  particularly 
tne  case  when  the  head  is  at  all  affected.  In  de.irium,  a dark- 
ened chamber  has  often  a very  soothing  effect.  The  bed 
should  not  be  so  placed  that  the  strong  lights  fall  upon  the 
face  of  the  patient.  During  convalescence,  the  bright  and 
cheerful  light  of  the  sun  exerts  a beneficial  restorative 
influence. 

4.  Cleanliness. — A well-known  proverb  expresses  the 
importance  of  cleanliness;  and,  if  the  proverb  apply  anywhere,  it 
applies  still  more  forcibly  in  the  sick-room.  A common  error 
is  that  in  eruptive  fevers  the  clothes  should  not  be  changed  for 
fear  of  exposure  of  the  surface  of  the  body  to  a chill.  Nothing 
can  be  more  mistaken;  the  body  linen  should  not  only  be 
changed  daily,  but  the  bed-linen  should  also  be  changed  with 
advantage  at  least  every  two  or  three  days,  and  removed  from 
the  room  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  body  should  also  be 
washed  daily.  Children  suffering  from  a scarlet  fever,  measles, 
or  typhoid,  derive  comfort  and  benefit  from  their  bodies  being 
sponged  all  over  daily  with  warm  vinegar  and  water. 

Lotions. — These  may  be  applied  simply  by  frequently 
washing  the  surface  with  them.  In  scarlet  fever  the  sponging 
with  warm  vinegar  and  water  allays  the  irritation  and  heat  of 
the  surface,  and  promotes  the  healthy  functions  of  the  skin.  A 
more  efficient  method  for  an  evaporating  lotion  is  to  soak  one 
or  two  layers  of  soft  linen  or  lint,  wet  with  the  lotion,  and  lay- 
ing them  on  the  surface,  wet  them  again  when  they  become  dry. 
The  drying  takes  place  through  the  heat  of  the  surface,  the 
more  rapidly,  the  higher  the  temperature  of  the  part.  An 
evaporating  lotion  is  readily  made  by  a wineglassful  of  gin  or 
whisky  in  a pint  of  cold  water. 

Sedative  Lotions. — When  the  lotion  is  intended  to  act 
more  by  its  sedative  than  by  its  evaporating  effects,  it  will 
suffice  to  lay  lint  or  linen  soaked  in  it  upon  the  surface,  and 
cover  it  with  oil  silk  or  guttapercha  tissue.  Spongio-piline  is  a 
convenient  medium  for  the  application  of  sedative  or  other 
than  evaporative  lotions.  Care,  however,  must  be  taken  that 
it  is  not  put  on  too  wet,  or  the  lotion  will  drain  out  and  wet  the 
clothing  or  bedding.  A sedative  lotion  is  made  by  boiling  half 


MEDICINAL. 


415 


a pound  of  fresh  hemlock-leaves,  or  half  a dozen  poppy  heads, 
in  three  pints  of  water  down  to  a pint  and  a half. 

Ice. — A greater  degree  of  cold  is  sometimes  required  to 
be  applied  to  a small  aprt  of  the  surface,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
rupture  or  in  fever  when  the  headache  and  heat  of  the  head  are 
extreme.  A convenient  mode  of  reducing  the  temperature  of  a 
part  by  ice  is  to  pound  some  small  and  enclose  it  in  a bladder, 
taking  care  first  to  squeeze  out  the  superabundant  air,  and  then 
tie  the  neck  of  the  bladder  very  tightly.  The  water  in  the 
bladder  will  continue  at  the  temperature  of  the  ice  until  every 
particle  of  it  is  melted. 

Fomentations. — Fomentations  are  of  a very  great  value 
in  the  relief  of  pain  of  internal  organs  and  of  large  joints  when 
inflamed.  They  are  part  of  the  nurse’s  duties  which  require 
promptitude  and  judgment.  If  a large  joint — a knee,  for 
instance — be  inflamed,  much  benefit  is  derived  from  swathing 
the  joint  in  flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  wrapping  these 
in  dry  outer  flannels.  Fomentations  likewise  are  of  great  use 
in  inflammation  of  the  chest  or  of  the  bowels.  The  hot,  wet 
flannels  should  be  put  on  quickly,  and  changed  quickly,  about 
every  five  minutes,  so  as  to  avoid  exposure  to  the  cold  air. 
They  may  be  continued  half  an  hour  or  more  if  they  do  not 
fatigu.  the  patient. 

Wet  Sheet. — In  fevers  with  great  heat  of  skin,  wrapping 
the  whole  body  in  a wet  sheet,  and  then  enclosing  in  a blanket 
for  an  hour  or  more,  will  sometimes  cause  the  skin  to  break 
into  a profuse  perspiration,  reduce  the  heat  of  the  skin,  and 
moderate  the  pulse.  In  some  affections  of  the  kidney, 
attended  with  dryness  of  the  skin  and  absence  of  perspiration, 
the  wet  sheet  has  been  known  to  restore  the  action  of  the  skin 
and  relieve  the  kidneys.  The  wet  sheet  is,  however,  so  much 
a part  of  the  hydropathic  treatment  of  disease  that  it  can 
scarcely  be  safely  or  properly  used  apart  from  the  medical 
supervision  with  all  the  means  and  appliances  of  a hydropathic 
establishment. 

Poulticing. — So  common  a thing  as  a poultice  might  seem 
beneath  notice  in  such  a treatise  as  the  present,  but  some  hints 
may  be  given  thereon  to  the  nurse.  Thus,  in  making  a linseed- 
meal  poultice,  most  persons  pour  hot  water  upon  the  meal.  To 


416 


MEDICINAL. 


make  a smooth,  firm  poultice,  however,  the  reverse  should  be 
the  plan — viz.,  to  stir  the  meal  into  the  water.  A poultice 
should  not  be  too  heavy,  especially  if  to  be  applied  on  the 
abdomen.  It  need  not  be  changed  oftener  than  when  it  gets 
cold.  There  are  various  kinds  of  poultices — e.  g.,  mustard, 
yeast,  carrot,  bran,  charcoal,  bread. 

Bread  poultice  may  be  used  alone,  for  most  small  purposes, 
such  as  a boil.  It  will  be  the  basis  also  of  the  charcoal  and 
carrot  poultices. 

Charcoal,  bruised  or  powdered  coarsely,  and  mixed  with 
bread  poultice,  is  useful  for  absorbing  offensive  odors. 

Scraped  carrot,  mixed  with  bread  poultice,  is  used  to  stimu- 
late a sluggish  and  sloughing  or  mortifying  surface. 

Yeast,  mixed  with  bread-crumb,  forms  also  a good  poultice 
for  sluggish  and  offensive  ulcers. 

Mustard  poultice,  or  sinapism,  may  be  made  several  ways; 
sometimes  equal  parts  of  bread-crumb  or  flour,  and  mustard 
are  used,  but  the  best  way  is  to  make  a tolerably  thick  paste 
of  mustard  and  water,  spread  it  on  stiff  brown  paper,  and  cover 
with  thin  muslin.  This  poultice  is  stronger,  but  requires  to  be 
kept  on  the  part  a less  time  than  the  others.  When 
removed,  the  surface  is  easily  cleansed  by  a soft  towel.  A 
handy  way  of  making  a mustard  plaster  is  to  soak  a slice  of 
bread  in  water,  and  sprikle  it  with  flour  of  mustard.  A ready 
and  efficient  sinapism  is  afforded  by  Rigollot’s  “mustard 
leaves.” 

Blistering  Plaster  and  Liquid. — Blistering  a surface 
with  cantharides  may  be  effected  in  two  ways;  one,  by  the 
application  of  the  ordinary  blister  plaster,  the  other  by  paint- 
ing with  blistering  liquid.  When  the  plaster  is  used  it  is  usual 
to  leave  it  on  the  skin  of  an  adult  for  eight  or  ten  hours;  when, 
if  it  has  raised  a blister,  this  is  to  be  cut,  and  the  fluid  having 
run  out,  the  surface  is  then  to  be  covered  with  a piece  of  fine 
dry  wadding  or  carded  wool.  This  dressing  being  left  on  for 
two  or  three  days,  the  skin  will  be  found  healed  underneath. 
This  plan  is  simple  and  less  painful  than  dressing  with  lard  or 
spermaceti  ointment.  If  desirable  to  “keep  the  blister  open” 
— i.  e.,  its  surface  discharging — it  may  be  dressed  with  savine 
ointment  spread  on  lint  or  linen. 


MEDICINAL. 


417 


In  the  cases  of  young  children,  the  blister  plaster  should  not 
be  allowed  to  remain  longer  than  two  hours,  after  which  period 
a muslin  bagful  of  warm  bread-and-water  poultice  should  be 
laid  on,  and  the  blister  will  form  under  that.  After  the  blister 
has  been  cut,  the  surface  #an  either  be  dressed  with  continua- 
tion of  the  poultice,  or  with  dry  wool.  A warm  poultice  is  a 
most  suitable  dressing  for  blisters,  when  applied  for  quinsy  or 
other  sore  throat. 

Blistering  Liquid. — As  this  is  intended  to  be  swift  in  its 
actions,  it  should  be  of  the  strongest  kind  that  can  be  purchased. 
After  it  has  been  painted  on  for  a few  minutes  the  skin  will  be 
seen  to  turn  white;  that  is  a sign  that  enough  has  been  painted 
on.  In  the  course  of  half  an  hour  blisters  will  begin  to  form. 
These  can  be  dressed  as  above  directed.  This  mode  of  raising 
a blister  has  many  advantages  over  the  plastering.  It  is  speedy 
in  its  operation,  it  is  cleaner,  and  it  is  more  manageable  for 
children  and  persons  in  a state  of  delirium.  For  cases  of  apo- 
plexy or  paralysis,  where  a speedy  impression  upon  the  nervous 
centres  is  desirable,  the  blistering  liquid  possesses  great  advan- 
tage, as  it  does  also  in  acute  rheumatism,  in  which  affection  the 
pain  is  often  quickly  relieved  by  having  a strip  of  the  liquid 
painted  round  the  limb  near  to  the  swollen  joint. 

Counter-irritation  acts  by  derivation  or  diversion  of  a mor- 
bid action  from  one  part  by  setting  up  another  equally  or  more 
powerful  influence  on  the  nerves  of  another  part.  It  places  in 
our  hands  a very  powerful  means  of  acting  upon  diseases  of 
internal  organs  that  are  not  absolutely  close  to  the  part  acted 
upon,  as  well  as  when  applied  near  to  the  seat  of  the  malady. 
An  example  of  the  latter  is  afforded  by  the  influence  of  bella- 
donna or  aconite  on  rheumatic  or  neuralgic  pains;  of  the 
former,  in  the  beneficial  effects  produced  on  the  brain  by  a 
blister  plaster  applied  to  the  nape  of  the  neck. 

Counter-Irritants  and  External  Stimulants. — The 
following  are  the  chief  agents  of  this  class  mentioned: — 

Blistering  plaster. 

Tincture,  liniment,  and  ointment  of  iodine. 

Compound  camphor  liniment  and  turpentine  liniment. 

Soap  liniment  (opodeldoc). 

Nitrate  of  silver. 

25 


418 


MEDICINAL. 


Basilicon  ointment. 

Citrine  ointment. 

Belladonna  liniment. 

The  Nurse. — It  is  not  always  possible  to  meet  with  a well 
trained  nurse,  even  in  a large  towti,  while  for  those  who  are 
likely  to  consult  the  pages  of  this  book  it  may  be  an  impossi- 
bility to  meet  with  a professional  nurse  of  any  kind.  The  hints 
here  given  are  therefore  addressed  to  those  who  may  be  com- 
pelled to  be  both  nurse  and  doctor,  and  who  in  either  capacity 
may  be  beyond  the  reach  of  professional  of  other  aid.  Cheer- 
fulness and  forgetfulness  of  self  are  prime  requisites  in  the 
character  of  the  women  who  undertakes  the  duties  of  a nurse. 
Illness  makes  people  selfish,  therefore  it  is  the  more  necessary 
that  there  should  be  unselfishness  to  cope  with  this  weakness. 

A nurse  should  secure  quietness  in  the  sick  room,  and 
should  permit  only  cheerful  conversation — if  possible,  not  too 
much  of  that.  In  acute  affections  of  the  brain  this  is  a point 
of  the  highest  importance.  In  haemoptysis,  or  “spitting  of 
blood/’  strict  silence  must  be  enjoined  upon  the  patient,  who 
should  make  use  of  a pencil  for  questions  or  answers.  The 
nurse  should  carefully  avoid  the  narration  of  doleful  tales  of 
fearful  cases  she  has  seen  or  heard  of,  as  these  depress  the 
patient  and  interfere  with  recovery. 

Directions  for  the  management  of  the  patient,  given  by 
those  who  are  responsible  for  the  well-doing  of  each  case 
should  be  strictly  attended  to  by  the  nurse.  In  all  severe 
cases  of  illness,  such  as  fevers,  inflammations,  accidents,  etc., 
a written  memorandum  should  be  kept  of  each  time  of  taking 
food,  wine,  medicine,  etc.,  with  their  precise  quantities.  With- 
out a check  of  this  kind  it  is  very  easy  to  give  too  much  or 
two  little,  or  to  transgress  directions  as  to  time.  It  need  hardly 
be  remarked  that  sobriety  is  absolutely  indispensable  in  a 
nurse.  This  requisite  is  at  once  admitted;  but  many  persons 
do,  through  false  kindness*  their  very  best  to  banish  temper- 
ance from  the  sick  room.  They  will  leave  wine  and  spirit 
bottles  open  in  the  room,  and  expect  that  they  shall  not  be 
touched.  Until  nurses  in  general  have  gained  a much  higher 
character  than  is  at  present  the  case,  it  is  safer  not  to  put 
temptation  in  the  way. 


MEDICINAL. 


419 


Caution  in  Use  of  Stimulants. — Another  point  in  refer- 
ence to  this  same  subject  may  be  mentioned.  When  stimulants 
are  advisable  for  illness,  great  care  must  be  taken  not  only  that 
they  are  judiciously  administered  as  to  present  quantity,  but 
that  they  are  discontinued  with  regard  to  future  consequences, 
when  no  longer  wanted  for  immediate  requirements. 

Lying-in  Room. — Labor. — We  assume  for  the  purposes  cf 
the  present  work  that  there  is  no  medical  attendant  at  hand. 
This  state  of  things  may  and  often  does  occur  even  in  popu- 
lous towns;  it  is,  therefore,  more  likely  to  happen  in  new  and 
distant  places  beyond  the  reach  of  medical  aid.  The  posses- 
sion, therefore,  of  the  knowledge  what  to  do  on  such  occasions 
maybe  the  source  of  the  greatest  possible  comfort  in  an  emer- 
gency, and  possibly  the  means  of  saving  life.  Influenced  by 
this  conviction,  then,  we  shall  endeavor  to  lay  down  such  sim- 
ple rules  as  shall  be  found  applicable  by  any  one  who  may  find 
him  or  herself  by  imperious  necessity  called  upon  to  act  the 
midwife’s  part.  Happily,  in  healthy,  well-made  women,  the 
process  of  childbirth  rarely  terminates  otherwise  than  safely. 

The  principal  point  during  the  progress  of  labor  is  to  keep 
the  patient  cheerful,  and,  as  far  as  may  be,  divert  her  atten- 
tion from  the  lapse  of  time.  A light,  but  not  starvation,  diet 
should  be  taken.  A first  labor  is  generally  far  longer  in  dura- 
tion than  subsequent  ones.  Indeed,  second  and  third  and  sub- 
sequent labors  are  often  finished  in  a few  minutes  by  two  or 
three  pains.  Twenty-four  hours  is  not  too  long  a time  for  a 
natural  first  labor.  It  is  not  requisite  here  to  describe  all  the 
stages  of  labor;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  there  are  certain  promon- 
itory symptoms,  such  as  increased  irritability  of  the  bladder,  a 
sinking  of  the  weight  and  bulk  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  occur- 
rence of  pains  “such  as  have  not  been  felt  before,”  as  they  are 
usually  graphically  and  not  incorrectly  described.  At  this 
period  it  is  as  well  to  administer  a dose  of  castor-oil  if  the 
bowels  have  not  acted  freely  previously. 

The  “promonitory”  pains,  which  at  first  are  somewhat  irreg- 
ular in  their  character,  become  sooner  or  later  changed  into 
more  severe  and  more  irregular  periodical  pains,  at  intervals 
varying  from  five  to  ten  minutes  between,  and  are  at  some  un- 
certain time  followed  by  a gush  of  “the  waters.”  These  pains. 


420 


MEDICINAL. 


which  occur  generally  in  the  back  at  first,  gradually  become 
longer,  and  are  seated  more  to  the  front  in  the  abdomen,  and 
are  more  expulsive  in  character.  Moderate  allowance  of  stim- 
ulants should  be  administered  from  time  to  time.  A straining 
effort  to  expel  becomes  unavoidable.  The  woman  should  then 
lie  on  her  left  side  on  a bed  properly  guarded  by  a piece  of 
waterproof.  A pillow  placed  between  the  knees  will  facilitate 
the  passage  of  the  head  into  the  world.  The  feet  should  be 
fixed  against  the  bedpost  or  footboard,  to  which,  above  the 
feet,  a rope  or  jack-towel  has  been  affixed,  so  that  with  each 
pain  of  the  expulsive  sort  the  patient  may  be  enabled  to  bear 
down  the  more  effectively.  This  towel  or  rope  should  not  be 
used  before  expelling  pains  stt  in. 

Management  of  the  New-born  Infant. — As  soon  as 
the  child  is  born,  it  should  be  turned  with  its  face  upward,  so 
that  it  shall  be  insured  breathing  room.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  pass  the  navel-string  over  the  child’s  head,  if  it  be  twisted 
round  its  neck,  otherwise  it  may  be  strangled  thereby.  It 
should  then  be  separated  from  its  mother  by  first  tying  and 
then  dividing  the  navel-string.  The  first  step,  the  tying,  may 
be  done  by  any  strong  ligature.  Usually  half  a dozen  brown 
threads  are  used  to  tie  the  cord  with,  but  a piece  of  twine  or 
tape  will  do  just  as  well.  The  cord  or  navel-string  must  be 
tied  firmly  in  two  places — first,  about  two  inches  from  the 
child,  and  then  two  inches  further,  and  then  by  a sharp  pair  of 
scissors  divided  between  the  ligatures. 

In  the  preceding  remarks  it  has  been  assumed  that  medical 
attendance  is  not  to  be  had.  If  it  be  expected  in  a reasonable 
time,  and  the  child  is  born  before  the  arrival  of  the  medical 
man,  all  that  will  be  required  will  be  to  secure  its  being  able  to 
breathe  freely.  An  infant  may  be  left  alone  for  an  hour  or  two 
under  these  circumstances  without  its  incurring  harm. 

When  the  child  has  been  expelled  and  separated,  firm  pres- 
sure should  be  made  on  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen,  the 
hand  grasping  the  large  tumor  of  the  emptied  womb.  Steady 
pressure  being  made  firmly  in  a direction  downward  and  back- 
ward, the  tumor  will  be  felt  to  decrease  in  size,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  after-birth  will  be  expelled.  When  t this  has 
taken  place  the  labor  is  finished,  and  the  best  thing  for  the 


MEDICINAL. 


421 


woman  is  then  to  let  her  alone  to  rest  for  a couple  of  hours. 
She  should  on  no  account  be  suffered  to  rise  up  quickly  in  bed, 
as  by  reason  of  the  recent  diminution  of  the  contents  of  the 
abdomen,  she  is  peculiarly  liable  to  faint  on  sitting  up.  If  the 
labor  has  been  long  and  exhaustive,  a moderate  stimulant,  such 
as  a glass  of  wine,  or  of  brandy  and  water,  should  be  given. 

At  the  end  of  two  hours  after  the  labor,  the  patient’s 
clothes,  etc.,  should  be  changed,  and  a broad  binder  or  band- 
age pinned  round  the  abdomen,  not  tightly,  but  only  so  as  to 
give  the  feeling  of  a comfortable  degree  of  support. 

Treatment  of  the  Lying-in  Woman. — It  has  been  too 
much  the  custom  to  regard  a woman  after  childbirth  as  an  in- 
valid, or  to  speak  of  her  as  a patient,  whereas  she  is  the  very 
reverse.  She  is  in  the  most  natural  and  healthy  of  all  condi- 
tions for  a woman,  but  one  requiring  more  than  common  care 
to  prevent  her  falling  into  diseases,  to  which  she  is  prone  from 
the  great  strain  that  has  been  put  upon  her  constitution  for 
months  past,  capped  with  the  climax  of  hours  of  pain  and 
strong  muscular  effort.  Under  the  influence  of  erroneous 
views,  lying-in  women  have  been  kept  for  days  together  upon 
gruel,  tea,  etc.  This  treatment  has,  however,  of  late  years 
given  way  to  a plan  more  consistent  with  common  sense,  and 
better  calculated  to  restore  the  nervous  energies  after  the 
fatigues  of  perhaps  many  weary  hours  of  labor,  superadded  to 
months  of  gestation. 

Diet. — Light,  but  nutritious,  food  should  be  given.  Beef- 
tea,  milk,  eggs,  etc.,  may  be  freely  allowed  the  first  day,  and 
meat  on  the  second  day,  with  wine  or  malt  liquor,  according  to 
previous  usage,  and  with  strict  moderation.  After  months  of 
gestation  and  hours  of  suffering,  with  absolute  loss  of  bulk,  the 
constitution  certainly  requires  restoration  rather  than  depletion 
or  further  pulling  down.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  moreover, 
that  a source  of  weakness  is  going  on  for  many  days  after- 
wards. 

By  a strange  perversity  the  contradictory  practice  of  nearly 
absolute  starvation  was  formerly  followed  too  often  by  that  of 
inordinate  stimulation.  It  was  deemed  necessary  for  the  due 
performance  of  maternal  functions  that  a large  quantity  of 
strong  beer  should  be  taken  daily.  The  quantities  consumed 


422 


MEDICINAL. 


under  this  plea  would  have  seemed  incredible  to  persons  of 
moderate  habits.  The  writer  has  the  still  heavier  charge  to 
lay  against  the  practice  — that  it  has  made  many  women 
drunkards. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a rule  that  healthy  women  require 
no  larger  quantities  of  stimulants  when  nursing  than  at  other 
times.  What  serves  the  purpose,  of  health  before  childbirth 
will  serve  them  afterwards.  The  secretion  of  milk,  instead  of 
being  promoted,  is  retarded  by  over  stimulation.  A pint  or  a 
pint  and  a half  of  malt  liquor  daily,  is  ample  allowance  for  any 
healthy  mother.  Those  who  have  been  water-drinkers  before 
they  were  mothers,  may  safely  remain  so  afterwards. 

Rest  and  Nursing. — Next  to  care  in  diet,  is  care  as  to 
rest  and  quietness.  There  is  no  need  for  absolute  silence  or 
total  darkness  in  the  room.  The  cheerful  conversation  of  the 
nearest  relatives  may  be  allowed  without  fear  of  ill  effects. 
The  room  should  be  kept  light  and  airy.  Ventilation  should  be 
carefully  attended  to.  There  is  a popular  notion — erroneous, 
like  a good  many  old  nurses’ fables — that  the  eyes  of  lying-in 
women  are  especially  intolerant  of  light.  Such  is  not  a fact. 
The  -reading  of  light  literature  is  peculiarly  grateful  and  suit- 
able for  this  time.  The  recumbent  posture  must  be  preserved 
for  at  least  a week.  After  that  time,  if  all  be  going  on  well, 
sitting  up  in  an  easy-chair  may  be  permitted.  Walking  about 
or  standing  had  better  not  be  attempted  earlier  than  ten  or 
twelve  days,  as  the  womb  has  not  yet  returned  to  its  normal 
size,  and  is  consequently  heavy  and  prone  to  lay  the  foundation 
of  future  maladies  if  left  to  its  own  gravity  too  early. 

Suckling. — The  period  at  which  milk  is  secreted  varies  in 
almost  every  case.  Some  women  will  have  milk  in  the  breast 
for  weeks  before  the  child  is  born,  others  will  not  have  it  for 
several  days  after.  In  most  instances  it  comes  quietly  into  the 
breasts  on  the  second  or  third  day.  In  some  there  is  a slight 
degree  of  febrile  disturbance  attending  its  appearance.  This, 
however,  quickly  subsides  under  a small  reduction  of  diet — 
the  low-diet  system  is  not  to  be  put  in  force  on  account  of  this 
trifling  disturbance.  The  infant  should  be  put  to  the  breast 
about  every  two  hours — not  less  frequently,  lest  the  breast  get 


MEDICINAL. 


423 


painfully  distended;  not  more  frequently,  lest  it  disturb  the 
rest  of  both  itself  and  mother  by  its  much  importunity. 

Sore  Nipples.— The  nursing  of  the  first  child  is  often 
attended  with  extremely  sore  nipples,  so  that  it  becomes  an 
excruciatingly  painful  proceeding,  calling  for  all  the  firmness 
of  a woman  and  all  the  strongest  feelings  of  the  mother  to 
enable  her  to  persevere.  Perseverance,  however,  is  the  great 
remedy  for  sore  nipples. 

A host  of  drugs  and  many  other  means  have  been  recom- 
mended for  the  cure  of  this  distressing  affection,  but  we  know 
of  none  that  in  our  experience  we  have  known  really  deserving 
of  confidence.  The  only  serviceable  means  next  to,  or  in  aid 
of,  the  perseverance  we  have  spoken  of,  is  the  use  of  Wansbor- 
row’s  metal  shields.  These  being  worn  in  the  intervals  of 
suckling,  keep  the  nipples  soft  and  promote  the  healing  of  their 
cracks. 

To  Give  Medicine  to  an  Infant. — Put  a portion  of  the 
dose  in  a teaspoon,  then,  holding  the  child  on  the  lap  in  a half- 
sitting and  half-lying  posture,  place  the  spoon  on  the  tongue 
and  slide  it  gently  back  towards  the  throat;  when  it  has 
reached  quite  to  the  root  of  the  tongue,  tilt  it  up  and  hold  it 
still  on  the  tongue  until  the  child  swallows.  Repeat  the  rest 
of  the  dose  in  the  same  way.  It  is  better  to  give  the  dose  in 
portions,  so  that  there  is  less  risk  of  choking  by  too  large  a 
dose. 

DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES. 

Ague. — Ague  is  a periodic  fever,  occurring  in  three  distinct 
stages,  with  an  interval  of  distinct  remission,  or  freedom,  from 
fever — viz.,  a cold  stage,  a hot  stage,  and  a sweating  stage, 
occupying  about  eight  hours.  The  attack  recurs  with  more  or 
less  regularity,  giving  rise  to  types  according  to  the  period  of 
their  recurrence,  i.  The  quotidian,  recurring  once  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  2.  Tertian,  every  forty-eight  hours.  3.  Quartan, 
every  seventy-two  hours. 

The  quotidian  ague  is  the  most  common  form;  an  inter- 
change, or  irregularity  of  the  periods  of  return,  is  sometimes 
seen,  giving  to  it  modifications  which  greatly  obscure  the  type 
of  the  disease.  The  term,  “intermittent  fever,”  which  is  given 
to  ague,  is  derived  from  the  entire  remission  which  occurs 
between  the  paroxysms,  leaving  the  patient  apparently  in  his 
ordinary  health. 


424 


MEDICINAL. 


Symptoms: — The  disease  is  ushered  in,  for  a few  days,  by 
indefinite  malaise,  such  as  slight  feverishness,  and  a feeling  of 
fatigue  and  debility.  On  these  premonitory  symptoms  there 
follows  somewhat  suddenly  the  cold  stage,  in  which  the  patient 
becomes  cold,  pale,  and  “goosey,”  the  teeth  chatter.  Severe 
headache  occurs,  the  pulse  is  rapid,  and  breathing  hurried. 
The  cold  stage  continues  for  a period  varying  up  to  two  or 
three  hours,  and  then  gives  way  to  the  hot  stage,  in  which  the 
headache  becomes  more  severe;  the  whole  surface  of  the  body 
is  flushed,  hot,  and  dry,  the  features  appear  swollen,  the  eyes 
bloodshot,  the  pulse  full  and  strong;  thirst  is  very  urgent, 
appetite  lost,  the  urine  scanty  and  high-colored.  The  febrile 
excitement  is  so  great  that  sometimes  delerium  occurs  in  this 
stage,  and  may  mislead  as  to  the  real  nature  of  the  fever.  The 
hot  stage  may  last  for  six  hours  or  upwards,  and  is  then 
replaced  by  the  sweating  stage,  in  which  relief  comes  by,  at 
first,  a moisture  appearing  on  the  forehead  and  face,  gradually 
increasing  until  it  breaks  out  all  over  the  body  as  a profuse 
sweat,  followed  by  a general  relief  of  symptoms,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  a feeling  of  exhaustion,  the  patient  is  apparently 
quite  well,  until  another  paroxysm  occurs,  which  it  is  very 
prone  to  do.  A degree  of  sallowness  of  the  complexion,  how- 
ever, usually  remains,  sometimes  even  after  the  entire  subsid- 
ence of  the  disease.  The  preceding  set  of  symptoms  constitute 
an  “attack”  of  intermittent  fever,  or  ague,  but  their  subsidence, 
unfortunately,  is  not  always  the  complete  restoration  of  health. 
The  subjects  of  ague,  in  marshy  districts,  may  almost  always 
be  recognized  by  their  muddy  or  sallow  complexion,  indicative 
of  a “cachectic”  or  impaired  state  of  general  health.  The 
extent  to  which  this  depreciation  of  health  and  vigor  may  reach 
depends  upon  the  length  of  the  duration  of  the  fever  and  the 
severity  of  the  paroxysms.  When  these  are  severe  and  long- 
continued,  serious  congestion  and  disorders  of  the  internal 
organs  is  very  prone  to  follow.  The  spleen  is  more  especially 
obnoxious  to  this  congested  condition,  with  consequent  enlarge- 
ment known  as  “ague  cake.”  The  enlarged  condition  of  the 
organ  may  even  be  perceptible  to  pressure  beneath  the  lower 
border  of  the  rils  on  the  left  side. 

Causes. — The  cause  of  ague  is  usually  marsh  miasm.  It  is 
not  absolutely  essential  that  a marsh  shall  yield  the  poison,  as 
we  occasionally  meet  with  the  disease  in  London  and  other 
places,  in  the  presence  of  malaria  arising  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  dead  vegetable  matter.  It  was  formerly  very  common 
in  London,  but  has  disappeared  from  that  city  since  sanitary 
regulations  have  very  much  cleared  away  the  vegetable  refuse 
which  in  bygone  times  disfigured  the  streets. 

Treatment, — The  treatment  of  ague  resolves  itself  into 


MEDICINAL. 


425 


two  principal  indications,  of  getting  rid  of  the  cause — i.  e.,  the 
malarious  poison  in  the  blood,  and  diminishing  the  violence  of 
the  paroxysms.  The  cold  stage  is  that  part  of  the  paroxysm 
which,  more  particularly  in  hot  climates,  most  urgently  requires 
aid,  and  is  that  from  which  injurious  effects  may  follow  on  the 
congestion  of  internal  organs.  As  soon  as  the  shivering 
begins  the  patient  should  go  to  bed,  be  well  covered  with 
blankets,  and  have  hot  bottles  to  the  feet,  bags  of  hot  bran, 
salt,  etc.,  together  with  a free  supply  of  hot  drinks.  If  these 
means  do  not  succeed  in  arresting  the  rigor,  an  emetic  of  mus- 
tard and  hot  water  will  often  be  effectual  to  bring  on  the  sweat- 
ing stage.  As  this  comes  on,  the  quantity  of  clothing  should 
be  gradually  decreased,  taking  care  to  avoid  a sudden  chill. 
The  sweating  may  be  promoted  if  it  do  not  come  on  too  freely; 
it  may  be  promoted  by  the  administration  of  stimulants,  such 
as  brandy  and  arrowroot,  or  wine  and  egg,  etc.  After  the 
paroxysm  has  passed  off,  an  aperient  dose  is  often  of  service. 

In  order  to  ensure  the  full  benefit  of  medical  treatment,  a 
change  from  the  malarious  to  a purer  air  is  desirable,  and 
should  not  be  omitted  where  it  can  be  put  in  practice.  The 
medical  treatment  in  the  remission,  or  the  endeavor  to  elimin- 
ate the  poison,  must  be  put  in  practice  in  the  intervals.  For 
this  purpose  the  most  valuable  remedy  is  the  Peruvian  bark,  or 
quinine,  the  essentially  active  principle  of  bark. 

In  this  country  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  give  the  quinine 
in  so  large  or  so  continued  doses  as  in  some  tropical  climates, 
where  it  is  essential  not  only  as  a curative,  but  also  as  a pre- 
ventive means.  Two,  three,  or  five  grains,  taken  every  morn- 
ing, has  been  found  of  the  greatest  service  in  keeping  Europeans 
free,  not  only  from  ague,  but  also  from  other  endemic  fevers 
of  the  African  continent. 

In  the  ordinary  treatment  of  ague  in  temperate  climates  it 
is  usual  to  give  two  or  three  grains  of  quinine  three  times,  or 
one  large  dose  of  five  to  ten  grains  given  as  nearly  as  possible 
before  the  expected  access  of  the  paroxysm.  This  will  often 
anticipate  or  cut  short  the  paroxysm. 

The  quinine  may  be  given  simply  mixed  in  water,  or  added 
to  a glass  of  sherry  wine.  It  is  usual,  but  entirely  superflous, 
to  render  the  sulphate  of  quinine  solvent  by  the  addition  of  a 
few  drops  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid. 

Apoplexy. — Symptoms. — The  Greek  etymology  of  this  word, 
— viz.:  to  strike  or  knock  down  with  violence — expresses  the 
leading  symptoms  of  the  attack.  In  the  severest  form  of  the 
disease,  the  patient  is  suddenly  struck  down,  deprived  of  volun- 
tary motion,  sensation,  and  intellect,  it  may  be,  with  convul- 
sions of  one  side  of  the  body,  and  lies  as  one  in  deep  sleep 
from  which  he  cannot  be  roused,  with  snoring,  puffing  breath- 


426 


MEDICINAL. 


ing,  dilated  pupils,  a flushed  face,  and  full,  slow  pulse,  and, 
possibly,  with  vomiting. 

In  another  class  of  cases,  the  patient  does  not,  perhaps, 
fall  suddenly  to  the  ground,  but  turns  pale,  and  feels  faint,  or 
experiences  an  attack  of  giddiness  or  headache,  with  sickness 
or  vomiting,  and  occasionally  with  slight  convulsive  movements, 
the  pupils  natural,  or  but  slightly  dilated,  the  pulse  weak  and 
irregular.  The  pain  in  the  head  may  be  attended  with  loss  of 
memory,  loss  of  power  in  the  limbs,  passing  into  entire  apoplexy 
or  paralysis.  The  symptoms  will  vary  in  their  intensity,  and 
in  their  duration — the  attack  may  last  for  a few  minutes  only, 
or  be  extended  over  several  days,  and  at  last  the  patient  sinks 
into  a state  of  coma,  or  profound  stupor,  from  which  he  never 
recovers. 

Treatment. — At  the  time  of  the  fit  the  first  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  loosen  all  articles  of  clothing  about  the  neck  and 
chest,  so  as  to  favor  the  return  of  the  blood  from  the  head — to 
place  the  patient  in  a reclining  posture,  not  flat  down.  If  the 
pulse  be  feeble  or  irregular,  a small  quantity  of  brandy  and 
water  may  be  given;  cautiously,  on  account  of  difficulty  of 
swallowing.  Mustard  plasters,  or  rags  soaked  in  turpentine, 
should  be  applied  to  the  calves  of  the  legs.  If  the  person  be 
of  a full  habit,  and  have  a strong,  slow  pulse,  a strong  purge 
should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible.  One  drop  of  croton  oil 
placed  on  the  tongue,  is  at  once  convenient  to  give  and  effec- 
tive in  action.  Should  this  fail  to  act,  in  two  or  three  hours  a 
clyster  of  castor  oil  and  turpentine  should  be  administered. 

Bleeding  in  any  form  is  seldom  required  in  these  cases,  and 
is  never  safe  in  non-professional  hands.  It  is  very  easy,  under 
circumstances  of  alarm  and  excitement,  to  do  too  much.  The 
after  effects  of  an  apoplectic  seizure  require  very  judicious 
management;  and  here,  again,  we  would  warn  the  reader  against 
expecting  too  much  from  mere  medical  means,  and  to  be  care- 
ful not  by  over-anxiety  for  stimulation,  to  accelerate  a danger- 
ous reaction.  As  the  insensibility  passes  off,  and  the  patient 
wakes  up  to  what  is  passing  around  him  (supposing  that  he 
has  been  unconscious),  great  care  must  be  taken  to  secure 
quietness  and  rest.  As  little  conversation  as  possible  should  be 
carried  on;  the  room  should  be  well  aired  and  moderately 
lighted.  Complete  rest  of  body  and  mind  are  essential  to 
recovery.  As  the  limbs  recover  their  muscular  power,  they 
must  be  carefully  and  only  gradually  brought  into  use.  Caution 
must  also  be  exercised  in  the  administration  of  food  of  a light 
and  nutritious  character.  The  muscles  of  the  throat  having 
probably  suffered  in  the  attack,  will  require  time  to  resume 
their  power,  and  hence  there  will  be  danger  of  choking  if  care 
be  not  taken.  The  food  must  be  light  and  easy  of  digestion, 


MEDICINAL. 


427 


since  the  functions  of  the  stomach  will  also  be  impaired,  and, 
if  too  solid  or  indigestible  food  be  given,  it  may  cause  vomit- 
ing and  serious  disturbance.  Should  the  pulse  be  feeble,  a little 
brandy  or  wine  may  be  allowed  to  be  taken  with  light  food. 
All  this  precaution  is  required  to  guard  against  inflammation 
of  the  brain,  which  may  follow  on  reaction  indicated  by 
increased  rapidity  of  pulse,  heat  of  skin,  thirst,  and  headache. 

Should  the  bowels  be  costive,  some  simple  saline  purgative, 
such  as  Epsom  salts  or  Seidlitz  powder,  should  be  taken.  If 
there  be  persistent  headache,  blistering  behind  the  neck  will 
relieve  it.  If  these  means  fail  to  subdue  the  inflammatory  and 
febrile  symptoms,  the  case  must  be  treated  as  one  of  inflam- 
mation of  the  brain.  Paralysis,  or  permanent  loss  of  power  on 
one  side  of  the  body,  or  of  some  muscles  or  portion  of  the  sur- 
face on  one  side,  is  not  unfrequently  left  after  an  apoplectic 
attack.  (See  Paralysis.) 

Asthma. — This  is  sometimes  called  “ Spasmodic  Bronchi- 
tis,” and  consists  of  a sudden  attack  of  tightness  across  the 
chest,  with  difficulty  of  breathing,  of  a most  urgent  and  dis- 
tressing kind — so  much  so,  that  in  the  course  of  less  than  an 
hour  immediate  suffocation  seems  to  be  impending.  The 
patient  is  fighting  and  struggling  for  very  life,  gasping  for  air, 
speech  nearly  impracticable,  the  eye  protruding,  the  counten- 
ance anxious,  flushed,  or  of  a blue  discoloration.  The  skin 
becomes  bedewed  with  cold  clammy  sweat,  the  hands  and  fingers 
blue;  altogether  forming  as  distressing  a scene  as  can  be 
witnessed,  but  happily  not  one  that  is  often  fatal,  as  it  passes 
off  generally  with  a restoration  of  the  bronchial  secretion  which 
has  been  suspended.  This  favorable  -occurrence  varies  in  its 
advent.  The  paroxysm,  however,  seldom  lasts  more  than  a few 
hours  at  the  utmost,  but  the  bronchitis  which  follows  lasts 
sometimes  for  several  days.  The  attack  is  liable  to  return  at 
uncertain  periods. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  this  affection  is  guided  by 
its  essentially  spasmodic  character  during  the  paroxysm.  Hot 
and  stimulating  fomentations  should  be  applied  to  the  chest, 
and  sedative  and  nauseant  medicines  given  at  short  intervals, 
thus: — 

Ipecacuanha  wine,  2 drachms;  paregoric,  2 drachms;  tinc- 
ture of  henbane,  4 drachms.  Add  water  to  eight  ounces,  and 
give  one  tablespoonful  every  hour,  until  the  breathing  is  easier. 
Or  an  emetic  of  mustard  and  water  may  be  given  previously. 

As  the  paroxysm  subsides,  give  the  following:  Compound 
tincture  of  cardamoms,  1 drachm;  chloric  ether,  20  minims; 
foetid  spirits  of  ammonia,  30  minims;  water,  a wineglassful; 
every  four  hours  for  some  hours  and  then  either  treat  as  for 


428 


MEDICINAL. 


acute  bronchitis,  if  cough,  etc.,  continue,  or  withdraw  all 
medicine,  and  leave  nature  to  complete  the  cure. 

Biliousness,  Billiary  Derangements,  Congestion  of  the  Liver. 
— These  are  known  under  various  names,  confounding  together 
stomach  and  liver  disorder;  thus  we  have  them  spoken  of  as 
“ sick-headache,”  “bowel  complaint,’'  “jaundice,”  etc. 

Symptoms. — They  may  be  classed  under  the  two  heads  of 
“ diminished  secretion,”  and  “ excessive  secretion.”  The  latter 
produces  English  cholera,  or  diarrhoea,  of  a troublesome  char- 
acter, attended  with  griping  pains,  and  more  or  less  sickness, 
the  attack  being  of  an  acute  character. 

A diminution  in  the  secretion  of  bile  generally  manifests 
itself  by  symptoms  of  a more  chronic  type.  They  are  more 
tardy  in  their  approach,  and  do  not  pass  off  so  quickly  as  those 
of  an  excessive  flow  of  bile.  This  form  of  deranged  func- 
tions of  the  liver  is  indicated  by  irregularity  in  the  intestinal 
functions;  the  bowels  act  with  sluggishness,  and  become  con- 
stipated; the  evacuations  are  pale  or  slate-colored;  the  stomach 
begins  to  show  its  participation  in  the  disorder  by  dyspepsia, 
flatulence,  nausea.  A well-known  pain  under  the  right  shoul- 
der-blade is  one  of  the  commonest  attendants  of  this  disorder. 
Headache  occurs.  The  sight  is  impaired  or  interrupted  by 
dark  specks  or  films,  termed  “ muscae  volitantes,”  floating,  as  it 
were,  before  the  eyes.  The  complexion  becomes  sallow,  or  of 
a muddy,  yellowish  color.  The  patient  becomes  a sufferer 
from  piles,  and,  as  an  almost  inevitable  consequence  of  such 
varied  derangement  of  'functions,  depression  of  spirits  follows, 
d his  latter  is  a very  common  attendant  upon  disorders  of  the 
liver,  the  word  hypochondrical  having  an  etymological  refer- 
ence to  the  liver  as  the  seat  of  the  disorder.  Jaundice  is  not 
an  unfrequent  occurrence  to  children  suffering  from  bilious 
derangement,  but  has  not  then  a serious  import.  Jaundice  is 
a very  frequent  occurrence  with  new-born  infants,  and  arises 
from  an  alteration  in  the  course  and  quantity  of  blood  that 
passes  through  the  liver  after  birth.  It  cannot  be  called  a dis- 
ease under  such  circumstances,  nor  does  it  require  medicinal 
treatment.  In  the  former  condition — that  of  an  excessive 
flow  of  bile — the  liver  is  said  to  be  in  a state  of  active  conges- 
tion; in  the  latter,  of  passive  congestion.  The  former  may 
pass  into  inflammation.  This,  however,  is  rarely  seen  in  this 
country,  but  is  only  too  frequently  met  with  in  hot  climates. 
The  pain  that  is  felt  in  the  right  side  with  the  above  described 
symptoms,  and  not  uncommonly  regarded  as  an  indication  of 
inflammation  of  the  liver,  is  the  result  of  congestion  of  the 
organ.  Acute  inflammation  of  the  liver  is  attended  with  great 
pain  in  the  right  side,  extending  to  the  right  shoulder-blade, 


MEDICINAL. 


429 


and  tenderness  on  pressure  over  the  region  of  the  organ,  aggra- 
vated by  lying  on  the  left  side.  The  pain  in  the  region  of  the 
liver  may  be  so  acute  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  distinguish  from 
that  of  plurisy,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  mistake  is  often 
made  of  regarding  a limited  extent  of  plurisy  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  chest  as  an  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  liver.  With 
the  pain  there  is,  in  inflammation  of  the  liver,  a varying  degree 
of  fever,  thirst,  loss  of  appetite,  nausea,  vomiting,  hiccup.  The 
urine  becomes  scanty  and  is  high-colored.  The  bowels  are 
frequently  costive,  the  evacuations  very  pale,  even  white,  show- 
ing a deficiency  in  the  flow  of  bile.  The  same  defect  of  flow 
of  bile  by  the  intestines  causes  its  absorption  into  the  circula- 
tion, giving  rise  to  yellowness  of  the  complexion  and  coats  of 
the  eye — jaundice.  If  the  inflammation  is  not  subdued,  the 
pain  will  probably  become  of  a throbbing  character,  severe 
shivering  will  occur,  and  an  abscess  form.  This  may  burst 
into  the  chest  and  the  matter  be  expectorated,  or  it  may  be- 
come the  cause  of  serious  mischief  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest, 
or  it  may  find  its  way  by  opening  into  the  stomach  and  be  vom- 
ited, or  it  may  escape  externally  by  opening  into  the  surface 
of  the  body;  which  of  these  shall  occur  we  cannot  determine. 

In  chronic  inflammation  of  the  liver  the  preceding  symp- 
toms are  present  in  a milder  degree,  but  are  slower  in  their 
progress — they  are  attended  with  less  feverishness.  There  is 
present  depression  of  spirits  amounting  sometimes  to  melan- 
choly. As  the  disease  progresses,  diarrhoea,  debility,  wasting, 
and  dropsy  are  pretty  sure  to  make  their  appearance,  followed 
by  death  from  exhaustion. 

Treatment. — Bilious  derangement,  “congestion  of  the 
liver,”  or  jaundice,  is  prone  to  occur  in  overfed  children,  and 
produce  sickness  and  diarrhoea,  with  light-colored,  slimy 
stools.  This  derangement  (English  cholera),  under  judicious 
dietary,  generally  corrects  itself  by  carrying  off  excess  of  bile 
or  badly-digested  food.  If,  however,  it  continues  more  than  a 
day  or  two  in  spite  of  careful  dieting  and  abstinence  from 
stimulative  food,  a mild  mercurial  will  be  of  service,  such  as, 
(for  a child  over  three  years  of  age): 

Gray  powder  (mercury  with  chalk),  i grain;  prepared 
chalk,  3 grains;  magnesia,  i grain.  Given  night  and  morn- 
ing. Or: — Rhubarb  powder,  3 grains;  ipecacuanha  powder, 
one-fourth  grain;  nitre  powder,  2 grains.  Mi  and  give  twice 
a day. 

In  biliousness  occurring  to  adults,  and  attended  with  sick- 
ness, the  first  thing  is  to  give  the  stomach  as  nearly  as  possible 
entire  rest  by  putting  almost  nothing  into  it  while  the  vomiting 
lasts.  This  may  moreover  be  checked  sometimes  by  small 
pieces  of  ice  taken  into  the  mouth,  and  swallowed  when  par- 


430 


MEDICINAL. 


tially  melted.  Soda-water  in  small  quantities  frequently  taken 
is  also  serviceable.  A mustard  plaster  on  the  pit  of  the  stom- 
ach assists  also  in  checking  sickness.  When  the  sickness  has 
passed  off,  the  greatest  care  in  diet  is  required.  Fish,  poultry, 
boiled  mutton,  with  a moderate  allowance  of  well-cooked  green 
vegetables,  such  as  cauliflower,  asparagus,  marrows.  Light 
wine,  such  as  claret,  may  be  allowed. 

The  diarrhoea  that  occurs  in  these  disorders  of  the  liver 
may  be  checked  by  mineral  acids — e.  g., 

Diluted  muriatic  acid,  2 drachms.  Compound  tincture  of 
cardamoms,  1 ounce. 

Cinnamon  water,  to  8 ounces.  Mix,  and  give  an  eighth  part 
every  three  or  four  hours. 

In  chronic  biliary  derangements  occurring  in  “bilious  hab- 
its,” more  may  be  done  by  abstemious  living  than  by  physic. 
The  habit  of  taking  so-called  “anti-bilious”  pills,  calomel,  blue 
pill,  etc.,  to  correct  disorders  of  the  liver,  that  may  be  avoided 
by  avoiding  there  causes,  is  simply  absurd.  But  where,  in  spite 
of  care,  the  liver  is  habitually  sluggish,  an  occasional  small 
dose  of  blue  pill  at  bedtime,  followed  by  a simple  aperient  in 
the  morning,  may  safely  be  taken.  In  some  persons,  however 
careful  they  may  be,  the  proneness  to  biliary  derangement  is 
greater  than  can  always  be  managed  by  even  great  care  in 
dieting.  In  such  cases  the  repeated  use  of  small  doses  of  min- 
eral acids,  with  extract  of  dandelion  or  sarsaparilla,  is  believed 
to  be  useful.  Fresh  air  and  outdoor  exercise  are  also  impor- 
tant means — horse  exercise,  if  possible. 

Acute  inflammation  of  the  liver  is,  as  already  remarked, 
rarely  met  with  in  temperate  climates.  In  parts  of  India  and 
other  hot  climates,  it  is  not  unfrequently  met  with,  owing  partly 
to  the  solar  heat  and  partly,  it  is  said,  to  imprudence  in  dieting 
and  exposure.  An  active  treatment  is  required,  such  as  free 
leeching  over  the  region  of  the  liver,  or  cupping  if  there  be 
any  skilled  person  to  perform  it.  At  the  same  time  full  doses 
of  calomel  are  to  be  given  (five  to  ten  grains),  and  repeated 
every  six  hours,  followed  up  by  saline  purgatives,  such  as  Ep- 
som salts  and  senna.  While  these  are  taking  effect,  mercurial 
ointment  should  be  rubbed  into  the  armpits  and  groin  night 
and  morning.  This  would  be  the  treatment  for  a case  of  acute 
inflammation  of  the  liver  occurring  in  a tropical  climate,  in  an 
adult  person.  There  is,  however,  some  reason  to  believe  that 
calomel  has  been  somewhat  too  liberally  given  in  such  cases. 

Bite  of  a Venomous  Serpent. — Suck  the  wound  immedi- 
ately, if  you  can,  yourself;  if  not,  get  a friend  to  do  so  (it  can 
be  done  without  danger,  if  there  be  no  abrasure — scratch,  that 
is— or  sore  on  the  tongue  oFlips),  and  then  tie  a string,  if  possible, 
tightly  round  the  part,  finger  or  limb,  that  has  been  bitten,  be- 


MEDICINAL. 


431 


tween  the  wound  and  the  body;  wash  well  with  warm  water,  and 
apply  liquor  ammonise  diluted  to  the  wound,  and  take  fifteen 
to  twenty  drops  in  a wine-glass  of  water  internally,  every  three 
or  four  hours;  keep  the  patient  from  going  to  sleep. 

Bite  from  a Dog  Suspected  to  be  Mad. — Soak  immediately 
in,  and  wash  with,  water  as  hot  as  you  can  bear  it;  then  apply 
salt  to  it  freely,  and  send  for  a doctor  to  cut  out  the  part,  if 
practicable,  or  to  burn  it  with  lunar  caustic,  and  if  you  cannot 
get  one,  do  it  yourself,  only  do  not  overdo  it.  If  you  have  no 
lunar  caustic  at  hand,  use  a good,  strong  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  to  the  place.  Take  a Turkish  bath  at  once  if  possible;  it* 
is  one  more  chance  in  your  favor. 

In  all  cases,  if  possible,  send  for  a medical  man,  but  if  one 
cannot  be  had,  the  above  remedies  are  applicable. 

N.  B. — The  wound  may  be  sucked  with  impunity  either  by 
the  person  himself  who  is  bitten,  or  by  a friend  for  him,  if  he 
has  no  abrasion,  that  is,  scratch,  or  sore  place,  or  sore  on  his 
mouth,  or  lips.  Do  not  cauterise  the  wound  yourself,  if  you 
can  help  it;  leave  that  to  a medical  man,  if  one  can  possibly  be 
got  within  a short  time.  Sad  results  have  been  known  to  occur 
from  unskillful  cauterization. 

A bite  from  a dog  not  mad  gives  rise  to  great  inflammation; 
linseed  poultice,  sprinkled  with  from  fifteen  to  twenty  drops  of 
laudanum,  is  the  best  application  for  this;  it  may  be  continued 
about  a week. 

Bleeding  at  the  Nose. — Lay  the  patient  immediately  at  his 
full  length  upon  the  floor,  or  on  a table,  or  on  a bench,  and 
stretch  out  his  arms  behind  his  head,  to  their  full  length,  on  a 
level  with  his  body;  unloose  the  collar,  and  apply  wet  towels 
to  the  back  of  his  neck.  I have  always  found  this  posture, 
that  is,  laying  the  patient  flat  on  the  back,  answer  best;  but 
many  excellent  doctors  do  not  consider  the  posture  of  the  body 
of  importance,  and  as  sitting  or  reclining  back  in  an  arm  chair 
is  more  convenient  and  less  fussy,  it  will  probably  be  sufficient 
to  place  the  arms  in  a vertical  position,  that  is,  straight  up  above 
the  head.  If  the  bleeding  continue  obstinate,  use  ice  if  you 
can  get  it,  instead  of  water,  and  put  a plug  of  lint  in  the  nostril, 
steeped  in  a strong  solution  of  alum  and  water.  If  you  can 
get  it,  snuff  up  the  nose  a solution  of  gallic  acid,  or,  better  still, 
of  tannic  acid,  or  even  inject  it  up  the  nose.  It  is  the  most 
powerful  astringent  of  all.  For  a child’s  nose  when  bleeding, 
a large,  cold  door  key  laid  behind  the  neck  and  between  the 
shoulders,  will  often  suffice,  compressing  at  the  same  time  the 
nostril  with  the  finger  firmly  for  a few  minutes.  When  the 
above  treatment  fails,  snuff  up  a few  drops  of  tincture  of  saffron 
(crocus  sativus)  in  a little  water.  This  is  almost  sure  to 
answer. 


432 


MEDICINAL. 


Bladder,  Inflammation  of. — Symptoms. — This  affection  is 
indicated  by  acute  pain  of  a burning  character  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  stomach,  or,  more  strictly  speaking,  abdomen,  and 
of  the  body,  and  down  the  thighs.  The  pain  is  augmented  by 
pressure,  and  by  passing  water,  occasion  for  which  is  frequent, 
its  voidance  difficult,  and  in  small  quantities.  A considerable 
degree  of  fever  is  present,  attended  with  restlessness,  heat  of 
skin,  and  increased  frequency  of  the  pulse.  The  urine  that  is 
passed  is  turbid,  cloudy,  and  high-colored,  and  sometimes 
bloody. 

Treatment. — In  the  treatment  of  acute  inflammation  of 
the  bladder  the  patient  must  be  kept  to  his  bed,  and  have  a 
dozen  leeches  applied  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  body  or  just  in 
front  of  the  fundament — the  bleeding  to  be  encouraged  by  hot 
fomentation  and  poultices  or  a hot  hip  bath.  At  the  same 
time  free  purgation  should  be  promoted  by  epsom  salts  or 
Glauber’s  salts;  full  doses  of  opium,  either  as  pill  or  tincture, 
should  be  administered  to  relieve  the  pain  and  urgency  to 
evacuate  the  bladder.  After  these  measures  have  been  put 
in  force,  and  have  somewhat  relieved  the  suffering,  the  follow- 
ing mixture  may  be  given: — 

Bicarbonate  of  potash,  15  grains;  tincture  of  henbane,  1 
drachm.  And  repeated  every  four  or  six  hours,  according  as 
the  symptoms  yield  or  not. 

The  diet  must  be  of  the  mildest  and  most  unstimulating 
character. 

Bleeding  from  the  Lungs,  Spitting  of  Blood,  Expectoration 
of  Blood,  Hsemoptymis. — Symptoms. — Occurr  usually  with  the 
presence  of  cough,  and  a tickling  feeling  at  the  back  of  the 
throat,  preceded  frequently  by  sense  of  oppression  or  of 
weight  in  the  chest;  the  blood  is  expectorated  in  very  varying 
quantities,  generally  exciting  a well-founded  alarm.  The 
blood  may  be  brought  up  pure,  or  mixed  with  the  mucus  of  the 
air  passages.  In  some  instances,  the  mouth  fills  with  blood, 
unattended  with  cough.  A saltish  taste  in  the  mouth  is  very 
often  experienced.  Its  florid  color,  frothy  character,  and 
attendant  cough,  will  assist  in  its  distinction  from  vomiting  of 
blood. 

Treatment. — Bleeding  from  the  lungs  is  not  always 
attended  with  the  danger  that  is  generally  apprehended. 
Although  its  occurence  excites  alarm  in  reference  to  the  exist- 
ence of  consumptive  disease,  it  is  sometimes  beneficial  rather 
than  otherwise,  as  it  tends  to  relieve  congestion  in  the  weak 
part  of  the  lung.  Very  few  cases  prove  fatal  from  the  bleed- 
ing alone. 

The  strictest  rest  and  puiet,  and  absolute  silence,  should  be 


MEDICINAL. 


433 


enforced;  the  chamber  be  cool  and  airy,  admitting  of  free 
ventilation.  The  patient  should  be  placed  half-sitting  Only 
cold  drinks,  or  pieces  of  ice  should  be  allowed  at  first.  All 
food  should  be  given  cold.  Only  in  case  of  extreme  faintness 
should  stimulants  be  given. 

The  medical  treatment  required,  is  the  administration  of 
astringents  internally,  e.  g.:  Gallic  acid,  30  grains;  epsom 
salts,  one-half  ounce;  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  1 drachm; 
water,  to  6 ounces.  Mix.  Give  a sixth  part  every  three 
hours,  unless  the  medicine  purge  too  freely,  then  the  epsom 
salts  may  be  omitted. 

Cloths  dipped  in  cold  water,  or  spirit  and  water,  should  be 
kept  applied  on  the  chest.  The  rest  and  quiet  should  be 
observed  for  several  days  after  the  hemorrhage  has  ceased, 
which  it  will  do,  probably,  only  gradually,  the  expectoration 
being  streaked  for  a variable  time. 

Bleeding  from  the  Stomach  and  Bowels. — H^ematemesis 
or  Vomiting  of  Blood — Is  usually  a result  of  some  internal 
disease  causing  obstruction  of  the  circulation  of  blood  through 
the  liver,  spleen,  or  stomach;  or  it  may  be  a result  of  the 
derangement  of  more  distant  organs.  Ulceration  of  the  mucous 
surface  of  the  stomach  itself  may  lead  to  the  opening  of  a 
vessel  therein.  It  is  preceded  by  a sense  of  nausea  or  sickness, 
or  faintness,  and  by  a feeling  of  heaviness  or  of  oppression  at 
the  pit  of  the  stomach.  The  blood  vomited  is  generally  of  a 
dark  color,  and  is  mixed  with  food,  and  differs  in  color  from 
the  frothy  fluid  blood  that  is  coughed  up  from  the  air  passages. 

Treatment. — If  the  bleeding  be  traced  to  some  derange- 
ment or  congestion  of  the  liver,  it  should  be  treated  according 
to  the  directions  laid  down  for  vomiting  in  bilious  disorders, 
and  the  treatment  directed  for  chronic  biliary  disorders.  If  it 
have  been  preceded  by  dyspepsia,  pain  in  the  pit  of  the  stom- 
ach, or  other  signs  of  disorder  of  that  organ  alone,  without 
much  general  derangement  of  the  health,  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
the  bleeding  may  proceed  from  an  ulcer  within  the  stomach 
perforating  a blood-vessel.  In  this  case,  ice  should  be  given, 
and  very  little  else,  at  the  time,  except  it  be  some  astringent 
medium — e.  g.,  five  or  six  grains  or  gallic  acid  or  tannin  every 
four  hours,  with  a drachm  of  epsom  salts,  since  an  aperient 
may  be  useful  to  clear  away  what  blood  may  have  passed  into 
the  bowels.  In  these  cases  of  bleeding  from  the  stomach  the 
curative  treatment  is  dietic.  Milk  alone  should  be  allowed 
for  a few  days.  After  four  or  five  days,  some  white  of  egg 
may  be  stirred  up  in  the  milk,  and  this  should  constitute  the 
sole  diet  for  two  or  three  weeks.  At  the  end  of  this  time, 
small  quantities  of  whiting,  or  some  other  white  fish,  may  be 
allowed.  The  longer  this  diet  can  be  maintained,  the  more 
26 


434 


MEDICINAL. 


sure  the  result.  A return  to  ordinary  diet  must  be  very  gradual, 
and  by  taking  carefully  of  poultry  or  well-cooked  mutton. 

Boils  and  Carbuncles. — Symptoms. — Boils  are  distinguish- 
able from  carbuncles  by  their  smaller  size,  by  their  conical  shape, 
inflamed  base,  and  tendency  to  form  matter  at  the  point.  Be- 
neath the  matter  is  a portion  of  dead  tissue  or  “ core.” 

Carbuncle  is  a large  and  flattened  compound  boil,  without 
the  tendency  to  present  a conical  point.  A carbuncle  tends  to 
form  matter,  and  opens  at  various  parts  of  its  surface.  At 
these  points  the  skin  gives  way,  presenting  a riddled  aspect, 
gradually  running  into  one  sore.  The  inflamed  base  of  a 
carbuncle  extends  wider  than  that  of  a boil,  and  has  a harder 
feel,  resembling,  indeed,  the  consistence  of  brawn. 

Treatment. — A small  boil  requires  no  treatment  beyond 
protection  from  friction,  by  diachylon  or  soap  plaster.  If,  how- 
ever, it  be  large,  inflamed,  and  painful,  water  dressing  or  warm 
poultices  should  be  applied,  until  the  core  has  sloughed  out. 
It  should  then  be  dressed  with  zinc  ointment.  A carbuncle 
should,  in  the  first  instance,  be  kept  well  covered  with  the 
water  dressing  protected  by  oil  silk,  until  the  surface  begins  to 
give  way,  and  presents  numerous  small,  yellow  points  of  matter; 
it  should  then  be  dressed  with  strips  of  lint  smeared  with  the 
yellow  basilicon  ointment,  covered  outside  with  linen,  mois- 
tened with  Condy’s  fluid  or  carbolic  oil,  if  there  be  any  offen- 
sive odor.  After  the  slough  of  dead  tissue  beneath  the  skin 
has  separated,  the  sore  may  be  dressed  with  zinc  ointment. 
The  diet  should  be  full  and  nutritious,  with  a moderate  allow- 
ance of  stimulants.  The  medicines  that  will  be  useful  will  be 
quinine,  compound  tincture  of  bark,  muriated  tincture  of  iron, 
etc. 

Bowels,  Inflammation  of. — This  is  often  ushered  in  by  slight 
shivering  fit,  a degree  of  nausea  with  thirst,  and  a white,  furred 
tongue  with  a red  tip  or  red  spots.  There  will  be  pain  or  ten- 
derness of  some  parts  of  the  abdomen,  more  commonly  in  the 
lower  part  or  about  the  middle  region.  The  pain  is  of  a dull 
sort,  except  in  the  part  that  is  most  tender  on  pressure,  where 
it  will  become  acute  and  increased  by  bodily  movements.  The 
knees  are  generally  drawn  up  in  order  to  take  off  the  pressure 
of  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen.  There  is  loss  of  appetite,  sick- 
ness, sometimes  vomiting,  with  increasing  thirst,  a coated 
tongue,  and  a hot,  dry  skin.  The  bowels  are  often  obstinately 
constipated  at  the  commencement  of  an  attack  of  inflammation, 
and  afterwards  they  become  relieved  even  to  diarrhoea.  The 
character  of  the  motions  will  vary — they  are  usually  thin  and 
watery,  consisting  of  mucus  and  faeces,  and  are  occasionally 
tinged  with  blood. 


MEDICINAL. 


435 


These  symptoms  are  generally  attended  with  a feverish  condi- 
tion of  the  system,  as  shown  by  a rapid,  sharp  pulse,  thirst,  heat 
of  surface,  &c.  Inflammation  of  the  bowels  may  originate  in 
indigestible  or  undigested  food;  the  action  of  irritant  poisons, 
or  of  too  active  purgation. 

Treatment. — Complete  rest  of  body,  and,  as  far  as  is 
possible,  of  the  intestines,  is  the  first  and  most  essential  point  of 
treatment.  The  patient  must  be  confined  to  the  bed,  and 
warm  fomentations  and  poultices  should  be  applied  over  the 
abdomen.  Pain  and  diarrhoea  may  be  relieved  by  Dover’s 
powder — five  grains  every  four  or  six  hours,  according  to  the 
severity  of  the  symptoms,  in  cases  of  adults;  for  children, 
smaller  doses  may  be  cautiously  given.  If  the  pain  be  very 
acute,  one  grain  of  plain  opium  may  be  given  every  six  hours. 
Turpentine  stupes  will  be  found  useful.  The  constipation  that 
sometimes  ushers  in  an  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels 
is  often  relieved  by  a few  doses  of  opium.  It  depends  upon 
spasm  or  cramp  of  the  intestinal  fibres.  The  diet  should  be 
of  the  simplest  kind,  soft  and  nutritious — e.  g.,  milk,  beef  tea, 
mutton  broth  eggs,  arrowroot,  etc.,  in  small  quantities  fre- 
quently. 

Breast,  Inflammation  of  (acute). — Milk  Abscess. — Symp- 
toms.— A portion  of  the  breast  becoming  harder  than  the  rest, 
and  having  a throbbing  pain,  with  slight  redness  of  the  skin. 
The  hardness  and  pain  extending,  a degree  of  fever  is  set  up. 
Shivering  takes  place,  the  throbbing  increases — at  last  some 
one  spot  on  the  surface  becomes  softer  as  the  matter  which  has 
been  formed  comes  to  the  surface — the  skin  is  thinned  and 
gives  way,  if  not  opened  by  a lancet,  and  allows  of  the  escape 
of  matter,  sometimes  in  large  quantities. 

Abscess  of  the  breast  occurs  during  the  early  weeks  of 
nursing,  and  sometimes  during  weaning,  sometimes  through 
neglect  in  drawing  off  the  milk  when  it  is  required  to  be  done, 
and  often  without  any  known  cause,  and  despite  every  care 
that  may  have  been  taken. 

Treatment. — When  only  a small  portion  of  the  gland  is 
affected,  the  application  of  cold  lotion  will  sometimes  disperse 
the  inflammation,  especially  if  at  the  same  time  the  breast  be 
drawn  by  breast-pump  or  drawing  glass,  and  the  breast  be  care- 
fully supported  by  a sling  made  of  a pocket-handkerchief,  or 
band  of  any  convenient  kind.  Should  these  means  not  have 
the  desired  effect  of  checking  the  course  of  the  abscess,  then 
warm  poultices  should  be  applied,  or  some  folds  of  soft  linen 
dipped  in  warm  water  and  covered  with  oil-silk.  From  the 
first,  a full  diet,  with  wine  or  beer,  is  preferable  to  low  diet, 
and  any  depleting  or  weakening  treatment  should  be  avoided. 


436  MEDICINAL. 

After  the  matter  has  come  to  the  surface,  the  continued 
application  of  poultices  will  cause  the  abscess  to  burst;  and,  if 
it  points  at  one  depending  point,  it  is  better  left  to  take  its 
course.  If,  however,  it  should  not  point  freely  at  one  spot,  but 
at  several,  the  opening  of  the  most  depending  should  be  done 
by  the  lancet. 

Chronic  Inflammation  of  the  Breast. — Sometimes  at 
the  time  of  weaning,  a portion  of  the  breast  becomes  tender 
and  hard,  but  does  not  give  the  pain  or  produce  the  redness  of 
“milk  abscess."  It  occurs  sometimes  to  young  girls  after 
mumps,  and  at  the  period  of  puberty.  In  women,  at  the  change 
of  life  it  also  occurs.  It  readily  follows  also  on  a blow. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  consists  in  improving  or  keep- 
ing up  the  general  health.  The  less  that  is  done  to  the  breast 
in  the  way  of  local  applications  the  better.  The  hardened  lump 
often  rapidly  disappears  of  itself. 

Bright’s  Disease —Degeneration  of  the  Kidneys— Symp- 
toms.— This  is  a disease  of  a very  grave  nature,  and  one  which 
is  seldom  recovered  from;  but  it  is  one  of  which  it  would  be 
difficult  to  give  an  intelligent  description  to  non-professional 
persons.  Only  the  physician  can  treat  it  properly. 

Bruises. — The  variation  of  the  colors  of  bruises  is  owing 
to  changes  going  on  in  the  blood  which  has  been  effused  under 
the  skin  by  violence.  A bruise  generally  goes  through  all  the 
various  tints  from  black  to  green  and  yellowish-green.  Bruises 
sometimes,  from  the  large  quantities  of  blood  effused,  become 
inflamed  and  form  abscesses. 

Treatment. — To  prevent  or  diminish  discoloration  from 
bruises,  it  is  well  to  apply  cold  or  warm  water  as  soon  after 
the  violence  has  been  done  as  possible.  To  allay  the  swelling 
or  inflammation  which  may  follow,  cooling  lotions  should  be 
used.  A mixture  of  tincture  of  arnica  and  water  has  been 
strongly  recommended,  but  a mixture  of  spirit  and  water,  or 
spirit,  vinegar  and  water,  will  be  found  quite  as  efficacious. 
Spirits  of  wine,  i oz;  vinegar,  i oz;  water,  to  4 oz. 

Graze,  or  Abrasion. — An  abrasion  of  the  skin,  or  what  is 
commonly  termed  “barked  skin,”  is  the  simplest  form  of  a 
wound.  It  consists  in  the  superficial  skin  being  rubbed  off  by 
violence.  This  form  of  injury  of  course  varies  in  severity  as 
the  amount  of  violence  varies. 

Treatment. — For  a slight  abrasion  a piece  of  linen  or 
linen  wetted  with  cold  water  and  covered  with  oil-silk  or 
gutta-percha  tissue,  will  generally  be  sufficient  dressing.  Or  it 
may  be  covered  with  gold-beater’s  skin. 

For  a graze  or  bruised  wound  of  considerable  extent  or 


MEDICINAL. 


437 


depth,  a dressing  of  carbolic  acid  and  oil  will  be  found  a ser- 
viceable application.  Take  of  carbolic  acid,  i part;  best  olive 
oil,  28  parts;  apply  on  lint  or  soft  linen. 

In  a majority  of  cases  any  simple  application  that  will  pro- 
tect the  denuded  surface,  while  it  is  being  skinned  over,  is 
enough — e.  g.,  spermaceti  ointment,  spread  on  linen,  will  be  all 
that  is  required.  One  method  of  treatment  for  abrasions,  is  to 
apply  a piece  of  dry  lint,  and  let  the  blood  soak  into  it.  This 
may  be  allowed  to  dry  on  the  sore,  and  thus  form  an  artificial 
scab;  or  the  lint  may  first  be  soaked  into  compound  tincture 
of  Benzoin,  known  as  Friar’s  Balsam. 

Burns  and  Scalds. — The  effect  of  these  will  vary  with  the 
extent  of  surface,  or  the  depth  of  skin  injured  or  destroyed. 
Recovery,  moreover,  must  depend  greatly  upon  the  state  of 
health  at  the  time  of  the  accident.  Under  ordinary  states  of 
health  a superficial  scald  or  burn,  not  destroying  the  skin  be- 
low the  surface,  and  not  involving  more  than  half  the  super- 
fices,  may  be  recovered  from.  Less  than  half  of  this  extent  of 
burn  may,  however,  be  fatal,  if  it  extend  to  the  true  skin  and 
the  muscles  below. 

Burns  as  a rule  destroy  more  than  scalds.  Scalds  usually 
form  blisters  and  go  no  deeper,  but  burns  may  char  the  deeper 
skin  and  the  muscles  beneath;  they  are,  therefore,  the  more 
dangerous  of  the  two.  Should  the  burn  have  resulted  from 
the  clothes  catching  fire,  they  should  carefully  be  removed,  so 
as  not  to  break  the  blisters,  which  may  be  forming  or  formed, 
lest  violence  be  done  to  the  raw  skin  beneath,  and,  for  the  same 
reason,  pieces  of  the  clothing  that  stick  to  the  surface  should 
not  be  removed  at  the  time.  If  the  burn  or  scald  be  extensive, 
some  stimulant,  wine  and  water,  should  be  given  at  once  to 
diminish  the  effect  of  “shock.” 

Treatment. — The  principle  to  be  observed  in  the  treat" 
ment  of  burns  and  scalds,  is  to  cause  a gradual  diminution  of 
heat  in  the  part,  not  to  allow  it  to  cool  too  quickly.  This  is 
effected  by  protecting  the  burnt  or  scalded  part  from  the  air, 
by  immediately  dredging  with  flour,  or  covering  with  cotton- 
wool or  oil.  If  the  case  is  a slight  one,  these  dressings  may  be 
left  on  for  a day  or  two;  but,  if  it  be  more  severe,  the  damaged 
parts  should  be  dressed  with  lint,  spread  with  basilicon  or 
resin  ointment,  or  a mixture  of  equal  parts  of  that  ointment 
and  spirits  of  turpentine.  Another  useful  lotion  for  applica- 
tion to  burns  and  scalds  of  slight  extent,  consists  of  “carron- 
oil,”  or,  lime-water,  1 part;  linseed-oil,  2 parts;  well  shaken 
together,  and  applied  by  means  of  strips  of  lint,  or  soft  linen 
rag,  soaked  in  it,  and  changed  twice  a day. 

The  Blisters. — How  to  be  Treated. — It  is  generally 


438 


MEDICINAL. 


advisable  not  to  cut  the  blisters  which  may  be  formed,  as  they 
protect  the  true  skin  under  them;  but,  if  the  base  of  the  blister 
shows  symptoms  of  inflammation,  it  is  as  well  to  evacuate  the 
contents,  but,  even  then,  to  do  it  by  means  of  a small  prick, 
and  to  leave  the  skin  on,  so  that  it  may  protect  the  raw  surface 
from  the  air.  The  black  char  of  skin  that  is  sometimes  left 
should  be  poulticed  with  bread,  or  linseed  meal  and  bread,  till 
the  slough  separates.  When  this  has  taken  place,  there  is  left 
a surface  of  what  appear  to  be  little  mounds  of  flesh,  and  these 
give  out  a discharge  of  matter.  They  are  called  granulations, 
and  are  the  commencements  of  the  process  of  healing.  At 
times  these  granulations  grow  very  rapidly  and  abundantly, 
rising  above  the  level  of  the  adjacent  skin.  This  is  what  is 
commonly  meant  by  “proud  flesh.”  Their  growth  may  be 
checked  by  gently  touching  them  with  stick  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
and  dressing  the  surface  with  oxide  of  zinc  ointment.  Burns 
between  the  fingers,  or  in  any  place  where  two  contiguous  sur- 
faces are  likely  to  come  in  contact,  should  be  separately  dressed, 
and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  granulating  surfaces 
apart,  or  they  may  grow  together  and  produce  deformity. 

Opiates. — If  there  be  much  pain,  it  will  be  advisable  to 
give  opium,  in  the  form  of  the  tincture,  as  it  will  also  allay  ner- 
vous excitement.  Tincture  of  opium,  io  minims;  water,  one 
teaspoonful  every  four  hours.  This  dose,  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  is  for  an  adult  person. 

Burns  from  Chemicals. — The  destructive  chemicals  most 
likely  to  produce  these  accidents  are  sulphuric  acid,  or  oil  of 
vitrol;  nitric  acid,  or  aqua  fortis;  ammonia,  and  hydrofluoric 
acid;  strong  carbolic  acid,  and  chloride  of  zinc.  In  cases  of 
burns  from  any  of  these  the  parts  should  be  well  washed  with 
water,  in  which  a little  bicarbonate  of  soda  is  dissolved,  or  soap 
and  water  in  the  case  of  the  acids.  Afterwards  treat  as  in  a 
case  of  inflammatory  ulcer  or  ordinary  burn. 

Gunpowder  Burns. — Explosions  of  gunpowder  cause  de- 
struction of  skin,  and  resemble  burns  or  scalds  in  their  effects. 
They  should  be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  burns,  first  re- 
moving particles  of  carbon  by  means  of  a soft  sponge  and  warm 
water. 

The  diet,  in  severe  burns,  should  be  supporting.  Some 
stimulant  is  usually  advisable. 

Cold. — Either  one  or  other  of  the  following  remedies  is 
likely  to  succeed.  Put  twenty  to  thirty,  or  even  thirty-five, 
according  to  age  and  strength,  drops  of  laudanum  in  a tumbler 
of  cold  water.  You  can  add  a few  drops  of  peppermint  or 
half  a glass  of  sherry  to  take  away  the  nasty  taste;  but  the  effect 
of  the  laudanum  is  just  the  same.  Sip  it  slowly  for  an  hour  or 


MEDICINAL. 


439 


an  hour  and  a half  before  going  to  bed,  as  if  it  were  wine,  and 
as  if  you  liked  it.  Do  not  go  out  again  the  same  night,  but  go 
to  bed  pretty  early.  The  chances  are  you  will  be  perfectly 
well  in  the  morning. 

In  case  you  are  afraid  to  take  laudanum,  though  it  is  but 
an  idle  fear,  adopt  the  following  recipe: — Before  going  to  bed, 
put  the  feet  in  hot  water,  and  have  a warm  bed.  As  you  step 
into  bed,  or  just  after  it,  take  either  a Dover’s  powder  in  a lit- 
tle preserve,  or  a teaspoonful  of  sweet  spirits  of  nitre  in  a tea- 
cupful of  hot  milk;  cover  up  with  extra  blankets  or  rugs. 
Either  one  or  other  of  the  remedies  will  produce  violent  per- 
spiration, which  will  probably  bring  about  the  desired  effect. 
If  all  else  fails,  try  a Turkish  bath. 

Another  remedy — whose  value  is  as  yet  unknown  to  the 
medical  profession — for  colds,  viz.  aconite,  either  in  tincture 
or  pilules,  one  every  four  hours,  often  produces  an  excellent 
effect;  and  gives  relief  as  soon  as,  or  sooner  than  anything  else. 

Chapped  Hands. — After  washing  the  hand,  and  before  dry- 
ing them,  pour  over  the  backs  of  them  some  glycerine  and 
water  (equal  proportions),  smear  it  over  them,  and  then  quickly 
dip  it  into  water  and  dry  the  hands  gently,  so  as  not  entirely 
to  wipe  off  the  glycerine. 

Chest,  Inflammation  of. — Varieties. — This  term  would  in- 
clude pneumonia,  or  inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the 
lungs;  bronchitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  air  tubes  going  to  the 
lungs;  and  pleurisy,  or  inflammation  of  the  thin  membrane 
which  covers  the  lungs  and  lines  the  chest.  It  requires  medi- 
cal knowledge  to  distinguish  these  one  from  the  other,  but  as 
they  have  many  symptoms  in  common  they  are  here,  for  facil- 
ity or  domestic  treatment,  classed  together.  The  following 
principal  distinctive  features  of  each  may,  however,  be  of  some 
use: 

Symptoms. — In  pneumonia,  or  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
there  is  a dull  aching,  or  more  severe,  pain  at  some  parts 
(usually  the  lower  part)  of  the  chest;  difficulty  of  breathing, 
with  a frequent  short  cough  with  very  little  expectoration, 
which  will  probably  be  of  a rusty  color  or  slightly  streaked 
with  blood.  There  is  also  a difference  in  the  two  sides  as  to 
the  ease  or  discomfort  of  lying  down.  The  skin  dry  or  pun- 
gently  hot,  and  in  feverish  state. 

In  bronchitis  the  pain  is  more  extended  but  less  acute,  and 
the  fever  runs  less  high,  the  tightness  of  breath  less;  expecto- 
ration is  looser,  and  frothy. 

In  pleurisy  there  may  be  no  cough  at  all,  the  fever  less  ac- 
tive; but  the  pain  is  cutting  and  acute,  and  usually  referable 
to  a spot  or  limited  part,  and  increased  by  coughing,  etc.  The 


44© 


MEDICINAL. 


pulse  will  be  accelerated  in  each,  the  tongue  furred,  the  bowels 
disturbed  in  their  functions,  the  urine  high  colored  and  depos- 
iting a red  sediment. 

Inflammation  of  the  chest  generally  begins  with  the  symp- 
tioms  of  catarrh,  or  of  a severe  cold;  when  the  inflammation, 
however,  affects  the  substance  of  the  lung  or  its  covering,  the 
previous  catarrhal  stage  is  often  short  or  entirely  absent.  The 
pain  and  ferverish  symptoms  appear  at  once.  The  tendency  of 
these  forms  of  inflammation  of  the  chest  is  to  recover  under 
ordinary  care;  but  pneumonia  sometimes  goes  on  to  abscess, 
bronchitis  may  run  on  into  a chronic  form,  and  cause  suffoca- 
tion by  the  profuse  quantity  of  phlegm  secreted.  Pleurisy  may 
terminate  in  the  pouring  out  of  a quantity  of  fluid  into  the 
chest. 

Bronchitis. — This  is  the  form  of  inflammation  of  the  chest 
that  is  most  prone  to  become  chronic,  and  to  recur  as  “winter 
cough”  periodically,  attended  with  profuse  expectoration  and 
shortness  of  breath.  In  aged  people,  the  winter  cough  is  prone 
to  become  seriously  aggravated  by  severe  weather,  under  which 
circumstances  debility  rapidly  becomes  extreme,  and  the 
patient  becoming  drowsy,  and  unable  to  relieve  himself  of  the 
phlegm,  dies  from  suffocation. 

Treatment. — In  the  mildest  form  of  bronchitis,  or  simple 
catarrhal  fever,  the  treatment  need  be  little  more  than  what  is 
practiced  for  a common  cold,  such  as,  for  an  adult:  Ten  grains 
of  Dover’s  powder,  taken  at  bedtime,  and  followed  by  some 
simple  aperient  early  the  next  morning;  or,  three  or  four  grains 
of  James’  powder  at  bedtime,  together  with  warm  bath  or 
warm  footbath,  and  warm  drinks — such  as  tea,  wine,  whey, 
&c.  If  the  cough  persists,  take  of  ipecacuanha  wine,  two 
drachms;  oxymel  of  squills,  io  drachms.  Mix.  Take  a tea- 
spoonful three  or  four  times  a day.  Apply  also  mustard  plas- 
ter to  the  chest  at  bedtime.  In  the  feverish  colds  to  which 
children  are  very  liable,  the  above  plan  of  treatment  may  be 
pursued,  reducing  the  doses  to  suit  the  ages  of  the  little 
patients,  avoiding  the  use  of  the  opiate  (Dover’s  powder)  in 
their  cases. 

Treatment  of  Acute  Bronchitis. — If  the  skin  be  hot, 
the  cough  urgent,  and  the  breathing  accelerated  or  oppressed 
and  attended  with  pain,  the  surface  of  the  chest  should  be  en- 
veloped with  hot  fomentations,  or  turpentine  stupes,  or  mustard 
plasters.  Should  the  pain  be  very  acute  in  breathing,  the 
painfal  part  might  be  painted  with  the  blistering  liquid  and 
afterwards  covered  with  wadding,  or  with  spongiopiline,  soaked 
in  warm  water.  If  the  pulse  be  full  and  rapid,  an  emitic  of 
antimonial  wine  may  be  given — viz.,  a teaspoonful  every  five 


MEDICINAL. 


441 


minutes  until  vomiting  occurs,  which  is  to  be  encouraged  with 
draughts  of  warm  water.  If  the  fever  be  not  very  high,  or  if 
the  patient  be  not  very  robust  and  strong,  an  emetic  of  ipecacu- 
anha wine,  given  in  the  same  way,  should  be  preferred,  as  the 
antimonial  emetic  sometimes  proves  very  depressing.  After 
these  first  measures  have  been  carried  out,  the  expectorant 
effects  of  the  medicines  may  be  kept  up  by  repeated  small 
doses — e.  g.,  ten  drops  of  ipecacuanha  or  antimonial  wine  every 
three  hours. 

Acute  bronchitis  occurring  in  children  is  to  be  treated  on 
the  same  plan.  The  following  powder  is  useful  for  a child 
about  two  or  three  years  of  age,  where  there  is  much  cough 
and  fever;  Take  of  powdered  ipecacuanha,  i grain;  calomel, 
3 grains;  nitre,  12  grains;  white  sugar,  12  grains.  Mix,  and 
divide  into  six  or  eight  powders,  according  to  the  age  of  the 
child,  and  the  strength  and  severity  of  the  disease.  If  the 
bowels  are  relaxed  by  the  powders,  the  calomel  should  be 
omitted.  A warm  bath  should  be  given  morning  and  evening. 

Treatment. — Chronic  bronchitis,  occurring  mostly  in  con- 
stitutions impaired  either  by  age  or  previous  illness,  requires  a 
different  treatment  as  regards  diet  and  regimen,  as  also  it 
demands  more  stimulant  and  tonic  medicines.  The  frequent 
application  of  external  irritants  and  stimulating  liniments 
is  more  useful  here  than  even  in  acute  bronchitis.  This  may 
be  effected  by  friction  with  compound  camphor  liniment, 
or  hartshorn  and  oil,  or  spirits  of  turpentine,  or  the  use  of 
repeated  mustard  plasters,  and  occasionally  blistering  the 
chest. 

Chicken  Pock. — In  the  majority  of  cases  this  is  a mere 
trifling  malady,  with  little  or  no  febrile  symptoms.  In  many 
others  it  is  preceded  with  a four-and-twenty  or  six-and-thirty 
hours’  feverish  disturbance.  These  symptoms  usually  subside 
on  the  appearance  of  an  eruption  of  pimples  on  the  body,  face, 
and  head.  On  the  second  day  the  pimples  present  small 
vesicles  or  bladders,  containing  a clear  fluid  like  water.  On 
the  third  or  fourth  day  the  vesicles  contain  opaque  yellowish 
fluid;  these  dry  and  fall  off  in  scabs  during  the  next  two  or 
three  days,  leaving,  generally,  no  trace  behind.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  skin  is  slightly  pitted,  especially  if  the  spots  have 
been  scratched  or  picked. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  a light  diet,  and  the  mildest 
aperient  medicine,  if  even  any  be  required  at  all.  The  disease 
is  sometimes  mistaken  for  modified  small-pox,  and  vice  versa. 
But  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  vesicles  of  chicken  pock  stand  on 
the  pimple  like  a small  bubble  or  bladder  of  water,  and  that 
they  have  little  or  no  inflammation  around  their  bases.  In 


442 


MEDICINAL. 


small-pox,  even  when  modified,  there  is  always  an  inflamed 
base  to  the  vesicles,  which  are  flattened  instead  of  globular. 
Chicken  pock  runs  a much  shorter  course  than  modified  small- 
pox. The  latter  seldom,  even  when  most  distinctly  modified, 
lasting  less  than  ten  or  twelve  days;  chicken  pock  seldom 
exceeding  six  or  seven,  and  being  mature  on  the  fourth  da) . 

Chilblains. — The  best  remedy  for  thes°,  when  not  broken, 
is  to  paint  them  twice  a day  with  strong  tincture  of  iodine. 

A liniment  of  equal  parts  of  extract  of  lead  and  spirits  of 
turpentine  is  also  very  useful. 

If  inflamed  and  broken,  they  should  be  poulticed  and 
dressed  with  some  simple  ointment. 

Cholera : — English  or  Antnmnal  Diarrhoea. — Symptoms. — 
In  the  heat  of  autumn  it  is  very  common  that  diarrhoea  sets  in 
suddenly,  without  any  signs  of  previous  bilious  disorder.  It  is 
frequently  accompanied  by  cramps  of  the  legs,  with  nausea  or 
vomiting;  the  tongue  is  furred,  and  great  thirst  is  caused;  -the 
pulse  is  feeble;  the  loose  motions  are  numerous — bilious  at 
first — becoming  more  and  more  watery  until  they  contain  little 
more  than  mucus. 

Treatment. — If  there  has  been  no  indiscretion  in  diet  to 
excite  the  attack,  some  warm  and  astringent  medicine  may  be 
given  at  once;  as,  creasote,  or  chalk  mixture,  or  tincture  of 
catechu.  (See  Table  of  Medicines  for  the  doses).  If  these 
fail  to  relieve  the  symptoms,  a pill  of  one  grain  of  opium  will 
sometimes  stop  the  looseness  and  relieve  pain  and  sickness. 
This  dose,  however,  should  not  be  given  to  children.  Should 
the  attack  be  traceable  to  indigestible  or  improper  food,  a dose 
of  castor  oil  should  be  given  in  the  first  instance.  Opium  or 
astringents  may  be  given  afterwards.  The  simplest  diet  should 
be  taken,  such  as  beef-tea,  arrowroot,  etc.  Brandy  may  be 
given  if  there  be  signs  of  prostration  or  faintness. 

Cholera: — Spasmodic,  Malignant,  or  Asiatic. — Symptoms. 
— This  is  usually  preceded  by  a variable  period  of  promonitory 
looseness  of  the  bowels  and  a feeling  of  general  indisposition, 
although  there  are  many  cases  on  record  of  its  sudden  acces- 
sion without  any  warning.  Such  cases  have  generally  been 
met  with  in  hot  climates.  In  the  severe  form  of  cholera  the 
previous  choleratic  diarrhoea  becomes  altered  in  character; 
before  this  takes  place,  recovery  is  not  unfrequent.  The  stools 
become  watery,  having  a peculiar  odor  and  “ rice-water”  appear- 
ance. The  vomiting  assumes  the  same  character.  There  is  a 
feeling  of  sinking  and  prostration,  rapidly  increasing.  Cramps 
occur,  beginning  in  the  feet  and  hands,  extending  to  the  limbs 
and  body.  The  features  assume  a sunken,  contracted  aspect, 
with  a look  of  indifference  in  the  countenance.  The  surface  of 


MEDICINAL. 


443 


the  body  becomes  cold  and  blue,  or  leaden-hued,  and  has  a 
clammy  sweat.  The  tongue  partakes  of  the  coldness  of  the 
surface.  There  is  great  thirst.  The  pulse  feeble,  soon  alto- 
gether fails  to  be  felt.  The  voice  also  acquires  a feeble  tone, 
being  sometimes  scarcely  audible.  The  kidneys  cease  to  act, 
and  urine  is  suppressed,  and  complete  collapse  and  death  rap- 
idly supervine,  at  periods  varying  up  to  two  days  on  the  aver- 
age. Notwithstanding  the  feeling  of  coldness  of  the  surface, 
the  patient  himself  suffers  from  a sensation  of  burning  heat 
internally,  and  craves  for  cold  drinks.  After  the  cold  stage 
has  lasted  an  uncertain  time — it  may  be  as  long  as  forty-eight 
hours,  if  recovery  takes  place — it  is  followed  by  reaction  and  a 
febrile  stage,  which  may  run  into  a typhus  condition,  in 
which  stage  many  cases  prove  fatal. 

Treatment. — Everything  here  depends  upon  early  treat- 
ment; half  an  hour’s  delay  may  determine  a fatal  ending. 
When  cholera  is  prevalent  a mere  loose  motion  should  immedi- 
ately be  attended  to. 

For  the  Preliminary  Diarrhoea. — Immediately  on  the 
occurrence  of  diarrhoea,  if  there  be  any  suspicion  of  its  having 
been  excited  either  by  indiscretion  in  diet  or  impurity  of  water, 
half  an  ounce  of  castor  oil  should  be  given,  and  in  three  hours 
after  its  action  it  should  be  followed  up  with  some  astringent 
and  sedative,  as:  For  an  adult,  one  grain  of  opium  in  the  form 
of  a pill  every  four  hours,  until  the  diarrhoea  begins  to  decline. 
Or,  chalk  mixture,  i ounce;  tincture  of  catechu,  2 drachms 
every  three  hours.  Or,  creasote,  20  drops;  spirits  of  salvola- 
tile,  4 drachms;  paregoric,  4 drachms;  water,  to  6 ounces. 
Mix.  Give  a fourth  every  three  or  four  hours.  Or,  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  30  mins;  tincture  of  opium,  10  mins;  water,  2 
ounces.  Every  four  hours. 

Mustard  plasters  on  the  pit  of  the  stomach  help  to  check 
sickness. 

A light  diet,  consisting  mainly  of  beef-tea,  with  small 
occasional  doses  of  brandy.  If  these  means  fail,  and  the  case 
go  into  the  stage  of  collapse,  external  warmth  in  every  possible 
way  should  be  promoted.  Bottles  of  hot  water,  heated  bricks, 
bags  of  hot  salt,  etc.,  should  be  placed  about  the  body  and 
limbs,  over  which  warm  blankets  should  be  covered.  Copious 
draughts  of  cold  water  should  be  allowed  to  allay  the  thirst, 
notwithstanding  that  these  may  be  rejected  by  vomiting.  At 
the  same  time  half  a drachm  of  spirits  of  salvolatile  should  be 
given  every  two  hours.  The  cramps  are  to  be  relieved  by 
friction,  or  by  pressure  on  the  muscles  that  are  cramped.  When 
reaction  takes  place,  the  treatment  must  be  gradually  modified, 
with  greater  caution  in  the  use  of  stimulants.  If  the  febrile 


444 


MEDICINAL. 


reaction  go  into  the  typhus  state,  the  case  then  requires  the 
treatment  of  typhoid  fever.  (Which  see.) 

Clergyman’s  Sore  Throat— Symptoms— An  affection  of 
the  organs  of  the  voice,  to  which  public  speakers  are  liable.  It 
is  not  a sore  throat  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term,  but  is  an 
affection  of  the  vocal  organs  extending  to  the  surface  of  the 
■ throat.  There  is  a relaxed  and  elongated  state  of  the  uvula. 
The  surface  of  the  back  part  of  the  throat  has  a reddish-purple 
and  congested  appearance.  The  throat  becomes  dry  and 
the  mucus  tenacious,  so  that  a constant  hawking  is  occasioned. 
Hoarseness  and  difficulty  in  speaking  follow.  There  is  some 
pain  felt  in  the  seat  of  the  organs  of  voice,  and  the  voice 
becomes  so  altered  that  it  is  scarcely  audible,  or  is  harsh  and 
discordant. 

Treatment. — As  this  affection  depends  partly  upon  the 
state  of  the  general  health,  its  condition  should  be  carefully 
looked  to.  There  is,  however,  much  to  be  done  by  the  care- 
ful management  of  the  respiration  in  public  speaking,  so  as 
not  to  admit  a rush  of  cold  air  upon  the  organs  at  the  instant 
of  using  them.  The  lungs  should  be  filled  as  much  as  possi- 
ble through  the  nostrils,  by  which  means  the  air  is  warmed  and 
the  force  of  its  entry  in  inspiration  is  moderated. 

There  are  two  remedies  which  have  considerable  power 
over  the  parts,  viz.:  the  nitrate  of  silver,  and  sulphurous  acid. 
The  nitrate  of  silver  may  be  freely  applied  with  a mop  of 
sponge  on  the  end  of  a stick  or  piece  of  whalebone.  Nitrate 
of  silver,  40  grains;  distilled  water,  3 ounces.  The  sponge 
dipped  in  this  solution  should  be  applied  to  the  congested 
surface  of  the  throat.  As,  however,  this  does  not  effectually 
apply  the  remedy  to  the  deeper  seat  of  the  affection,  the 
organs  of  voice,  a “ spray  apparatus  ” will  be  found  much  more 
effectual.  Several  convenient  forms  of  the  apparatus  can  be 
had  of  the  surgical  instrument  makers,  with  directions  for 
their  use.  The  sulphurous  acid  solution  is  a very  valuable 
means  in  these  ’cases,  when  thus  applied,  twice  a day,  the 
inspiration  of  the  spray  being  repeated  for  about  twenty 
minutes  each  time. 

Colic. — Symptoms  and  Diagnosis. — A severe  twisting  and 
griping  pain  in  the  bowels,  accompanied  with  flatulence, 
sometimes  with  vomiting,  and  always  attended  with  consti- 
pation. The  pain  is  paroxysmal  and  comes  on  suddenly,  and 
is  rather  relieved  than  aggravated  by  pressure,  as  would  be 
the  case  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  in  which  also  the  manner 
of  the  attack  is  different,  being  in  general  less  sudden  in  the 
onset,  and  constant.  In  colic  the  tongue  is  not  necessarily 
furred,  nor  is  the  pulse  quickened,  both  of  which  conditions 


MEDICINAL. 


445 


will  be  found  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels.  In  one  obsti- 
nate form  of  colic  the  action  of  the  bowels  becomes  reversed, 
and  vomiting  of  the  motions  may  take  place.  In  such  a case 
it  should  be  clearly  made  out  that  no  rupture  or  internal 
strangulation  of  the  intestines  exists.  It  is  to  be  observed  that 
a mere  muscular  pain  may  be  mistaken  for  colic  or  for  inflam- 
mation— the  latter;  it  may  be  added,  more  likely  than  the 
former  to  be  the  error  that  is  committed. 

Treatment. — The  cause  of  this  painful  malady  being 
generally  the  irritation  of  some  indigestible  or  acrid  food — 
such  as  unripe  fruit,  poisonous  fungi,  uncooked  vegetables, 
sour  drinks,  etc.,— these  should  be  removed  as  quickly  as 
possible,  by  a full  dose  of  castor  oil,  with  from  twenty  to  forty 
drops  of  laudanum  for  an  adult,  repeated  every  three  or  four 
hours  if  need  be.  At  the  same  time  hot  fomentations  or  tur- 
pentine stupes  should  be  applied  over  the  belly.  A hot  bath 
will  often  relieve  pain  and  relax  the  spasm  which  causes  both 
the  pain  and  the  constipation.  If  flatulence  be  a predominant 
symptom,  it  is  very  likely  the  cause  of  the  spasm  of  the  bowel. 
In  that  case,  the  following  will  probably  give  relief: 

Rhubarb  powder,  20  grains;  carbonate  of  magnesia,  30 
grains;  spirits  of  nutmeg  (or  peppermint),  1 drachm;  spirits  of 
salvolatile,  1 drachm;  water,  2 ounces.  Taken  as  a draught, 
and  repeated  in  four  or  five  hours  if  the  colic  continue.  A dose 
of  laudanum  may  be  added.  This  same  mixture,  in  reduced 
doses  (omitting  the  laudanum),  will  serve  well  for  the  flatulent 
griping  to  which  infants  are  liable. 

Painters’  Colic — Being  caused  by  the  poisonous  influence 
of  white  lead  (used  in  their  trade),  the  treatment  varies  some- 
what. White  lead  (carbonate  of  lead)  being  the  poisonous 
pigment  that  forms  the  basis  of  most  paint,  is  rendered  inert 
by  being  converted  into  sulphate  of  lead. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  the  administration  of  sul- 
phate of  magnesia  (Epsom  salts)  with  alum  and  laudanum. 
Thus — Epsom  salts,  2 ounces;  alum,  1 drachm;  laudanum,  80 
minims;  water,  8 ounces.  Mix.  Give  an  eighth  part  every 
three  or  four  hours,  until  the  bowels  are  purged  and  the  pain 
relieved;  other  local  means,  as  above  mentioned,  being  also 
employed.  Painters  may  almost  entirely  avoid  the  occurrence 
of  colic  by  making  it  a point  always  to  wash  their  hands  before 
meals. 

Strangulation  of  the  Bowel. — Closely  allied  to  colic, 
and  sometimes  following  upon  it,  is  this  accident,  although  it 
may  occur  from  several  conditions  independent  of  colic.  It  is 
more  frequently  met  with  in  young  children  than  in  adults,  as 
an  independent  affection.  Extreme  obstruction  of  the  intes- 


446 


MEDICINAL. 


tines,  from  an  overloaded  condition,  may  give  rise  to  the  same 
set  of  symptoms.  It  may  be  scarcely  possible  to  distinguish 
between  them,  except  by  the  result.  Fortunately  the  treat- 
ment may  be  the  same. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are:  Frequent  desire  to  empty 
the  bowel,  without  success;  severe  pain,  usually  at  some  one 
spot,  with  extreme  tenderness  in  that  part. 

Treatment. — As  soon  as  the  fruitless  nature  of  the 
attempts  to  evacuate  the  intestines  are  apparent,  all  purgatives 
should  be  withheld.  Clysters  of  large  quantities  of  warm 
water,  or  of  warm  olive  oil,  should  be  passed  gently  into  the 
bow.el.  By  persevering  with  these,  the  obstruction  is  some- 
times overcome,  and  if  the  cause  of  the  obstruction  be  loaded 
bowels,  relief  will  pretty  surely  foflow.  The  obstruction  may 
last  for  several  days,  and  yet  give  way  to  this  simple  and 
unirritating  mode  of  treatment.  Vomiting  and  nausea  gener- 
ally attend  these  cases,  which  may  be  relieved  by  pieces  of  ice 
and  small  quantities  of  champagne,  or  soda-water  and  brandy. 

Concussion  of  the  Brain. — Symptoms. — This  condition  may 
be  the  result  of  either  a fall,  or  blow  on  the  head,  or  it  may  be 
occasioned  by  a violent  jerk  to  the  body,  especially  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  spine.  After  one  or  other  of  these  ~idents,  the 
symptoms  of  concussion  will  be:  Unconsciously  o,  and  loss  of 
power  of  moving;  a small  and  feeble  pulse;  the  pupil  of  the 
eye  insensible  to  the  light;  the  complexion  pallid;  skin  cold, 
and  there  may  be  vomiting.  Convulsions,  also,  are  likely  to 
occur  if  a child  is  the  subject  of  concussion. 

Treatment. — Small  quantities  of  stimulants,  such  as  wine, 
brandy,  ether,  or  salvolatile  in  water,  should  be  given  every 
half  hour,  if  the  patient  can  swallow,  until  signs  of  reaction 
begin  to  show  themselves.  This  will  be  known  by  the  restora- 
tion of  warmth  and  color  to  the  surface  of  the  body,  together 
with  increased  force  in  the  pulse,  and  gradually  reviving  con- 
sciousness. _ 

Congestion  of  the  Brain. — Symptoms. — Many  very  differ- 
ent sets  of  symptoms  are  often  included  under  this  one  term. 
Thus,  a “ fit  ” is  said  to  be  caused  by  congestion  of  the  brain, 
and  so  is  a feverish  condition  with  “ head  symptoms,”  so  with 
a “ stroke,”  so  also  with  delirium. 

It  is  indicated  by  headache,  giddiness,  unusual  dullness  of 
the  mind,  and  of  the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing,  or  preternat- 
ural excitability,  impairment  of  memory,  noises  in  the  ears, 
and  a flushed  countenance.  There  is  feebleness  or  sluggish- 
ness of  movement.  The  dullness  may  pass  on  into  apoplexy, 
or  paralysis,  or  convulsions;  or  the  morbid  excitabily  may  be 
but  the  precursor  of  inflammation  of  the  brain. 


MEDICINAL. 


447 


Treatment.-— The  treatment  must  be  modified  very  much 
by  its  causes.  If  from  over  use  of  the  brain,  change  of  scene, 
fresh  air,  and  bodily  exercise  may  be  sufficient  to  dispel  it. 

• Shower-baths,  with  tonic  medicines  and  mild  aperients,  will 
suffice.  Sea-bathing,  or  plunging-bath,  should  be  avoided,  so 
long  as  there  are  any  symptoms  referable  to  the  brain.  If  the 
dullness  and  heaviness  persist,  more  active  purgatives  may  be 
employed,  and  a rather  more  abstemious  diet  followed. 

Constipation. — Costiveness  of  the  bowels  is  a relative  con- 
dition— with  most  persons  in  health  the  daily  evacuation  of  the 
intestines  is  a habit,  while  others  will  allow  several  days  to  pass 
without  experiencing  any  discomfort  from  sluggishness  of  the 
bowels.  When  this  is  prolonged  beyond  the  ordinary  period, 
various  functional  derangements  occur — e.  g.,  headache,  dys- 
pepsia, nausea,  flatulent  distention,  etc. 

Treatment.— The  graver  cases  of  obstinate  obstruction,  if 
they  can  be  made  out  to  be  the  result  of  neglected  constipa- 
tion, may  be  relieved  sometimes  by  hot  baths,  with  repeated 
small  doses  of  castor  oil  (a  quarter  or  half  an  ounce  every  two 
hours),  or  by  a pill  composed  of  two  grains  of  extract  of  aloes 
and  two  grains  of  hard  soap,  given  also  every  two  hours.  At 
the  same  time  clysters  of  warm  soap  and  water  with  castor  oil 
(two  ounces  of  oil  to  a pint  of  warm  soap  and  water)  may  be 
thrown  into  the  bowels  every  two  or  three  hours.  The  sick- 
ness meanwhile  may  be  relieved  by  soda-water  or  champagne, 
or  by  swallowing  small  pieces  of  ice.  The  pain  should  at  the 
same  time  be  relieved  by  repeated  small  do$es  of  laudanum 
(fifteen  or  twenty  drops).  It  is  to  be  noted  that  opium  should 
not  be  given  to  infants  or  young  children. 

Consumption. — The  approach  of  this  disease  is,  as  is  well 
known,  often  most  insiduous  and  gradual,  so  that  its  real  exist- 
ence may  be  masked  and  overlooked  in  its  early  stage. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptom  that  will  generally  excite 
fear  is  cough.  If  a young  person,  a member  of  a family  where- 
in consumption  has  been  known  to  occur,  has  a dry,  irritable, 
ringing  cough,  or  a short,  moist  cough  every  morning,  and  last- 
ing for  some  time,  suspicion  should  be  excited.  The  cough 
continuing,  some  “ tightness  ” in  breathing  is  expressed,  and  a 
general  derangement  of  the  health  follows,  with  some  loss  of 
flesh  and  strength,  disinclination  to  exertion,  dyspepsia,  costive- 
ness. Irregular  mensturation  commonly  attends  the  approach 
of  consumption.  The  cough  occasionally,  but  not  commonly 
in  this  early  stage,  is  accompanied  with  a slight  expectoration 
~ of  blood,  and  with  “stitches”  in  the  side,  or  partial  attacks  of 
pleurisy.  These  early  symptoms  may  last  a variable  time,  and 
their  true  import  be  overlooked  until  on  some  one  occasion  a 


448 


MEDICINAL 


profuse  bleeding  from  the  lungs,  or  “breaking  a blood-vessel” 
in  popular  language,  occurs  and  draws  attention  to  the  real 
cause  of  all  the  previous  ill  health.  An  attack  of  inflammation 
of  the  lungs,  or  of  pleurisy,  may  also  occur.  Or,  as  is  the  more 
common  course  of  the  disease,  the  cough  becomes  more  fre- 
quent, and  is  attended  with  thick,  copious  expectorations;  the 
emaciation  becomes  more  striking;  the  pulse  increases  in  fre- 
quency, and  is  more  feeble;  the  patient  suffers  from  chills,  and 
flushes  of  the  face  and  hands. 

As  the  disease  advances  these  symptoms  become  more  pro- 
nounced as  hectic  fever;  diarrhoea  becomes  a troublesome 
symptom;  there  are  profuse  night  sweats,  and  rapidly  increas- 
ing debility.  In  the  face  of  all  these  signs  of  an  approaching 
fatal  termination,  the  patient  indulges  himself  with  false  hopes 
of  recovery,  and  dies  sometimes  with  projects  and  schemes  for 
the  future  on  his  lips. 

Treatment. — So  far  as  the  causes  are  under  control,  all 
prejudicial  habits  or  conditions  should  be  avoided  by  the 
patient;  all  dissipation  or  excessive  work,  either  bodily  or 
mental.  Regular  outdoor  exercise,  with  due  protection  of  the 
surface  of  the  body,  and  of  the  lungs  also,  by  respirators  in 
cold  weather,  avoiding  especially  sudden  change  from  heated 
rooms  to  cold  air.  Cold  sponging  and  friction  of  the  surface 
of  the  body  will  tend  to  promote  the  general  health.  A nour- 
ishing full  diet  should  be  taken,  consisting  of  .meat,  eggs,  milk; 
and,  if  there  be  wasting  of  the  body,  malt  liquor  and  wine. 
Residence  at  the  seaside  will  often  so  far  improve  the  health 
as  to  retard  the  progress  of  disease;  but  change  of  climate  is  of 
little  use  unless  adopted  early  in  the  course  of  the  disease.  It 
will  then  sometimes  save  or  prolong  a life.  Temperate  or  cold 
climates  are  more  suitable  for  consumptive  patients  than  hot 
climates. 

Of  medicines,  tonics  are  those  which  are  most  useful.  In 
the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  iodide  of  potass  is  useful — e.  g., 
five  grains  thrice  a day  with  a drachm  of  tincture  of  bark.  Cod- 
liver  oil,  with  some  mineral  acid,  thus:  Dilute  nitric  acid,  20 
drops;  tincture  of  gentian,  1 drachm;  water,  a wine  glass  full, 
with  cod-liver  oil,  one  teaspoonful.  Pain  in  the  chest  may  be 
relieved  by  mustard  plasters,  or  painting  with  blistering  liquid. 
Tincture  of  iodine  painted  under  the  collar  bones,  in  the  earli- 
est stages,  diminishes  cough  and  relieves  pain. 

Convulsions,  or  Fits,  are,  strictly  speaking,  symptoms,  not 
a disease;  thus  they  are  seen  in  the  low  weak  state  of  the  ter- 
mination of  disease  of  various  kinds;  they  are  seen  in  hysteri- 
cal excitement,  and  are  caused  by  the  disturbance  of  parturi- 
tion, and  of  dentition.  They  occur  in  apoplexy,  in  epilepsy, 
and  other  diseases  of  the  nervous  system. 


MEDICINAL. 


449 


Treatment. — At  the  time  of  the  convulsions  but  little  can 
really  be  done — cold  water  may  be  dashed  on  the  face,  and 
mustaid  plasters  applied  to  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  calves  cf 
the  legs.  In  the  fits  of  children — the  child’s  body  being  im- 
mersed in  a hot  bath — cold  water  should  be  poured  on  the 
head  from  a jug  held  at  a good  height.  The  hot  bath,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  repeated  if  the  fits  recur  with  frequency;  the 
cold  water  can  always  with  safety  be  poured  on  the  head. 

Corns. — Repeated  soaking  of  the  feet  in  hot  water  and  par- 
ing down  the  corn  with  a sharp  knife,  then  applying  nitrate  of 
silver,  and  afterwards  paring  off  the  hardened  black  skin. 
Corn-plasters,  having  a hole  in  the  center,  give  great  relief  also 
in  wearing.  Soft  corns  are  relieved  by  soaking  in  warm  water, 
and  the  subsequent  application  of  nitrate  of  silver.  A thick 
plaster  to  take  off  unequal  pressure,  is  extremely  serviceable. 

Cough. — See  Bronchitis,  Consumption,  etc.;  also  List  of 
Medicines,  Expectorants. 

Croup. — This  is  a disease  which  is  alarming,  from  the  sud- 
denness of  its  attack  and  the  rapidity  with  which  its  runs  its 
fatal  course  if  unchecked;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases,  it  is  easily  checked  if  the  treatment  begins  imme- 
diately it  occurs. 

Symptoms. — The  following  is  generally  the  course  of  the 
disease:  A child  is  put  to  bed  in  its  ordinary  health,  appar- 
ently, or  it  may  have  a slight  cold,  and  a cough  a trifle  rough, 
but  not  enough  to  excite  attention  to  it.  After  a variable  time 
the  child  wakes  up  with  a hoarse,  ringing,  rasping  cough  and 
difficulty  in  breathing,  and  countenance  expressive  of  its 
trouble;  each  inspiration  and  expiration  being  attended  with  a 
rough  metallic  tubular  sound,  and  the  voice  masked  or  obliter- 
ated by  a harsh,  hoarse,  croaking  vocalization.  The  cough  is 
dry,  harassing,  and  unattended  with  expectoration  in  the  out- 
set, but  after  awhile  some  portions  of  a membrane-like  mucus 
may  be  coughed  up.  The  pulse  becomes  rapid,  the  skin  hot, 
the  countenance  more  and  more  distressed,  and  if  relief  be  not 
afforded,  the  patient  becomes  drowsy,  the  complexion  becomes 
blue,  and  the  little  patient  may  die  from  suffocation  within 
forty-eight  hours.  Happily,  however,  this  is  not  the  most  com- 
mon course  of  the  disease,  if  the  treatment  be  prompt  and 
active. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  give  a teaspoonful  of  ipe- 
cacuanha wine  every  ten  minutes  until  vomiting  occurs.  Ipecac- 
uanha wine  is  preferable  to  antimonial  wine,  as  the  latter  is  too 
depressing.  (Where  children  are  subject  to  croup,  ipecac- 
uanha wine  should  always  be  at  hand.)  Meanwhile,  a hot  bath 
should  be  prepared,  and  used  as  quickly  as  possible;  and  while 

27 


460 


MEDICINAL. 


in  the  hot  bath  a wet  sponge,  sprinkled  with  mustard,  should 
be  held  on  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  and  front  of  the  neck. 
After  the  vomiting  has  subsided,  small  doses  of  the  ipecacuanha 
wine  (from  five  to  fifteen  drops,  according  to  the  age  of  the 
child)  should  be  continued  every  three  hours,  until  the  hoarse- 
ness in  the  breathing  and  voice  ceases  and  the  cough  becomes 
loose.  The  atmosphere  of  the  bedroom  should  be  kept  warm 
and  moist  by  steam  from  a pipe  or  spout  of  a kettle.  The 
temperature  should  not  be  allowed  to  fall  below  60  degrees,  il 
possible.  The  diet  light  and  simple. 

As  a last  resource,  supposing  these  remedies  are  not  at  hand 
or  obtainable,  and  the  disease  is  making  rapid  strides,  life  may 
be  saved  by  applying  scalding  water  to  the  neck,  holding  it 
there  on  a sponge  or  flannel  for  a minute  at  least.  This  is  a 
most  extreme  and  violent  means,  but  it  is  one  by  which  th# 
writer  has  seen  a life  saved. 

Dandriff. — Symptoms. — Scurf,  or  dandriff,  consists  in  an 
exuberant  exfoliation  of  the  minute  scales  of  the  outer  skin 
and  sometimes  forms  an  obstinate  and  annoying  effection  of 
the  hairy  scalp. 

Treatment. — Rub  in  some  mild  ointment  or  pomatum, 
over  night,  and  wash  it  out  in  the  morning  with  soap.  Or  ap- 
ply the  following  ointment  at  bedtime:  Ointment  of  red  pre- 
cipitate, 2 ounces;  balsam  of  Peru,  i drachm,  and  wash  it  out 
the  next  morning  with  juniper  tar  soap. 

Delirium  Tremens. — Symptoms. — Although  one  of  the 
medical  terms  for  the  affection,  Mania  a potu  (drunkard’s  mad- 
ness) expresses  its  most  common  source,  yet  there  are  condi- 
tions of  a very  different  nature  to  which  occasionally  its  origin 
may  be  traced.  Thus  a predisposition  to  it  is  engendered  by 
excessive  mental  anxiety  or  exertion,  while  it  may  also  be  ex- 
cited by  any  cause  of  debility  operating  secretly  and  suddenly, 
such  as  loss  of  blood,  a serious  wound  or  injury,  a severe  men- 
tal shock.  Symptoms  sometimes  follow  on  these,  precisely  re- 
sembling those  seen  in  the  ordinary  delirium  tremens,  and  it 
would  be  incorrect  morally  and  medically  to  attribute  them  in 
such  instances  to  the  vice  of  intemperance.  The  symptoms 
generally  appear  suddenly,  sometimes  after  a premonitory  state 
of  nervous  restlessness,  with  disturbed  sleep,  loss  of  appetite, 
and  general  derangement  of  the  bodily  health. 

Treatment. — Where  the  cause  has  clearly  been  intemper- 
ance, the  first,  and,  indeed,  the  cardinal  point  in  the  treatment, 
is  to  get  the  alcohol  that  has  caused  the  disease  withdrawn  from 
the  system.  It  is  usual  to  administer  freely  of  stimulants; 
which  plan  possibly  arose  out  of  the  proverbial  treatment  of 
hydrophobia — “a  hair  out  of  the  tail  of  the  dog  that  bit  you.” 


MEDICINAL. 


451 


The  practice  is  contrary  to  reason,  and  has  not  the  results  of 
experience  in  its  support.  The  system  being  already  more 
than  saturated  with  alcohol,  it  is  surely  heaping  Pelion  on  Ossa 
to  administer  more.  The  practice  further  places  the  victim  of 
his  own  bad  habits  at  a disadvantage,  by  robbing  him  of  the 
opportunity  of  breaking  them  off.  Too  often,  indeed,  what- 
ever pains  may  be  taken  to  restrain  him,  “the  sow  that  was 
washed  will  return  to  her  wallowing  in  the  mire;”  but  no  rea- 
son is  thereby  supplied  for  Holding  the  poor  beast  down  in  the 
mire. 

If  the  patient  be  preserved  as  much  as  possible  from  the 
sources  of  excitement,  by  being  kept  in  a quiet  and  darkened 
chamber,  protected  by  strong  attendants  from  injuring  himself 
or  others,  and  fed  with  light  nourishing  diet,  such  as  beef-tea, 
arrowroot,  milk,  eggs,  etc.,  the  delirium  will  gradually  subside, 
and  sleep  will  follow.  This  plan  of  treatment,  which  has  been 
advocated  by  Dr.  Wilks,  of  Guy’s  Hospital,  has  the  great  ad- 
vantage over  the  usual  systematic  administration  of  heroic 
doses  of  opium,  that  it  is  safer.  In  the  hands  of  non-profes- 
sional persons,  the  attempt  to  cure  delirium  tremens  by  large 
doses  of  opium,  must  succeed  only  by  the  death  of  many  pa- 
tients. If,  as  the  delirium  subsides,  the  pulse  be  found  feeble, 
ammonia  may  be  given,  or  steel  and  quinine.  In  what  has 
now  been  laid  down  in  regard  to  the  delirium  of  mania  a potu, 
it  is  not  intended  to  forbid  the  moderate  use  of.  stimulants  and 
opiates  in  delirium  arising  out  of  other  causes  of  delirium  than 
drink.  In  the  sleepless  delirium  of  a brain  exhausted  by  over- 
work, from  shock,  or  by  other  debilitating  causes,  small  quan- 
tities of  wine  or  brandy,  and  doses  of  Dover’s  powder,  may  be 
advisable. 

Dentition,  Teething  Fever,  Irritation  of  the  Brain. — The 
febrile  disturbance  attending  the  cutting  of  the  first  set  of  teeth, 
which  process  is  not  complete  until  the  end  of  two  years,  is 
often  very  considerable,  and,  inasmuch  as  the  symptoms  pro- 
duced by  it  not  seldom  resemble  to  a certain  extent  those  of 
inflammation  of  the  brain,  they  have  been  collectively  termed 
“irritation”  of  the  brain,  although  it  would  not  be  easy  for 
those  who  employ  the  term  to  define  it. 

A febrile  condition  appears,  the  infant  becomes  restless  and 
fretful,  its  rest  is  disturbed,  its  head  becomes  hot.  The  gums 
are  swollen  and  hot.  Sometimes  there  is  sickness  and  diar- 
rhoea, in  other  cases  the  bowels  are  found  to  be  costive.  One 
point  of  distinction  between  the  disturbance  of  teething  and 
that  caused  by  inflammation  of  the  brain,  is  that  the  soft  space 
on  the  top  of  the  head,  if  it  still  remain  open,  is  not  full  and 
raised,  but  depressed  and  cupped.  Another  point  to  be  noticed 
is  the  age  of  the  infant.  Dentition  commences  at  very  varying 


452 


MEDICINAL. 


periods — from  the  ages  of  three  or  four  to  upwards  of  twelve 
months — and  is  usually  completed  on  or  about  two  years  of 
age,  so  that  these  symptoms  occurring  sooner  or  later  must  be 
regarded  as  depending  upon  some  other  morbid  condition  of 
the  brain  or  its  membranes.  Before  the  teeth  appear,  their 
growth  is  often  indicated  by  dribbling,  which  may  appear  as 
early  as  two  months  of  age.  Over-feeding  or  indiscreet  dieting 
will  sometimes  produce  the  symptoms  of  brain  disturbance.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  period  of  dentition  is  one  of 
febrile  disturbance  in  the  constitution,  and  is  calculated,  in  the 
event  of  the  existence  of  any  lurking  taint  of  constitutional 
disorder,  to  be  the  occasion  of  its  being  brought  out  into 
activity.  This  being  the  case,  and  dentition  frequently  follow- 
ing near  to  the  operation  of  vaccination,  the  letter  has  to  bear 
the  discredit  of  what  probably  neither  the  one  nor  the  other 
alone  would  produce. 

Treatment. — In  the  first  place,  use  warm  baths  and  mild 
aperients,  such  as  magnesia  or  grey  powder,  with  a light,  care- 
ful diet.  This  will  generally  suffice  to  assist  in  removing  the 
symptoms,  which,  however,  generally  quickly  subside  if  the 
gum  can  be  lanced. 

Diabetes. — Considerable  misapprehension  of  the  meaning 
of  this  word  exists  in  the  minds  of  many  persons.  It  is  not 
every  excessive  secretion  of  urine  that  constitutes  diabetes.  In 
the  sense  of  a disease,  as  here  intended,  it  includes  the  voiding 
of  sugar  therewith  persistently. 

Symptoms. — This  condition  comes  on  very  gradually  and 
insidiously.  The  patient  gets  out  of  health,  is  weak,  has  a 
general  feeling  of  malaise,  why  or  how  he  does  not  know.  This 
state  of  things  continuing  for  some  time,  he  begins  to  notice 
that  he  voids  more  urine  than  usual,  and  at  last  perceives  that 
very  large  quantites  are  voided.  Then  loss  of  flesh  to  emaci- 
ation becomes  observable,  as  also  thirst,  with  dryness  of  the 
tongue,  which  exhibits  great  fissures  in  its  length.  The  breath 
acquires  a smell  like  fresh  hay.  The  skin  becomes  harsh,  the 
bowels  constipated.  There  may  be  some  pain  in  the  loins. 

Treatment. — The  principal  part  of  the  treatment  resolves 
itself  into  rigid  dieting,  which  should  consist  in  the  exclusion 
of  sugar  in  all  its  forms,  and  in  the  use  of  animal  food,  mainly 
— e.  g.,  meat,  eggs,  milk.  “What  to  eat,  drink,  and  avoid,” 
becomes  almost  the  business  of  life,  in  some  cases  of  diabetes. 
We  may  briefly  enumerate  some  rules  for  the  guidance  of  choice 
in  diet. 

What  to  Eat  and  Drink. — Bran  bread,  gluten-bread; 
mutton  or  beef;  poultry,  game;  ham,  sausages,  brawn;  white- 
fish,  shell-fish — e.  g.,  oysters,  lobsters,  crabs;  green  vegetables 


MEDICINAL. 


458 


and  salads;  water,  milk,  tea,  coffee;  claret,  sherry,  brandy  and 
water.  Condiments,  e.  g.,  vinegar,  pickles,  mustard,  salt. 

What  to  Avoid. — Ordinary  bread,  potatoes,  farinaceous 
substances  generally;  sweet  fruits  and  pastry  of  any  kind;  malt 
liquors  and  sweet  wines.  These  rules  of  dieting  should  be 
rigidly  observed  .by  young  subjects  of  diabetes;  they  may  be 
somewhat  relaxed  in  the  cases  of  aged  persons.  The  surface 
of  the  body  should  be  protected  by  warm  flannel  undergar- 
ments; the  sponge  bath,  with  brisk  friction,  should  also  be 
employed  to  promote  the  circulation  in  the  skin. 

Medicines. — The  only  medicine  that  can  be  administered 
with  any  certainty  of  benefit  is  opium.  This  may  be  given  in 
the  form  of  pills,  half  a grain  three  times  a day,  or  as  Dover’s 
powder,  five  grains  three  times  a day.  The  dose  may  be  safely, 
if  very  cautiously,  augmented. 

Diarrhoea. — As  a symptom  of  bilious  disorder,  and  as  con- 
stituting the  prominent  feature  of  English  or  Asiatic  cholera, 
this  complaint  will  be  found  treated  of  under  those  heads. 
There  is,  however,  a common  form  of  the  disorder,  which 
appears  very  often  in  hot  weather,  without  any  other  indica- 
tion, and  which,  if  neglected,  will  lead  to  fully-developed 
cholera,  if  that  disease  or  its  causes  be  at  the  time  prevalent; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  easily  arrested  if  taken  in  time. 

Treatment. — For  an  ordinary  attack  of  diarrhoea — not 
arising  from  any  known  cause,  such  as  irregularity  of  diet — a 
dose  of  the  common  chalk  mixture  (one  ounce),  with  a drachm 
of  tincture  of  catechu,  repeated  every  three  or  four  hours,  will 
generally  prove  sufficient.  If  otherwise,  three  or  four  drops  of 
creasote,  mixed  with  a teaspoonful  of  spirits  of  salvolatile  in  a 
wineglass  of  water,  will  check  it. 

If  the  diarrhoea  be  profuse,  and  attended  with  much  pain,  a 
single  dose  of  one  grain  of  opium  (taken  as  a pill)  will  often 
be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  pain  and  arresting  the 
purging.  This  dose  is  for  an  adult  only.  Diarrhoea  occurring 
in  infants  and  young  children  is  best  controlled  by  one  or  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  chalk  mixture,  given  after  each  loose  purge.  If 
it  prove  obstinate,  the  following  will  most  probably  be  efficaci- 
ous: Take  a few  chips  of  logwood  and  boil  half  an  hour  in 
half  a pint  of  water.  Mix  two  ounces  of  this  decoction  with 
half  a drachm  of  powdered  alum,  and  enough  powdered  sugar 
to  sweeten  it,  and  give  a teaspoonful  after  each  action  of  the 
bowels. 

Diseases  of  the  Eye. — Ophthalmia  (inflammation  of  the 
eye).  There  are  several  forms  of  this  disease,  named  accord- 
ing to  the  exciting  cause  of  the  inflammation.  They  are  seen 


454 


MEDICINAL. 


in  the  following  forms:  Catarrhal;  Purulent  in  children; 
Purulent  in  adults;  Strumous,  or  Scrofulous;  Rheumatic. 

Catarrhal  Ophthalmia  (Mild  or  Catarrhal  Inflam- 
mation of  the  Eye). — Symptoms. — There  is  a redness  or 
bloodshot  appearance  of  the  eye,  an  itching  and  smarting  pain 
in  it  such  as  might  be  caused  by  a grain  of  sand  or  dust. 
There  is  a certain  feeling  of  stiffness  in  moving  the  ball  of  the 
eye,  and  some  difficulty  is  experienced  in  looking  at  the  light. 
There  is  also  a profuse  discharge  of  tears  from  the  eye,  which 
causes  the  lids  to  be  glued  together  in  the  morning,  when  the 
patient  wakes.  If  the  disease  becomes  more  acute,  there  is  a 
discharge  of  thicker  matter.  Sometimes  this  form  of  ophthal- 
mia terminates  in  the  formation  of  vesicles  on  the  eye. 

Treatment. — The  following  lotion  will  be  found  useful: 
Sulphate  of  zinc,  3 grains,  dissolved  in  distilled  water,  one  and 
a half  ounces.  A drop  or  two  of  this  lotion  should  be  carefully 
dropped  into  the  corner  of  the  eye,  the  lids  being  then  parted, 
the  lotion  will  run  into  the  eye.  If  a small  notch  be  cut  along 
each  side  of  the  phial  cork,  the  lotion  can  be  allowed  to  pour 
out  only  a drop  or  two  at  a time.  A dose  of  compound  ipeca- 
cuanha powder  (Dover’s  powder)  at  bedtime,  and  a few  doses 
of  saline  aperient  will  generally  set  this  form  of  inflammation  to 
rights.  If,  however,  the  discharge  should  become  thick,  and 
the  pain  more  severe,  blistering  should  be  applied  to  the 
temple. 

Purulent  Ophthalmia  of  Children. — Symptoms. — This 
generally  commences  on  the  second  or  third  day  after  birth, 
and  extends  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  eye.  There  is  swell- 
ing of  the  lids,  which  are  glued  together  by  a copious  discharge 
of  pus  or  matter, which,  when  the  lids  are  separated,  pours  out 
from  between  them.  On  opening  them,  the  inside  of  the  lid  is 
found  to  be  of  a bright  scarlet  color.  The  discharge  from  the 
eyes  is  generally  yellow,  but  it  becomes  sometimes  green,  or 
tinged  with  blood.  Should  the  inflammation  not  be  properly 
and  early  attended  to,  it  causes  ulceration  of  the  cornea  or 
transparent  circle  in  the  centre  of  the  front  of  the  eye,  and,  if 
this  occur,  blindness  follows. 

Purulent  Ophthalmia  of  Adults. — Egyptian  Oph- 
thalmia.— Symptoms. — This  disease  is  very  similar  to  the 
above,  with  these  exceptions,  that  it  generally  attacks  both  eyes 
at  once,  and  there  is  but  little  intolerance  of  light.  In  this 
disease  also  the  inflammation  sometimes  spreads  into  the  ball 
of  the  eye,  causing  thereby  intense  intermittent  pain. 

Treatment. — Purulent  ophthalmia  requires  very  much  the 
same  treatment,  both  for  adults  and  for  infants.  It  must,  be 


MEDICINAL. 


455 


stated,  however,  that  this  form  of  the  disease  in  infants  is  catch- 
ing. Great  care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  wipe  the  dis- 
charge with  pieces  of  rag  which  can  be  burnt  directly.  After 
applying  the  various  remedies  recommended,  the  hands  should 
always  be  carefully  washed. 

The  following  lotion  should  be  dropped  into  the  eye  as 
above  directed:  Nitrate  of  silver,  3 grains,  dissolved  in  dis- 
tilled rain  water,  one  and  a half  ounce.  (The  solution  of  ni- 
trate of  silver  will  stain  like  marking  ink  anything  it  falls  upon.) 
Blisters  should  be  applied  behind  the  ear  on  the  affected  side, 
or  on  the  temples.  For  adults  the  following  mixture  should  be 
taken:  Epsom  salts,  4 drachms;  powdered  nitrate  of  potash, 
tartar  emetic,  1 grain;  nitre,  30  grains;  infusion  of  senna,  2 
ounces;  water  to  6 ounces;  a sixth  part  every  four  hours.  The 
first  dose  or  two  may  produce  sickness;  this  will  subside  with 
subsequent  doses,  and  is  calculated  to  check  the  inflammation.. 
To  infants,  a teaspoonful  of  fluid  magnesia  should  be  given 
every  day,  or  more  frequently  if  the  bowels  be  confined.  Should 
the  pain  be  very  severe,  ten  grains  of  Dover’s  powder  may  be 
given,  but  only  to  adults,  as  it  contains  opium. 

Rheumatic  Ophthalmia. — Symptoms. — A form  of  inflam- 
mation which  attacks  the  thick  white  coat  of  the  eye.  The 
eye  becomes  of  a dusky  red,  but  not  so  much  blood-shot  as  in 
the  other  forms.  The  fully  distended  blood-vessels  can  be 
distinguished  radiating  in  straight  lines  from  the  edge  of  the 
cornea  or  transparent  circular  membrane  in  the  front  of  the 
eye,  which  also  becomes  duller.  There  is  excessive  flow  of 
tears,  and  great  intolerance  of  light.  In  this  form  of  inflam- 
mation the  pain  is  more  intense,  and  is  not  confined  to  the 
ball  of  the  eye,  but  is  felt  in  the  surrounding  bones  of  the 
forehead  and  cheek. 

Treatment. — If  the  inflammation  be  very  acute,  it  will  be 
advisable  to  apply  three  or  four  leeches  on  the  temples,  and 
then  to  blister  either  in  that  situation,  or  behind  the  ear.  The 
following  aperient  should  be  given  at  once,  and  repeated  until 
it  acts:  Sulphate  of  Magnesia  (Epsom  salts),  2 drachms; 
powdered  nitrate  of  potash  (nitre),  10  grains;  infusion  of  senna, 
one-half  ounce;  peppermint  water,  one-half  ounce. 

The  following  mixture  should  be  taken  three  times  a day, 
after  the  above  draught  has  acted  upon  the  bowels:  Iodide  of 
potassium,  40  grains;  bicarbonate  of  potash,  80  grains;  col- 
chicum  wine,  2 drachms;  water  to  make  8 ounces.  Two 
tablespoonfuls  for  a dose  three  times  a day. 

The  following  ointment  should  be  applied  round  the  eye, 
avoiding  the  raw  or  tender  surface  of  a blister  or  leech-bites: 
Extract  of  belladonna,  80  grains;  prepared  lard,  1 ounce.  Rub 
together. 


456 


MEDICINAL. 


Inflammation  of  the  Cornea,  or  Transparent  Circu- 
lar Membrane  in  Front  of  the  Eye. — Symptoms. — This 
membrane  first  appears  slightly  hazy.  This  haziness  increases, 
and  the  membrane  becomes  slightly  opaque.  Minute  white 
specks  may  be  observed  on  the  membrane;  these,  after  a time, 
prove  to  be  ulcers.  Sometimes  a yellow  spot  appears.  This 
is  a small  quantity  of  matter  which  is  contained  between  the 
layers  of  the  membrane.  If  this  is  discharged  inside  the 
cornea,  it  falls  to  the  lower  edge,  and  may  be  seen  there  like  a 
yellow  crescent.  It  may,  however,  ulcerate  through  in  front, 
and  be  thus  discharged.  Ulcers  of  the  cornea,  when  healed, 
always  leaves  an  opaque  white  spot.  Sometimes  they  perfor- 
ate the  membrane,  and  thus  allow  of  the  escape  of  the  fluid 
which  is  contained  at  the  back  of  it.  The  eye  all  round  the 
cornea  is  bloodshot;  there  is  a bright  scarlet  ring  close  round 
the  edge  of  the  cornea. 

Treatment. — This  should  be  much  the  same  as  recom- 
mended for  rheumatic  ophthalmia,  with  this  exception — instead 
of  the  iodide  of  potassium  mixture,  recommended  for  that 
disorder,  the  following  will  be  found  more  useful  in  this  case: 
Sulphate  of  quinine,  16  grains;  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  i 
drachm;  syrup  of  orange  peel,  i ounce;  water  to  make  8 
ounces.  Mix.  Two  tablespoonfuls  should  be  taken  three 
times  a day. 

Inflammation  of  the  Iris,  or  Colored  Band  Round 
the  Pupil  of  the  Eye. — The  iris  is  a muscle,  and  is  largely 
supplied  with  blood  by  numbers  of  minute  vessels,  and  there- 
fore very  liable  to  inflammation.  The  forms  of  inflammation 
which  attack  the  iris  may  by  divided  into  two  kinds,  ist,  that 
from  which  arises  after  injuries,  over-exertion  of  the  eyes, 
cold,  and  other  common  causes  of  inflammation.  This  is 
called  Idiopathic  Iritis.  2nd,  those  forms  which  are  caused  by 
the  poison  of  constitutional  diseases.  This  is  called  Specific 
Iritis. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  both  of  idiopathic  and  specific 
iritis  are  mainly  the  same,  with  this  exception — the  symptoms 
of  the  latter  kind  show  themselves  rather  more  slowly  than 
those  of  the  former.  There  is  a change  of  color  in  the  iris 
itself,  causing  it  to  lose  its  brilliant  appearance;  it  becomes 
muddy,  or  acquires  a tint  which  is  formed  by  the  mixture  of 
red  with  the  original  color.  There  is  loss  of  power  of  motion, 
whereby  the  sharp  outline  forming  the  pupil  is  destroyed  and 
becomes  irregular.  The  substance  of  the  iris  is  swollen,  there 
appear  little  brown  lumps  or  nodules  on  the  surface  of  it, 
and  these  sometimes  increase  in  size,  so  much  as  to  block  up 
the  pupil.  There  is  severe  pain  all  round  the  ball  of  the  eye. 


MEDICINAL. 


457 


affecting  the  cheek  and  temple.  This  pain  becomes  worse  at 
night. 

Treatment. — Idiopathic  iritis:  Three  or  four  leeches 
should  be  applied  to  the  temple;  the  light  should  be  carefully 
excluded  by  means  of  a shade  covering  the  eye;  perfect  rest 
of  the  eye  is  important.  The  patient  should  take  for  some 
little  time  a low  diet  of  broth,  bread,  and  gruel,  or  barley 
water. 

The  eyebrow  should  be  painted  with  extract  or  ointment 
of  belladonna. 

One  of  the  following  pills  should  be  taken  every  six  hours 
by  adults:  Calomel,  3 grains;  powdered  opium,  3 grains; 
confection  of  roses,  a sufficient  quantity  to  make  a small  mass, 
to  be  divided  into  six  pills.  The  effect  of  these  pills  on  the 
gums  should  be  carefully  watched. 

Dislocations. — The  difference  between  dislocations  and 
fractures  is  that  in  fracture  the  bone  is  broken,  while  in  dis- 
location it  is,  as  a consequence  of  some  violence,  forced  from 
its  connection  with  the  neighboring  bones.  As  we  speak  of 
compound  fractures,  or  those  which  are  accompanied  by  a 
wound,  simple  fractures,  or  those  in  which  there  is  no  wound 
of  the  skin,  so  in  dislocations,  these  may  be  either  simple  or 
compound. 

It  is  not  always  an  easy  matter  to  distinguish  between  a 
fracture  and  a dislocation.  In  certain  forms  of  fracture,  there 
is  no  crepitation  or  grating  of  the  ends  of  the  bones  to  be 
detected,  as  the  same  violence  which  breaks  the  bone  drives 
the  fragments  forcibly  together,  and  causes  them  to  become 
impacted,  or  fixed  together.  In  fractures  about  the  region  of 
a joint,  the  crepitation  would  be  a main  symptom  by  which  to 
distinguish  this  injury  from  dislocation.  Where  it  is  absent,  it 
is  almost  impossible  for  a non-professional  person  to  come  to  a 
decision  as  to  the  real  nature  of  the  accident.  Should,  how- 
ever. surgical  assistance  not  be  obtainable,  the  best  plan  to 
pursue  will  be  to  pull  steadily  at  the  injured  limb  until  it 
resumes  its  shape  and  length.  By  this  means,  if  the  bones  be 
dislocated,  it  may  be  possible  to  reduce  the  dislocation,  and  if 
fractured,  it  may,  by  loosening  the  bones,  cause  the  distinctive 
sound  of  crepitation,  and  other  signs  of  fracture,  to  be  dis- 
tinguished. 

Dislocation  of  the  Jaw. — This  may  readily  be  detected 
by  the  imbecile  appearance  it  gives  the  patient.  The  mouth 
is  fixed  wide  open,  and  the  saliva  runs  out  at  the  corners.  It 
is  impossible  to  c.ose  the  mouth,  the  patient  making  ineffectual 
efforts  to  articuiate. 

Treatment. — The  patient  should  be  seated  in  a high- 


458 


MEDICINAL. 


backed  chair,  or  against  a wall,  in  such  a manner  that  his  head 
may  lean  against  the  back  of  the  chair,  or  the  wall.  The 
Operator  should  then  wrap  a couple  of  napkins  round  his 
thumbs,  one  on  each,  and  when  by  this  means  they  are  well 
protected,  he  should  place  them  as  far  back  along  the  jaw 
inside  the  mouth  as  he  can  reach.  He  should  then  press  with 
his  thumbs  downward  and  backwards,  and  at  the  same  time 
raise  the  chin  with  his  fingers.  The  bone  will  return  to  its 
place  with  a snap.  The  advantage  of  having  wrapped  the 
thumbs  well  round  with  napkins  will  then  be  experienced;  for 
the  teeth  come  together  very  sharply,  and,  were  the  thumbs  not 
well  protected,  bites  of  a severe  character  might  be  suffered. 
Another  method  pursued  for  the  reduction  of  this  dislocation 
is  to  place  a couple  of  corks  between  the  back  teeth,  raising 
the  chin,  and  making  the  corks  act  as  a fulcrum  between  the 
jaws. 

Dislocation  of  the'  Shoulder  Joint. — This  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  evident  lengthening  of  the  arm  and  flat- 
tening of  the  shoulder.  If  compared  with  the  other  side  there 
will  be  found  a dent,  or  depression,  just  under  the  point  of 
the  shoulder.  Frequently  the  round  head  of  the  arm-bone 
may  be  felt  in  the  armpit. 

Treatment. — The  patient  should  sit  on  the  ground  and 
lean  his  shoulder  against  a sofa  or  couch;  the  operator  should 
mount  the  couch,  and,  having  removed  his  boot,  should  place 
his  foot  gently  on  the  patient’s  injured  shoulder;  at  the  same 
time  he  should  raise  the  dislocated  arm  upwards,  gently 
increasing  the  pressure  made  by  his  foot  on  the  shoulder.  By 
these  means  the  bone  may  soon  be  felt  to  slip  into  the  socket 
with  a jerk.  When  this  is  effected,  the  arm  should  be  gradu- 
ally restored  to  its  original  position,  and  there  fastened  by 
bandaging  for  about  a week. 

Hip  Joint. — This  dislocation  may  be  recognized  by  the 
deformity  of  the  limb,  the  inability  to  stand  on  the  injured 
extremity,  and,  perhaps,  the  head  of  the  bone  may  be  detected 
out  of  its  place  under  the  skin. 

Treatment. — The  plan  to  be  pursued  is  to  place  the 
patient  on  his  back,  the  operator  taking  off  his  boot,  and 
placing  his  heel  between  the  patient’s  thighs,  to  make  a steady 
pull  at  the  foot  till  the  bone  slips  into  the  socket.  The  great 
obstacle  to  success  in  this  kind  of  proceeding,  is  the  muscular 
resistance  offered  by  the  patient  involuntarily.  To  overcome, 
or  rather  to  divert  this,  the  patient’s  attention  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  called  away  to  something  else,  or,  if  this  is  of  no 
avail,  ipecacuanha  should  be  given  in  doses  of  one-fourth  to 


MEDICINAL. 


459 


one  grain  every  quarter  of  an  hour.  By  its  nauseating  pro- 
perties it  debilitates  the  patient  and  relaxes  the  muscles. 

Compound  Dislocations. — These,  consisting  of  fractures 
also,  are,  of  course,  more  dangerous  than  simple  dislocations, 
and  are  rendered  very  serious  if  complicated  with  fracture. 

Treatment. — The  bones  should  be  replaced  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  their  natural  position,  as  in  the  case  of  simple  dislo- 
cation. Any  bleeding  should  be  stopped,  either  by  the  appli- 
cation of  cold  water,  or,  if  that  is  insufficient,  bleeding  arteries 
should  be  sought  and  tied.  (See  Haemorrhage.)  When  the 
bleeding  has  been  checked,  the  wound  should  be  searched  for 
splinters  of  bone,  which  should  be  removed  by  the  forceps. 
The  wound  should  then  be  dressed  and  splints  applied,  as 
recommended  under  Compound  Fractures. 

Dog  Bites. — These  are  very  much,  though  somewhat  un- 
necessarily, dreaded,  on  account  of  the  fear  which  exists  that 
they  may  be  followed  by  hydrophobia.  When  it  is  considered 
how  many  people  are  bitten  by  dogs,  and  how  few  people  have 
hydrophobia,  it  will  be  seen  of  what  groundless  nature  is  that 
fear. 

The  best  method  of  treatment  which  can  be  pursued  in  dog 
bites  is  to  make  a free  application  of  lunar  caustic  to  the  bite. 

Hydrophobia. — Although,  as  above  stated,  hydrophobia  is 
excessively  rare,  its  occasional  occurrence  cannot  be  doubted; 
it  will  therefore  be  advisable  not  to  neglect  the  above  remedies, 
as  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  confidence  inspired  by  their  adop- 
tion soothes  alarm,  and  prevents  nervous  excitement  conse- 
quent on  fright  alone. 

Treatment. — Should  hydrophobia  come  on,  chloroform, 
Indian  hemp,  and  opium  are  the  only  means  that  offer  any 
chance  of  allaying  the  symptoms.  These  drugs  may,  in  such 
a case,  be  given  in  larger  doses  and  at  shorter  intervals  than 
under  other  circumstances,  watching  carefully  their  effects. 
(For  doses,  see  List  of  Medicines.) 

Dropsy. — This  is  purely  a symptom  of  disease  of  some 
internal  organ,  or  is  the  result  of  the  debility  and  deterioration 
of  the  blood  in  certain  truptive  fevers.  As  its  nature  and 
treatment  occur  in  speaking  of  the  diseases  of  various  organs, 
it  is  unnecessary  to  speak  here  what  is  said  under  those  several 
headings. 

Drowning,  or  Suspended  Animation. — The  following  in- 
structions, compiled  by  the  Royal  National  Lifeboat  Institu- 
ion,  are  the  result  of  a wide  field  of  experience: 

Restorative  Treatment. — Send  immediately  for  medi- 


460 


MEDICINAL. 


cal  assistance,  blankets  and  dry  clothing,  but  proceed  to  treat 
the  patient  instantly,  on  the  spot,  in  the  open  air,  with  the  face 
downwards,  whether  on  shore  or  afloat;  exposing  the  face, 
neck,  and  chest  to  the  wind,  except  in  severe  weather,  and 
removing  all  tight  clothing  from  the  neck  and  chest,  especially 
the  braces.  The  points  to  be  aimed  at  are — first,  and  imme- 
diately, the  restoration  of  breathing;  and,  secondly,  after 
breathing  is  restored,  the  promotion  of  warmth  and  circula- 
tion. The  efforts  to  restore  breathing  must  be  commenced 
immediately  and  energetically,  and  persevered  in  for  one  or 
two  hours,  or  until  a medical  man  has  pronounced  that  life  is 
extinct.  Efforts  to  promote  warmth  and  circulation,  beyond 
removing  the  wet  clothes  and  drying  the  skin,  must  not  be 
made  until  the  first  appearance  of  natural  breathing.  For  if 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  be  induced  before  breathing  has 
commenced,  the  restoration  of  life  will  be  endangered. 

To  Restore  Breathing. — Place  the  patient  on  the  floor 
or  ground,  with  the  face  downwards,  and  one  of  the  arms 
under  the  forehead,  in  which  position  all  fluids  will  more  readily 
escape  by  the  mouth,  and  the  tongue  itself  will  fall  forward, 
leaving  the  entrance  into  the  windpipe  free.  Assist  the  opera- 
tion by  wiping  and  cleansing  the  mouth. 

If  satisfactory  breathing  commences,  use  the  treatment  pre 
scribed  below  to  promote  warmth.  If  there  be  only  slight 
breathing,  or  no  breathing,  or  if  the  breathing  fail,  then,  to  ex- 
cite breathing,  turn  the  patient  well  and  instantly  on  the  side, 
supporting  the  head;  and  excite  the  nostrils  with  snuff,  harts- 
horn, and  smelling-salts,  or  tickle  the  throat  with  a feather,  if 
they  are  at  hand.  Rub  the  chest  and  face  warm,  and  dash 
cold  water,  or  cold  and  hot  water  alternately,  on  them.  If 
there  be  no  success,  lose  not  a moment,  but  instantly — to  imi- 
tate breathing — replace  the  patient  on  the  face,  raising  and 
supporting  the  chest  well  on  folded  coat  or  other  article  of 
dress.  Turn  the  body  very  gently  on  the  side  and  a little 
beyond,  and  then  briskly  on  the  face,  back  again;  repeating 
these  measures  cautiously,  efficiently,  and  perseveringly,  about 
fifteen  times  in  a minute,  or  once  every  four  or  five  seconds, 
occasionally  varying  the  side.  On  each  occasion  that  the  body 
is  replaced  on  the  face,  make  uniform,  but  efficient,  pressure, 
with  brisk  movement  on  the  back  between  and  below  the 
shoulder-blades  or  bones  on  each  side,  removing  the  pressure 
immediately  before  turning  the  body  on  the  sidec  During  the 
whole  operation,  let  one  person  attend  solely  to  the  movements 
of  the  head  and  of  the  arm  placed  under  it.  Whilst  the  above 
operations  are  being  proceeded  with,  dry  the  hands  and  feet, 
and  as  soon  as  dry  clothing  or  blankets  can  be  procured,  strip 
the  body,  and  cover,  or  gradually  reclothe,  it,  but  taking  care 
not  to  interfere  with  the  efforts  to  restore  breathing. 


MEDICINAL. 


461 


Should  these  efforts  not  prove  successful,  m the  course  of 
fiom  two  to  five  minutes,  proceed  to  imitate  breathing  by  Dr. 
Silvester’s  method,  recommended  by  the  Royal  Humane  So- 
ciety, as  follows:  Place  the  patient  on  the  back  on  a flat  sur- 
face, inclined  a little  upwards  from  the  feet;  raise  and  support 
the  head  and  shoulders  on  a small,  firm  cushion  or  folding  arti- 
cle of  dress  placed  under  the  shoulder-blades.  Draw  forward 
the  patient’s  tongue,  and  keep  it  projecting  beyond  the  lips — 
an  elastic  band  over  the  tongue  and  under  the  chin  will  answer 
this  purpose,  or  a piece  of  string  or  tape  may  be  tied  round 
them,  or  by  raising  the  lower  jaw  the  teeth  may  be  made  to 
retain  the  tongue  in  that  position.  Remove  all  tight  clothing 
from  above  the  neck  and  chest,  especially  the  braces.  To  imi- 
tate the  movement  of  breathing:  Standing  at  the  patient’s 
head,  grasp  the  arms  just  above  the  elbows,  and  draw  the  arms 
gently  and  steadily  upwards  above  the  head,  and  keep  them 
stretched  upwards  for  two  seconds.  (By  this  means  air  is 
drawn  into  the  lungs).  Then  turn  down  the  patient’s  arms  and 
press  them  gently  and  firmly  for  two  seconds  against  the  sides 
of  the  chest.  (By  this  means  air  is  pressed  out  of  the  lungs.) 
Repeat  these  measures  alternately,  deliberately,  and  persever- 
ingly,  about  fifteen  times  a minute  until  a spontaneous  effort 
to  respire  is  perceived,  immediately  upon  which  cease  to  imitate 
the  movements  of  breathing,  and  proceed  to  induce  circulation 
and  warmth. 

Treatment  after  Natural  Breathing  has  been  Re- 
stored.— Commence  rubbing  the  limbs  upward,  with  firm, 
grasping  pressure  and  energy,  using  handkerchiefs,  flannels, 
etc.  (By  this  measure  the  blood  is  propelled  along  the  veins 
towards  the  heart.)  The  friction  must  be  continued  under  the 
body  by  the  application  of  hot  flannels,  bottles,  or  bladders  of 
hot  water,  heated  bricks,  etc.,  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  the 
armpits,  between  the  thighs,  and  to  the  soles  of  the  feet.  If 
the  patient  has  been  carried  to  a house  after  respiration  has 
been  restored,  be  careful  to  let  the  air  play  freely  about  the 
room.  On  the  restoration  of  life,  a teaspoonful  of  warm  water 
should  be  given;  and  then,  if  the  power  of  swallowing  have 
returned,  small  quantities  of  wine,  warm  brandy  and  water,  or 
coffee,  should  be  administered.  The  patient  should  be  kept 
in  bed,  and  a disposition  to  sleep  encouraged. 

Appearances  which  Generally  Accompany  Death. — 
Breathing  and  heart’s  action  cease  entirely;  the  eyelids  are 
generally  half  closed,  the  pupils  dilated,  the  jaws  clinched,  the 
fingers  semi-contracted,  the  tongue  approaches  to  the  under 
edges  of  the  lips,  and  these,  as  well  as  the  nostrils,  are  covered 
with  a frothy  mucus.  Coldness  and  pallor  of  surface  in- 
creases. 


462 


MEDICINAL. 


Cautions. — Prevent  unnecessary  crowding  of  persons 
round  the  body,  especially  if  in  an  apartment.  Avoid  rough 
usage,  and  do  not  allow  the  body  to  remain  on  the  back,  unless 
the  tongue  is  secured.  Under  no  circumstances  hold  the  body 
up  by  the  feet.  On  no  account  place  the  body  in  a warm  bath 
unless  under  medical  direction,  and  even  then  it  should  only 
be  employed  as  a momentary  excitant. 

Dysentery,  Bloody  Flux. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the 
larger  and  lower  intestine,  more  commonly  met  with  in  hot  and 
unhealthy  climates,  and  on  board  of  ships.  It  is  ushered  in 
with  almost  incessant  desire  to  go  to  stool.  The  motions,  hard 
and  lumpy  at  first,  become  little  more  than  blood  and  mucus, 
and  are  voided  with  painful  straining.  The  pulse  is  rapid  and 
feeble,  the  skin  hot,  the  countenance  anxious,  the  patient  rest- 
less. In  the  worst  cases  the  disease  becomes  chronic,  and  the 
patient  is  worn  out  by  the  pain  and  fever,  or  sinks  rapidly  into 
a state  of  collapse. 

Treatment. — A condition  essential  to  the  success  of  treat- 
ment is  the  removal  of  the  patient,  if  possible,  from  the  sphere 
of  morbid  influences  that  have  predisposed  him  to  the  disease. 
Hence  the  importance  of  removal  to  a healthy  situation,  at  the 
same  time  that  the  strictest  care  and  temperance  in  mode  of  life 
be  observed,  and  the  protection  of  the  surface  of  the  body  by 
warm  flannel  clothing.  The  early  and  acute  symptoms  may 
be  subdued  by  hot  baths,  hot  fomentations,  and  turpentine 
stupes  to  the  abdomen.  Half  an  ounce  of  castor  oil  should  be 
given,  and  after  it  has  acted  and  cleared  away  any  hard  motions, 
five  grains  of  Dover’s  powder  should  be  taken  every  four  or 
six  hours,  according  to  the  urgency  of  the  case;  with  two 
grains  of  mercury  and  chalk  if  the  motions  still  contain  lumps 
of  hardened  faeces.  The  painful  straining  at  stool  is  relieved 
by  the  injection  into  the  bowel  of  twenty  drops  of  laudanum 
mixed  in  a wineglassful  of  cold  gruel  or  starch.  A gentle 
aperient  at  the  end  of  a few  days  will  assist  the  above  remedies 
by  removing  morbid  secretion  and  bloody  mucus.  A nourish- 
ing but  light  diet  should  be  taken,  avoiding  all  hard  substances, 
and  for  sometime  avoiding  solids  of  any  kind  until  the  healthy 
action  of  the  intestines  is  restored. 

The  chronic  form  of  the  disease  requires  the  continual  use 
of  metallic  astringents  with  opium — e.  g.,  Sulphate  of  copper, 
3 grains;  powdered  opium,  2 grains;  bread  crumbs,  sufficient 
to  form  a small  mass.  To  be  divided  into  six  pills,  one  to  be 
taken  every  six  hours.  Or:  Acetate  of  lead,  12  grains;  pow- 
dered opium,  2 grains.  Made  into  pills  in  the  same  way,  and 
one  to  be  taken  every  six  hours. 

Ear-ache. — Symptoms. — Deafness,  pain  and  noise  in  the 


MEDICINAL. 


463 


ear,’  are  often  produced  by  the  mere  accumulation  of  wax  in 
the  ear. 

Treatment. — It  will  generally  suffice  to  clear  out  the  pas- 
sage by  syringing.  A large  syringe  and  plenty  of  water  should 
be  used.  If  not  relieved  in  this  way,  the  application  of 
repeated  mustard  plasters  behind  the  ears  will  have  a good 
effect. 

Ear,  Inflammation  in. — In  Internal  Ear. — Inflammation 
in  the  ear  will  be  inferred  from  the  occurrence  of  a severe,  dull 
pain  in  the  head,  where  the  ear  is  placed,  accompanied  with 
confusion  or  loss  of  hearing,  a considerable  degree  of  fever, 
and  even  of  delirium,  if  the  inflammation  be  seated  in  the 
internal  ear. 

Treatment. — This,  in  the  first  case,  should  be  active — 
e.  g.,  six  or  eight  leeches  should  be  applied  behind  the  ear,  fol- 
lowed by  hot  poultices  or  fomentations.  Brisk  purgation 
should  be  adopted,  while  at  the  same  time  pain  may  be  relieved 
by  opiates  taken  internally. 

Inflammation  in  the  passage  should  be  treated  by  poultic- 
ing, and  a few  drops  of  laudanum  in  the  passage. 

Epilepsy — Consists  in  the  concurrence  of  the  sudden  loss 
of  consciousness,  with  more  or  less  convulsive  movement  of 
the  limbs.  In  proportion  as  the  two  are  slight,  and  the  con- 
vulsion wanting,  the  disease  has  been  divided  into  two  forms, 
called  by  French  writers  the  petit  mal  and  the  grand  mal. 

The  grand  mal,  the  full  epileptic  fit,  is  the  sudden  loss  of 
consciousness  and  of  muscular  power,  so  that,  with  a shriek, 
the  patient  falls  to  the  ground  senseless,  and  is  violently  con- 
vulsed in  the  limbs,  with  great  distortion  of  the  countenance, 
lividity  of  the  face,  frothing  at  the  mouth,  the  eyes  staring  and 
pupils  large,  and  not  answering  to  the  stimulus  of  light,  the 
breathing  labored,  appears  even  to  be  suspended,  while  the 
heart  beating  so  tumultuously  that  the  pulse  cannot  be  counted. 
In  consequence  of  the  tongue  being  protruded,  it  is  bitten  in 
the  violent,  convulsive  movements  of  the  jaws.  The  excretions 
often  pass  involuntarily.  This,  the  full  fit,  seldom  lasts  longer 
than  a few  minutes.  When  it  passes  off  it  leaves  the  patient  in 
a drowsy  state,  in  which  he  may  remain  for  several  hours.  The 
fit  may  recur  during  this  sleeping  state. 

The  slighter  form  frequently  consists  of  little  more  than  a 
slight  and  rapidly  passing  condition  of  unconsciousness  or 
mental  confusion,  with  a varying  degree  of  want  of  muscular 
power,  so  that  there  may  be  some  unsteadiness  of  gait  or 
imperfection  of  vision,  and  numbness  of  parts  of  the  limbs. 
This  form  usually  passes  away  in  a few  seconds,  and  may  not 
well  be  perceptible  to  those  around,  the  patient  himself  being 
scarcely  aware  that  anything  has  been  amiss  with  him. 


464 


MEDICINAL. 


Symptoms. — There  are  certain,  or  rather  they  should  be 
called  uncertain,  premonitory  symptoms  that  sometimes  usher 
in  an  attack  of  epilepsy.  The  most  known  of  these  is  a pecul- 
iar and  indescribable  sensation,  originating  in  the  extremities 
and  passing  up  towards  the  head;  this  has  been  termed  the 
“ epileptic  aura,”  or  vapor.  Other  indefinite  derangements, 
referred  to  the  nervous  system,  frequently  precede  the  fit;  but, 
in  by  far  the  majority  of  cases,  the  fit  is  sudden  and  without 
warning  of  any  kind.  A great  many  fits  may  occur  daily. 

Epileptic  fits  are  somewhat  difficult  sometimes  to  distinguish 
from  hysterical  fits,  and  from  the  convulsive  movements  of 
apoplexy.  In  the  former  case  the  diagnosis  may  be  made  by 
considering  the  history  of  the  case,  and  the  absence  or  pres- 
ence of  hysterical  laughing  and  crying.  From  apoplexy  it  may 
be  distinguished  sometimes  by  the  dilated  state  of  the  pupils 
in  epilepsy,  and  by  the  profound  snoring  and  paralysis  that 
commonly  attend  apoplexy. 

Treatment. — Protect  the  patient  during  the  fit  from 
injuring  himself.  Loosen  the  dress  around  the  neck  and  waist, 
and  place  him  on  a bed  or  couch,  with  the  head  and  shoulders 
slightly  raised.  Sprinkle  the  head  and  face  with  cold  water. 
It  is  in  the  intervals  of  the  fits  that  curative  or  preventive  treat- 
ment must  be  pursued.  The  exciting  causes  of  dentition, 
worms,  constipation,  intemperance,  indulgence  of  passions,  etc., 
should  be  sedulously  avoided  or  remedied.  Tonics  may  be 
given,  and  every  measure  that  can  improve  the  general  health 
should  be  put  in  force. 

Fainting. — Swooning  occurs  generally  from  sudden  shock, 
or  from  large  and  sudden  loss  of  blood,  or  any  other  cause  of 
depression,  mental  or  bodily,  such  as  profuse  diarrhoea  and 
affections  of  the  heart. 

Treatment. — The  patient  should  be  laid  flat  on  a couch 
or  on  the  ground,  with  the  head  as  low  as  possible;  the  face 
should  be  sprinkled  or  dashed  with  cold  water,  free  access  of 
fresh  air  being  secured.  If  able  to  swallow,  let  some  stimulants 
be  given,  such  as  a small  quantity  of  wine,  brandy,  or  spirits  of 
salvolatile,  and  apply  strong  smelling  salts  to  the  nostrils. 

Fractures. — These  are,  for  convenience  of  description, 
divided  into  several  kinds. 

1.  Simple  Fracture. — The  bone  being  merely  broken  in 
one  place,  without  any  wound  of  the  skin  at  the  seat  of  the 
fracture. 

2.  Compound  Fractures — In  which,  over  and  above  the 
fracture  of  the  bone,  there  is  a wound  in  the  skin,  through 
which,  perhaps,  a portion  of  the  broken  bone  may  be  forced. 


MEDICINAL.  465 

3.  Comminuted  Fracture. — The  bone  being  broken  into 
several  pieces. 

4.  Compound  Comminuted  Fractures. — The  bone  not 
only  being  broken  into  several  pieces,  but  a wound  also  exist- 
ing in  connection  with  the  fracture. 

When  a severe  accidend  happens  to  a limb,  it  is  often  diffi- 
cult to  say  what  is  its  exact  nature — whether  a bone  is  broken 
or  bent,  the  joint  sprained,  or  the  bone  dislocated.  The  fol- 
lowing few  points  may  assist  in  the  detection  of  fracture,  if  it 
exist: 

Deformity. — This,  with  shortening  of  the  limb,  is  some- 
times so  obvious  that  there  can  be  no  mistake,  as,  when  the 
arm  is  so  broken  that  its  firmness  is  lost  and  the  broken  por- 
tions move  on  each  other.  Or  when  the  leg  is  broken,  the 
fracture  is  generally  rendered  evident  by  the  outline  of  the 
shin  bone.  In  the  latter  case,  also,  as  in  the  case  of  the  frac- 
ture of  the  thigh-bone,  if  the  patient  be  laid  on  his  back  the 
foot  of  the  broken  limb  will  be  seen  to  be  wanting  its  support, 
and  will  fall  to  one  side  or  the  other.  The  loss  of  power  over 
the  limb  will  also  be  some  guide,  though  this  will  be  noticed 
also  in  dislocations. 

If,  however,  the  limb  supposed  to  have  sustained  a fracture 
be  carefully  taken  hold  of  by  both  hands  and  gently  moved 
about,  it  will,  if  broken,  be  found  to  give  way  at  some  one 
point,  where  also  what  is  technically  termed  crepitus  or  grat- 
ing, of  the  broken  ends  of  the  bone  may  be  felt. 

General  Treatment  of  Fractures. — The  one  most 
important  point  in  the  treatment  of  broken  bones  is  to  secure 
absolute  rest  of  the  member  to  which  the  fracture  may  have 
happened.  The  utmost  care  is  required  in  removing  the 
patient  from  the  spot  where  the  accident  has  occurred  to  his 
bed,  or  more  harm  may  be  done  in  the  removal  than  was  done  in 
the  first  instance.  From  a simple  fracture  the  injury  may 
become  compound,  or  even  comminuted,  if  care  and  gentle 
handling  be  overlooked.  In  all  cases  the  bones  should  be 
brought  as  nearly  as  possible  into  their  natural  relative  posi- 
tions. This  is  called  “setting”  the  bone.  “Setting”  the  bone 
is  effected  by  one  person  steadying  the  portion  of  the  limb 
attached  to  the  body,  while  a second  person  firmly  but 
gently  pulls  on  the  other  end  until  it  resumes  its  proper 
position.  The  difficulty  of  effecting  this  will  depend  much 
upon  the  direction  in  which  the  bone  is  broken,  whether  trans- 
versely or  obliquely. 

Splints. — This  being  done,  the  next  thing  is  to  take  means 

28 


466 


MEDICINAL. 


for  keeping  them  in  position.  This  is  to  be  effected  Dy  a 
“splint"  of  some  kind.  Where  proper  splints,  made  by  surgi- 
cal instrument  makers,  cannot  be  procured,  there  are  many 
things  often  at  hand  which  may  be  improvised  into  what  is 
wanted.  Thus,  long,  straight  straws,  placed  and  bandaged  on, 
side  by  side,  will  form  a clean  and  handy  splint.  Pieces  of 
straight  wood,  cut  to  proper  length  and  shape,  and  covered 
\ with  a soft  pad;  pasteboard,  or  any  other  stiff  material,  fastened 
I on  with  bandages,  not  too  tightly.  When  the  ends  of  the  bone 
* in  a simple  fracture  are  easily  set  into  their  normal  positions,  a 
good  and  ready  splint  may  be  made  out  of  plaster  of  Paris,  or 
gum  and  chalk,  or  white  of  egg  and  flour.  Either  of  these  two 
last  being  spread  upon  strips  of  rag,  and  several  strips  laid 
one  over  the  other,  will  soon  dry  into  a case  as  hard  as  board, 
and  from  which  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  remove  the  limb 
until  the  cure  is  complete.  Before  putting  this  or  any  other 
form  of  splint  on  the  broken  limb,  the  skin  should  be  well 
washed  with  warm  soap  and  water. 

If  the  fracture  be  compound,  a portion  of  the  bandage  must 
be  so  arranged  as  to  allow  of  water  dressing  and  the  drainage 
of  discharges.  In  the  case  of  comminuted  compound  frac- 
tures, if  any  pieces  of  loose  broken  bone  be  visible,  they  should 
at  once  be  removed  by  the  help  of  forceps.  Diluted  Condy’s 
fluid,  or  carbolic  acid  and  oil  (one  part  of  acid  to  twenty-eight 
of  oil),  will  be  found  of  great  use  in  dressing  compound  frac- 
tures, as  they  destroy  the  injurious  effects  and  foetid  odor  of 
the  discharge. 

Arm  Bones. — If  both  bones  be  broken,  a splint  and  band- 
age as  follows:  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  palm  of  the  hand  is  flat  to 
the  chest,  with  the  thumb  uppermost. 
Or  it  may  be  put  up  in  strips  of 
linen  thickly  smeared  with  a paint 
of  chalk  and  gum,  or  eggs  and  flour. 
Unless  severe  pain  occur  the  band- 
age need  not  be  removed  under  four 
weeks.  A handkerchief,  adjusted  as 
a sling,  should  support  the  arm. 

If  one  bone  of  the  arm  only  be 
broken,  the  other  bone  will  act,  in 
some  measure,  as  a splint  to  keep  the 
broken  bone  in  its  position. 


MEDICINAL. 


46? 


If  the  upper  or  large  bone  of  the  arm  be  broken,  the  lower 
arm,  from  the  elbow,  should  be 
supported  in  a sling;  or  the, 
shaft  of  the  bone  being  bound 
by  two  or  four  splints,  may  be 
bandaged  to  the  side  of  the 
body,  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

Fracture  of  Arm  Above  the  Elbow. — This  can  gener- 
ally be  recognized  by  the  deformity  which  it  produces.  The 
bone  should  be  placed  in  its  proper  position  in  the  following 
manner:  One  person  should  steady  the  shoulder  while  another 
person  should  firmly  draw  the  elbow  downwards,  until  the 

arm  is  straightened.  When  this  result 
is  obtained,  the  bones  should  be  kept 
in  their  proper  position  by  means  of 
four  splints, which  should  be  well  pad- 
ded and  applied  round  the  arm;  these 
should  be  firmly  fastened  with  a cou- 
ple of  straps,  or  bands  of  adhesive 
plaster.  Before  the  splints  are  appli- 
ed, the  arm  should  be  well  washed 
with  soap  and  water,  and  dusted  with 
powdered  starch  or  oxide  of  zinc. 
It  is  advisable  not  to  put  the  splints 
on  too  tight  at  first,  in  order  to 
allow  for  swelling.  They  may  be 
tightened  after  a day  or  so.  Frac- 
tures of  this  bone  require  the  splints 
to  be  kept  on  for  six  weeks. 

Fracture  of  the  Arm  Below  the  Elbow,  or  Forearm. 
— Both  the  bones  of  the  forearm  are  generally  broken  to- 
gether; but  it  sometimes  happens  that  only  one  of  them  is 
broken.  In  this  case  it  is  not  always  easy  to  discern  the 
nature  of  the  accident,  as  the  uninjured  bone  will  act  as  a splint 
to  the  other,  and  help  to  disguise  the  ordinary  symptoms  of 
fracture.  Crepitation,  may,  however,  generally  be  detected  by 
taking  in  one  hand  the  arm  at  or  below  the  elbow,  and  gently 
rotating  the  hand  on  the  arm.  The  bones,  if  displaced, 
should  be  set,  that  is,  replaced  in  their  proper  position,  by 
gently  drawing  the  hand  in  a straight  line  from  the  elbow, 
which,  for  that  purpose,  should  be  held  by  an  assistant.  When 
the  bones  are  set,  the  arm  should  be  well  washed  with  soap 
and  water,  and  dusted  with  powdered  starch  or  oxide  of  zinc. 
Two  well  padded  splints  should  then  be  applied  on  each  side 
of  the  arm,  and  strapped  down  with  plaster.  After  this,  the 
whole  arm  should  be  placed  in  a sling,  taking  care  that  it  is 


4r68 


MEDICINAL. 


always  carried  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  towards  the  body, 
that  is,  with  the  thumb  uppermost.  The  reason  of  this  is  that, 
in  that  position  the  two  bones  are  furthest  apart,  and  there  is 
no  danger  of  the  wrong  bones  uniting.  The  splints  should 
not  be  too  tight  to  begin  with,  as  the  arm  will  swell  a little  at 
first;  they  should,  however,  be  gradually  tightened  as  the 
swelling  subsides.  The  most  common  fracture  in  this  region 
occurs  just  above  the  wrist,  and  in  this  the  deformity  is  very 
great. 

The  splints  in  fractures  of  both  bones  of  the  forearm 
should  not  be  removed  under  five  weeks;  if,  however,  only 
one  bone  is  broken,  four  weeks  will  suffice. 


Fractures  of  the  Fingers  and  Hands. — When  any  of 
the  bones  of  the  fingers  are  broken,  they  are  best  treated  by 
placing  the  whole  hand,  sandwich  fashion,  between  two  well 
padded  splints,  strapping  them  together  by  means  of  leather 
straps  or  adhesive  plaster.  When  the  bones  in  the  middle  of 
the  palm  of  the  hand  are  broken,  the  patient  should  be  made 
to  grasp  a ball  of  tow,  or  cotton-wool,  and  the  hand  should  be 
bandaged  in  that  position;  but  if  either  of  the  outside  bones 
are  broken,  the  hand  should  be  put  up  as  described  under 
“Broken  Fingers.” 

Fractures  of  the  Thigh. — These  may  be  recognized 
by  the  great  deformity,  the  limb  being  generally  shortened, 
the  inability  of  the  patient  to  stand  on  the  injured  leg,  and 
the  unnatural  mobility  of  the  limb.  The  proper  treatment  of 
fracture  of  this  bone  can  scarcely  be  efficiently  applied  by  a 
non-professional  person. 

Fracture  of  Leg  Below  the  Knee. — In  this  region 
there  are  two  bones;  one,  which  is  commonly  called  the  shin- 
bone, may  be  distinctly  felt  down  the  front  of  the  leg,  and  for 
about  an  inch  on  the  inside  of  the  leg.  The  other,  which  is 
much  smaller,  is  on  the  outside  of  the  leg,  and  forms  the  outer 
ankle.  It  can  only  be  felt  distinctly  in  two  spots,  the  one  where 
it  forms  the  prominence  of  the  ankle,  and  the  other  where  it  is 
attached,  just  below  the  knee-joint.  In  the  intermediate 
space  it  is  embedded  in  the  muscles,  and,  except  with  persons- 
of  exceptionally  small  calves,  cannot  be  detected.  For  the 
above  reasons  it  will  be  seen  that  fractures  of  this  bone  are  far 
more  difficult  to  detect  than  are  fractures  of  the  shin  bone, 
whilst  fractures  of  both  bones  are  comparatively  easy  of 


MEDICINAL. 


46# 


detection  from  the  deformity  they  cause.  In  fractures  of  both 
bones,  or  of  the  shin-bone  alone,  the  patient  should  be  placed 
in  bed  on  his  back,  with  the  broken  leg  supported  upon  a pil- 
low, and  should  remain  so  until  any  swelling  of  the  leg  has 
gone  down.  If  only  the  outer,  or  smaller,  bone  is  broken,  a 
few  days  rest  will  allow  of  the  application  of  egg  and  flour,  or 
gum  and  chalk  bandage. 

The  larger  bone,  or  both,  being  broken,  a well  padded 
splint  may  be  applied  up  each  side  of  the  leg,  extending  to  the 
foot,  and  bound  on  with  a calico  bandage,  or  by  leather 
straps.  The  splint  on  the  outer  side  must  be  cut  away  so  as 
not  to  exert  undue  pressure  on  the  ankle  bone.  A cross-piece 
may  be  fixed  so  as  to  support  the  sole  of  the  foot  at  a right 
angle  to  the  leg,  by  means  of  a few  turns  of  bandage.  Before 
the  splints  are  finally  bandaged  on,  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
bones  of  the  leg  are  placed  in  a straight  position,  and  as  nearly 
as  possible  to  their  natural  position.  This  may  be  judged  of 
by  comparing  the  relative  positions  of  the  great  toes.  The 
setting  of  the  bones  may  be  effected  by  an  assistant  holding 
the  thigh  steady,  while  firm  but  gentle  extension  is  made  from 
the  foot.  If  there  be  no  displacement  of  the  broken  bones, 
the  use  of  starch  and  egg,  or  gum  and  chalk  bandages  will 
give  a firm  support  to  the  limb. 

# 


Fracture  of  the  Knee  Cap. — This  may  be  distinctly 
felt  over  the  knee  joint  by  the  space  between  the  broken  edges, 
and  by  the  loss  of  power  in  extending  the  leg. 

Treatment. — The  limb  should  be  put  quite  straight,  and 
raised  on  a pillow.  The  patient  should  keep  on  his  back.  By 
these  means  the  two  portions  of  the  bones  will  be  brought  ' 
as  near  to  each  other  as  possible.  There  will  be  great  swelling 
of  the  part,  which  should  be  treated  with  cold  water  dressing. 
When  this  has  subsided,  two  handkerchiefs  should  be  placed 
round  the  leg,  one  above  the  upper  fragment,  and  the  other 
below  the  lower  one,  and  these  should  be  connected  by  pieces 
of  tape.  The  handkerchiefs  may  be  gradually  drawn  nearer 
and  nearer  together.  The  nearer  they  approach  each  other, 
the  nearer  the  two  fragments  will  come  together,  and  the  pieces 
will  be  firmly  knit  together.  This  position  and  bandaging 


470 


MEDICINAL. 


should  be  maintained  for  a month,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
the  jiatient  should  be  allowed  to  move  the  limb  gently  until  he 
regains  the  use  of  the  limb. 

Broken  Ribs. — The  best  method  of  detection  of  this 
injury  is  to  place  the  hand  over  the  painful  spot,  and  to  make 
the  patient  breathe  as  deeply  as  possible.  By  this  means  crepi- 
tation or  grating  caused  by  the  rubbing  of  the  fractured  ends 
of  the  bone  together,  may  be  sometimes  detected;  but  as  it  is 
by  no  means  certain  that  this  can  be  always  detected,  and  as  it 
is  the  only  sign  by  which  a broken  rib  can  absolutely  be 
detected,  it  will  be  advisable  to  treat  in  all  cases  of  doubt  as  if 
there  were  a fracture. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  broken  ribs  consists  main- 
ly in  procuring  rest  for  the  ribs.  This  is  done  by  firmly  band- 
aging with  a calico  bandage,  three  or  four  inches  wide,  the 
entire  chest,  so  as  to  diminish  the  movement  of  the  ribs  in 
breathing.  The  patient  should  be  kept  in  bed  quietly  on  his 
back  for  a few  days  after  the  accident.  Any  pain  should  be 
allayed  by  Dover’s  powder  or  tincture  of  opium.  If  severe 
pain  or  distress  of  breathing  come  on,  it  probably  results  from 
pleurisy. 

Broken  Collar-bone. — When  this  bone  is  broken  the 
patient  cannot  raise  his  arm  without  pain.  The  arm  drops,  and 
thl  patient  supports  it  with  the  other  hand;  the  shoulder  also 
drops  forward  and  inwards.  On  feeling  gently  along  the  col- 
lar-bone, comparing  it  at  the  same  time  with  the  same  bone  on 
the  opposite  side,  the  inequality  of  line  at  the  point  of  fracture 
may  often  be  detected. 

Treatment. — The  method  of  treatment  to  be  pursued  is 
as  follows:  .The  shoulder  should 
be  raised  and  pressed  gently 
backward;  a pad  should  be  plac- 
ed in  the  armpit.  This  pad 
should  be  about  two  inches  thick, 
and  is  best  made  with  a pair 
of  stockings  rolled  up.  A figure- 
of-eight  bandage  should  then  be 
applied,  as  in  the  figure.  The 
arm  on  the  injured  side  should 
he  bound  to  the  side  with  an- 
other bandage,  and  the  hand  and 
forearm  placed  in  a sling.  This 
bone  should  be  kept  in  this  po- 
sition for  four  weeks,  the  band- 
age not  being  moved  during 
that  time,  unless  they'  slip  or 
loosen,  in  which  case  thev  should 
be  carefully  tightened. 


MEDICINAL. 


471 


Bones  of  the  Nose. — The  broken  fragments  should  be 
replaced  as  near  as  possible  in  their  proper  position.  This  may 
be  conveniently  done  by  raising  them  from  the  inside  by  means 
of  a probe.  If  the  fracture  is  compound — that  is  to  say,  if 
there  is  a wound  communicating  with  the  broken  bones — this 
should  be  searched  for  splinters  of  bone,  which  should  be 
removed  by  means  of  the  forceps.  Then  apply  water  dressing. 

Compound  Fractures. — These  are  fractures  in  which 
there  is  a wound  communicating  with  the  broken  bone.  In 
cases  of  this  kind  the  fractured  limb  after  being  set  should  not 
be  encased  entirely  with  splints,  but  a space  should  be  left  for 
dressing  the  wound,  which  should  be  done  as  follows:  If  there 
are  any  pieces  of  bone  loose,  or  nearly  so,  in  the  wound,  they 
should  be  removed  by  means  of  the  forceps.  The  wound 
should  then  be  dressed  with  a piece  of  soft  linen  rag  steeped 
in  the  following  mixture:  Carbolic  acid,  liquified  by  heat,  50 
minims;  olive  oil  to  4 fluid  ounces;  shake  up,  and  mix  thor- 
oughly. This  rag  should  be  applied  in  such  a manner  as  to 
exclude  all  bubbles  of  air;  the  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  cut  the 
rag  square  and  large  enough  to  cover  the  entire  wound — it  does 
not  signify  if  it  overlaps  the  edges  of  the  wound;  soak  it  in  oil, 
and  then  take  hold  of  two  of  the  corners  of  it  and  draw  it 
slowly  over  the  wound  until  it  is  covered.  Any  stray  bubbles 
of  air  which  may  remain  from  the  inequality  of  the  surface  of 
the  wound  should  be  gently  pressed  out  by  the  fingers.  This 
dressing  should  be  changed  every  four  or  six  hours.  The  limb 
should  be  kept  cool. 

The  patient’s  health  should  be  carefully  watched,  as  in  these 
cases  fever  very  often  comes  on.  Should  there  be  any  shiver- 
ing, an  aperient  should  be  given.  Thirst  should  be  relieved  by 
iced  lemonade  or  soda-water,  and  a saline  draught  should  be 
taken  about  three  times  a day.  The  following  will  be  found 
most  useful:  Take  of  solution  of  acetate  of  ammonia,  1 
drachm;  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  20  minims:  water  to  1 fluid 
ounce.  Mix.  A compound  fracture  is  always  longer  in 
recovering  than  a simple  one,  the  process  of  restoration  some- 
times extending  over  many  months,  through  the  frequent 
falling  off  of  small  fragments  of  bone,  each  of  which  will  keep 
up  a discharge  of  matter  until  it  is  removed,  either  by  the  use 
of  the  forceps,  or  by  the  extrusion  of  the  pus. 

Ganglion. — Symptoms. — A swelling  upon  one  of  the  joint*, 
most  frequently  met  with  on  the  back  of  the  wrist,  its  seat  is 
the  sheath  of  the  tendons. 

Treatment. — Hard,  steady  pressure  should  be  made  upon 
it  with  the  thumb  of  the  operator’s  hand,  that  holds  the  arm 
firmly  at  the  same  time.  If  the  pressure  be  made  hard  enough, 


472 


MEDICINAL. 


and  kept  up  long  enough,  the  tumor  will  generally  burst  and 
the  fluid  be  dispersed.  A tight  bandage  should  be  applied 
immediately  afterwards  and  kept  on  a few  days.  Sometimes, 
if  the  ganglion  be  smal1  it  will  give  way  under  a smart,  sharp 
blow  with  a book. 

Goitre. — Derbyshire  Neck.  — Bronchocele.  — Symptoms. — 
Peculiar  enlargement  of  a gland  that  is  situated  at  the  front  and 
sides  of  the  neck.  The  swelling,  at  first  slight,  and  only 
amounting  to  a trifling  degree  of  fulness,  is  prone  to  increase 
rapidly,  and  to  cause  inconvenience  in  breathing,  as  well  as 
considerable  disfigurement  by  its  bulk. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  consists  in  the  amendment  of 
the  general  health,  by  removal  from  any  locality  where  the 
malady  is  known  to  prevail,  or  by  remedies  directed  to  correct 
irregularities  of  menstruation,  to  which  also  it  is  sometimes 
attributable.  The  best  medicinal  agents  are  iodine  and  steel, 
alone,  or  in  their  various  forms  of  combination,  with  the  exter- 
nal application  of  iodine  as  tincture,  painted  on  the  enlargement 
night  and  morning,  until  the  skin  becomes  too  irritable  to  bear 
it.  The  application  can  be  resumed  when  the  skin  has 
recovered,  or  the  iodine  may  be  applied  as  ointment  thus: 
Ointment  of  iodine  of  potash,  i ounce;  ointment  of  idoine  of 
mercury,  one  half  drachm.  Mix.  Apply  night  and  morning. 

Gout. — Symptoms. — An  attack  of  gout  is  generally  preceded 
by  disturbed  digestive  functions,  broken  sleep  and  feverish- 
ness. The  symptoms  of  an  attack  generally  come  on  in  the 
course  of  the  night.  Severe  throbbing  pain  in  some  joint, 
generally  in  the  joint  at  the  ball  of  the  great  toe,  accompanied 
with  great  tenderness,  sufficient  to  prevent  the  patient  from 
bearing  the  least  movement  of  the  bedclothes  over  the  joint 
affected.  With  these  symptoms  there  is  a feverish  condition, 
with  thirst,  rapid  pulse  and  furred  tongue.  The  joint  affected 
is  red  and  swollen,  the  pains  become  more  and  more  acute, 
extending  sometimes  up  the  leg,  and  the  fever  becomes  more 
severe.  This  goes  on  until  morning,  when  a perspiration 
breaks  out,  and  the  paroxysm  is  over.  It,  however,  probably 
occurs  again  the  next  night,  subsides,  and  recurs  at  intervals. 
The  hands  are  liable  to  attacks  of  gout,  and,  after  repeated 
recurrences,  the  finger  joints  become  the  seat  of  deposits  of  a 
white  concretion,  called  “ chalk  stones,”  and  are  thus  rendered 
stiff  and  useless.  The  disease  may  become  chronic  if  not 
guarded  against  by  careful  dieting. 

> The  heart  or  brain  are  either  of  them  liable  to  suffer  in 
this  disease.  In  the  event  of  the  heart  becoming  the  seat  of 
an  attack  there  is  pain,  with  severe  palpitation  and  difficulty 
of  breathing.  Nervous  symptoms,  such  as  headache,  and 


MEDICINAL. 


473 


sometimes  paralysis,  or  even  apoplexy,  xnay  attend  an  attack 
of  gout,  and  show  that  the  brain  is  affected  by  the  disease. 
Gout  and  rheumatism  are  often  confounded.  To  distinguish 
between  them  the  following  points  should  be  borne  in  mind: 
Acute  gout  is  generally  confined  to  one  joint,  and  the  pain  is 
more  acute.  The  constitutional  antecedents  differ.  Gout  is 
an  hereditary  disease.  In  the  chronic  form,  these  diseases  are 
intermingled  with  each  other,  are  not  easy  to  distinguish  in 
their  acute  form.  There  is  a disease  called  rheumatic  gout 
which  combines  the  two  so  closely  as  to  render  necessary  the 
name  applied  to  it.  To  distinguish  chronic  gout  from  chronic 
rheumatism,  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  gout  is  heredi- 
tary, rheumatism  is  not  generally  so.  The  history  of  the 
attacks,  the  habits  of  life  of  the  patient,  must  also  be  taken 
into  account.  If  the  patient  is  indolent,  self-indulgent,  and 
given  to  what  are  called  the  “pleasures  of  the  table,”  the 
chances  are  that  what  he  is  suffering  from  is  an  attack  of 
the  gout. 

Treatment. — In  a person  of  the  above  habits,  the  pre- 
monitory attacks  of  indigestion,  want  of  sleep,  and  feverish- 
ness, should  be  treated  with  three  or  four  grains  of  mercurial 
pill  (blue  pill)  at  bed-time,  and  the  following  draught  early  the 
next  morning:  Powdered  rhubarb,  40  grains;  tartrate  of  pot- 
ash, 1 drachm;  compound  spirits  of  ammonia  (salvolatile),  one- 
half  drachm;  water  to  one  and  one-half  ounce.  Mix. 

The  attack  of  gout  should  be  treated  as  follows:  If  the 
pain  be  severe,  and  redness  of  the  joint  be  excessive,  a few 
leeches  should  be  applied  to  the  inflamed  surface,  but  it  will 
not  always  be  necessary  to  apply  them,  as  hot  fomentations  or 
poultices  will  be  sufficient.  A small  blister  raised  near  the 
inflamed  joint,  either  by  plaster  or  the  “blistering  liquid,”  will 
sometimes'  give  speedy  relief  to  the  pain.  When  the  pill  and 
draught  above  advised  have  been  taken,  and  the  bowels  are 
thoroughly  cleansed,  the  following  medicine  may  be  given: 
Iodide  of  potassium,  40  grains;  bicarbonate  of  potash,  2 
drachms;  colchicum  wine,  2 drachms;  water  to  make  8 ounces. 
Mix.  Take  two  tablespoonfuls  three  times  a day. 

If  there  be  want  of  sleep,  compound  ipecacuanha  powder 
(Dover’s  powder)  should  be  given  in  ten  grain  doses  at  bed- 
time; if  the  fever  be  great,  antimonial  powder  (James’s  pow- 
der), combined  as  follows,  will  allay  it,  and  relieve  pain:  Com- 
pound ipecacuanha  powder,  two  and  one-half  grains;  antimo- 
nial powder,  three  grains.  Mix.  Take  one  every  four  hours. 

Warm  baths  should  be  given  every  day  while  the  attack 
lasts.  At  bed-time,  a foot-bath  of  mustard  and  hot  water  gives 
comfort,  especially  if  the  feet  be  afterwards  wrapped  in  cotton- 
wool, and  kept  so  until  the  swelling  abates. 


474 


MEDICINAL. 


If  the  stomach  become  the  seat  of  the  attack,  a mustard 
plaster  should  be  applied  on  its  region,  and  some  narcotic  and 
stimulant  given — e.  g.,  tincture  of  henbane  and  ammonia.  If 
there  be  persistent  severe  headache,  a plaster  may  be  placed 
on  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  may  ward  off  more  serious  symp- 
toms. The  diet  should  be  carefully  regulated  during  and  after 
an  attack  of  gout.  Stimulating  drinks  and  rich  food  should 
be  avoided  as  much  as  the  constitutional  power  will  permit. 

The  curative  treatment  of  gout,  if  to  be  attained  at  all, 
must  be  aimed  at  during  the  intervals  of  the  attack.  To  this 
end,  careful  and  abstemious  living,  with  exercise  in  the  open 
air,  are  important  means. 

Gravel. — Symptoms. — Pain  in  voiding  urine,  sometimes  very 
severe  in  character,  and  extending  from  the  loins  down  the 
front  and  inside  of  the  thighs.  A small  portion  of  gravel, 
passing  from  the  bladder,  will  often  cause  great  difficulty  in 
voiding  the  urine.  A sediment,  or  small  fragment  of  gravel, 
may  be  found  deposited  in  the  vessel  after  a paroxysm. 

Treatment. — During  the  paroxysm  of  pain,  a hot  bath 
will  give  relief,  an  opiate  being  taken  at  the  same  time. 

After  the  paroxysm  is  past,  the  morbid  condition  of  the 
urine  that  gave  rise  to  gravel  should  be  corrected.  If  the 
sediment  be  red,  alkaline  medicines  may  be  taken.  (See  List 
of  Medicines.) 

Haemorrhage  from  the  Bladder. — Symptoms. — The  occur- 
rence of  blood  in  the  urine  is  readily  perceived,  and  therefore 
requires  no  description;  but  as  a symptom  it  is  desirable  that 
its  several  sources  should  be  pointed  out.  If  there  be  pains 
in  the  loins  and  a feeling  of  general  illness,  and  the  blood  be 
equally  diffused  through  the  urine,  or  be  accompanied  with 
minute  worm-like  clots,  the  blood  proceeds  from  the  kidneys. 
Should  the  stream  of  urine  be  at  first  free  from,  or  only 
slightly  tinged  with,  blood,  and  the  flow  become  more  and 
more  deeply  colored,  the  inner  surface  of  the  bladder  is  most 
probably  the  source  of  the  blood.  If  blood  flows  drop  by  drop 
without  urine,  the  passage  external  to  the  bladder  will  be  its 
source. 

Treatment. — If  the  blood  be  believed  to  come  from  the 
kidney,  it  will  probably  be  the  result  of  inflammation  of  that 
organ,  or  of  some  injury  inflicted  on  the  loins,  or  from  the 
existence  of  a calculus  or  stone  in  the  kidney.  In  either  case 
absolute  rest  in  bed  must  be  enforced.  Leeches,  from  eight  to 
twelve,  should  be  applied  on  the  loins;  or,  if  practicable,  cup- 
ping on  the  same  region  to  the  extent  of  eight  or  ten  ounces  will 
be  preferable.  The  bowels  should  be  freely  opened  by  saline 
purgatives,  such  as  Epsom  salts,  Glauber  salts,  or  Rochelle 


MEDICINAL. 


475 


salts,  at  the  same  time,  if  there  be  pains  in  the  loins,  it  may  be 
relieved  by  five  grains  of  Dover’s  powder,  or  extract  of  hen- 
bane, every  four  hours. 

If  from  the  previous  condition  of  the  urine — i.  e.,  if  it  has 
deposited  gravel  for  some  time — it  is  to  be  inferred  that  the 
bleeding  is  caused  by  a stone  in  the  kidney,  some  alkali  should 
be  combined  with  the  sedative,  thus:  Bicarbonate  of  potash, 
i drachm;  tincture  of  henbane,  one-half  ounce;  water  to  6 
ounces.  Mix,  and  give  a sixth  part  every  four  hours  while  the 
pain  lasts. 

If  from  the  symptoms,  before  described,  the  haemorrhage 
appears  to  have  occurred  in  the  bladder  itself,  it  will  in  all 
probability  partake  of  the  character  of  debility.  In  such  cases 
the  tincture  of  perchloride  of  iron  or  gallic  acid  or  acetate  of 
lead  may  be  tried. 

Haemorrhoids  (Pilesj. — Symptoms. — There  are  tender  and 
painful  swellings  of  the  extremity  of  the  bowels,  the  inconven- 
ience and  troublesome  irritation  of  which  are  aggravated  by 
walking  or  riding.  They  are  commonly  caused  or  accompa- 
nied by  constipation,  at  the  same  time  the  action  of  the  bowels 
increase  their  soreness,  and  often  cause  them  to  bleed  freely, 
while  the  subject  of  them  is  at  stool.  The  color  of  the  blood 
is  usually  of  a bright  red. 

Treatment. — As  they  originate  usually  in  some  defective 
state  of  the  circulation  in  the  liver  and  intestines,  so  they  are 
to  be  relieved  by  correcting  the  state  of  those  organs.  This  is 
most  surely  done,  if  the  piles  are  of  recent  appearance,  by  a 
light  diet,  abstinence  from  stimulants,  and  the  use  of  enemata 
of  cold  water.  Simple  aperients,  such  as  castor  oil,  or  lepitive 
electuary,  by  diminishing  fulness  of  the  vessels  of  the  lower 
bowel,  are  of  great  use.  Bathing  the  parts  with  cold  water 
affords  relief.  Considerable  comfort  is*  derived  from  the  appli- 
cation of  ointment  of  galls  or  any  unirritating  ointment,  as 
these  diminish  the  friction  and  pressure  that  cause  sometimes 
much  distress  and  discomfort.  These  latter  applications  are 
almost  the  only  palliatives  within  reach  of  the  non-professional 
for  piles  of  long  standing,  and  which  assume  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  the  characters  of  tumors. 

Headache. — There  are  few  more  distressing  complaints  than 
a severe  headache,  few  more  puzzling  to  account  for  in  point 
of  suddenness  and  intensity  and  in  the  rapidity  of  their  disap- 
pearance. A “nervous”  headache,  for  instance,  comes  sud- 
denly upon  one,  and  disables  us  from  our  duties,  and  may  per- 
haps be  dispelled,  as  it  were  magically,  by  a cup  of  tea,  or  a 
spoonful  of  spirits  of  salvolatile.  This,  however,  is  rarely  the 
extent  of  headache.  It  is  not  a disease  of  itself  essentially,  but 


476 


MEDICINAL. 


is  the  indication  of  some  morbid  condition,  it  may  be  only  tem- 
porary, of  the  brain  or  of  its  coverings.  As  such  it  is  often  a 
persistent  symptom,  and  the  source  of  inexpressible  suffering, 
more  especially  if  it  be  the  result  of  some  structural  disease 
within  the  brain  or  skull.  There  are,  therefore,  various  kinds 
of  headache — the  nervous,  congestive,  neuralgic,  rheumatic, 
bilious,  etc. 

The  nervous  headache,  arising  from  various  causes  of 
debility,  may,  as  already  mentioned,  be  very  short  lived,  and 
yields  rapidly  to  stimulants  and  antispasmodics.  Congestive 
headache  is  of  a character  distinct  from  the  preceding,  as  it 
does  not  generally  come  suddenly,  is  not  amenable  to  the 
same  treatment,  but  requires  the  reverse — viz.,  purgatives  and 
low  diet.  This  form  proceeds  from  constipation,  from  over-use 
and  exertion  of  the  brain.  Bilious  headache,  or  sick  headache, 
differs  very  little  either  in  origin  or  treatment  from  the  preced- 
ing and  requires  similar  treatment.  Neuralgic  and  rheumatic 
headache  are  so  closely  allied  in  their  nature  that  they  must  be 
spoken  of  together  in  relation  to  treatment.  This  kind  of 
headache  is  prone  to  assume  a periodic  form.  It  is  to  be  relieved 
by  the  remedies  for  rheumatism — e.  g.,  quinine,  or  iodide  of 
potassium.  Neuralgic  headache  is  sometimes  also  much 
relieved  by  the  external  application  of  sedatives.  The  Bella- 
donna liniment  of  the  British  Pharmacopoeia  applied  freely 
over  the  surface  of  the  forehead,  or  on  the  back  of  the  neck, 
frequently  gives  great  relief.  Care  must  be  takefi  that  the 
skin  is  entire.  It  would  not  do,  for  instance,  to  apply  any 
sedative  or  narcotic  if  the  skin  be  tender  from  a blister,  or 
leechbites. 

Whooping  Cough  (Chin  Cough). — Symptoms. — A contag- 
ious or  infectious  disease,  beginning  as  a common  cold,  and, 
after  a few  days,  when  the  febrile  symptoms  have  disappeared, 
showing  a spasmodic  or  paroxysmal  character.  The  cough 
comes  in  distinct  fits,  each  of  which  consists  of  a series  of 
forcible  expirations  or  cough  noises,  followed  by  an  inspiration, 
or  hard  drawing  in  of  the  breath,  with  a sound  almost  exactly 
like  the  word  “whoop,”  hence  the  name.  The  fits  are  accom- 
panied with  great  distress  to  the  patient — the  face  becomes  red, 
the  eyes  bloodshot,  and  at  times  bleeding  from  the  nose  and 
mouth  takes  place.  These  fits  are  terminated  generally  by 
vomiting.  During  an  attack,  a child  will  exhibit  great  fear, 
and  will  run  to  its  nurse  or  mother,  to  whom  it  will  cling 
tightly  for  protection  as  it  were  against  the  cough. 

Treatment. — For  children  of  two  years  old  and  upwards, 
the  following  mixture  may  be  given:  Tincture  of  cantharides, 
i drachm;  compound  tincture  of  camphor  (Paregoric),  one 
and  one-half  drachms;  compound  tincture  of  bark,  3 drachms; 


MEDICINAL. 


477 


syrup  of  Tolu,  to  make  2 ounces.  Mix.  One  teaspoonful  to 
be  given  three  times  a day.  The  chest  should  be  rubbed  freely 
with  compound  camphor  liniment,  or  oil  of  turpentine,  or 
Roche’s  embrocation. 

If  the  cough  is  very  troublesome,  and  prevents  sleep  at 
night,  the  following  will  be  found  useful  for  children  above  one 
year  of  age:  Hydrate  of  chloral,  24  grains;  syrup  of  orange 
peel,  one-half  ounce;  water  to  make  2 ounces.  Mix.  One  tea- 
spoonful to  be  taken  at  bedtime.  The  patient  should  be  con- 
fined to  one  room  if  the  disease  comes  on  during  the  latter  end 
of  autumn,  or  the  beginning  of  winter,  or  whenever  the  weather 
is  cold.  If,  however,  it  comes  on  in  the  summer,  or  when  the 
weather  is  warm,  the  restriction  is  less  necessary. 

Hysteria. — Symptoms. — The  following  are  among  common 
indications  of  hysteria:  Flatulency;  the  feeling  of  a lump  or 
ball  at  the  front  of  the  throat,  causing  a sense  of  choking;  a 
pain  in  the  left  side,  just  below  the  ribs,  as  of  something  sharp, 
like  a nail,  running  in;  and  uncomfortable  impulse  to  laugh  or 
cry  without  sufficient  provocation,  this  going  on  until  it  becomes 
what  is  known  as  an  “hysterical  fit,”  in  which  the  patient  tosses 
herself  about  violently,  and,  unless  protected,  would  injure 
herself. 

The  causes  of  hysteria 'are  manifold;  constitutional  peculi- 
arity, irregular  menstruation,  luxurious  living,  or  want  of  some- 
thing to  occupy  the  mind  and  body,  or  mental  troubles.  A 
condition  very  similar  to  hysteria  sometimes  attacks  persons 
of  the  male  sex;  when  this  is  the  case,  the  chances  are  that  the 
nervous  system  is  in  a weakened  state,  and  will,  before  long, 
manifest  more  serious  signs  of  its  condition. 

Treatment. — No  other  disease  is  more  obstinate  or  more 
difficult  to  treat  than  hysteria.  The  general  health  should  be 
looked  to  in  the  first  instance.  The  following  medicine,  taken 
regularly,  may  have  considerable  influence  over  the  symptoms: 
Compound  tincture  of  valerian,  one-half  ounce;  foetid  spirits 
of  ammonia,  2 drachms;  spirits  of  nitrous  ether  (sweet  spirits 
of  nitre),  one-half  ounce;  water,  to  make  8 ounces.  Mix. 
Two  tablespoonfuls  to  be  taken  three  times  a day.  An  attack 
of  hysterical  fit  cannot  be  better  treated  than  by  a liberal 
application  of  cold  water  to  the  face  and  chest.  The  water 
should  be  applied  in  large  quantities,  and  should  be  dashed 
from  a height  on  the  patient.  The  various  antispasmodic  medi- 
cines, such  as  ammonia,  valerian,  assafoetida,  camphor,  are  all 
useful  for  hysteria.  They  exert  still  more  power  if  combined 
with  tonics,  such  as  steel,  quinine,  zinc,  etc.  (See  List  of 
Medicines.) 

Incontinence  of  Urine  occurs  most  commonly  in  young 
children,  partly  from  the  effects  of  habit,  partly  from  the 


MEDICINAL. 


4?8 

effects  of  muscular  weakness  or  spasm  of  the  bladder.  When 
it  is  met  with  in  elder  persons  it  is  doubtless  a symptom  of  some 
disease  of,  or  injury  to,  the  bladder. 

Treatment. — When  it  can  be  traced  to  spasm,  sedatives 
are  useful;  when,  however,  as  is  more  frequently  the  case,  it  is 
the  result  of  weakness  of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  bladder, 
the  following  should  be  tried:  Tincture  of  perchloride  of 
iron,  io  minims;  water,  i ounce.  Mix.  To  be  given  twice  a 
day.  This  dose  is  for  a child  of  five  years  and  upwards;  for 
a younger  child  half  the  quantities  will  suffice. 

Indigestion  (Dyspepsia). — Symptoms. — Various  kinds  of 
pains  in  the  region  of  the  stomach,  which  occur  soon  after 
meals.  These  pains  are  also  sometimes  felt  between  the  shoul- 
ders and  in  the  back,  flatulency  causing  some  distention  of 
the  bowels;  pain  that  is  called  “ heartburn,”  nausea,  and  some- 
times vomiting,  headache,  disturbed  sleep,  palpitation  of  the 
heart,  and  other  sympathetic  inconveniences  also  occur. 
Among  the  chief  causes  of  this  disorder  of  the  stomach  is  the 
abuse  of  stimulating  liquors,  or  of  narcotics,  such  as  tobacco 
and  opium,  the  use  of  too  highly  seasoned  or  rich  food,  seden- 
tary habits,  and  want  of  proper  exercise.  Mere  weakness  of 
the  system,  in  which  the  stomach  will  partake,  is  often  a cause 
of  indigestion. 

Treatment. — The  main  object  in  the  treatment  of  indi- 
gestion is  to  find  out  what  is  the  cause  of  the  disorder.  This 
being  done,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  those  causes,  as 
above  named.  Urgent  symptoms,  such  as  acrid  eructations, 
heartburn,  flatulency,  and  pain,  may  be  relieved  by  bicarbonate 
of  soda  or  potash,  or  by  carbonate  of  magnesia,  e.  g. : Bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  120  grains;  tincture  of  rhubarb,  3 drachms; 
peppermint  water,  3 ounces;  infusion  of  gentian,  to  make  6 
ounces.  Mix.  One  tablespoonful  after  every  meal;  or  two 
tablespoonfuls  morning  and  evening  will  probably  prove  cura- 
tive. If  not,  the  mineral  acids  should  be  tried,  taken  with 
bitters,  such  as  gentian  or  calumbia.  (See  List  of  Medicines.) 
The  diet  should  consist  of  light  and  easily-digested  substances. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  those  articles  which  experience 
has  shown  the  sufferers  to  be  excitants  of  indigestion. 

Infantile  Remittent  Fever. — (Low  fever  of  children,  worm 
fever).  A non-infectious  fever,  generally  due  to  some  irrita- 
tion in  the  stomach  or  intestines. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  this  fever  come  generally  at 
night,  passing  off  in  the  morning.  They  are,  shivering,  heat 
of  skin,  thirst,  furred  tongue,  frequent  pulse,  sometimes  pain 
and  tenderness  of  the  abdomen,  sickness.  The  sleep  is  dis- 


MEDICINAL. 


479 


turbed  by  starting  and  moaning,  the  little  patient  is  fretful  and 
restless.  Superadded  to  these,  is  a short,  dry,  hacking  cough. 
The  bowels  are  out  of  order,  the  appetite  at  times  is  good,  at 
others  fails  altogether,  the  urine  is  scanty  and  high  colored. 
The  symptoms  vary  greatly  in  different  cases;  at  times  the  brain 
seems  to  be  affected,  and  there  may  be  convulsions;  this  form 
is,  of  course,  dangerous.  In  other  cases  there  is  profuse  diar- 
rhoea, and,  in  some,  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  or  lungs, 
occurs.  This  fever  has  been  called  “ worm  fever,”  from  a 
mistaken  idea  that  it  is  always  caused  by  worms.  Though 
undoubtedly  intestinal  worms  may  accompany  the  other 
symptoms,  they  are  far  from  being  its  cause.  Teething  is 
much  more  frequently  a cause;  bad  feeding,  or  over-feeding, 
excessive  cold,  may  one  and  all  produce  the  disease. 

Treatment. — Having  removed  all  causes  of  irritation  from 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  by  means  of  castor  oil,  or  a dose  of 
syrup  of  senna,  the  patient  should  be  placed  on  a light  diet. 
As  long  as  vomiting  or  diarrhoea  continues,  milk  or  milk  gruel, 
or  arrowroot,  or  both,  should  be  given;  if  there  be  no  diarrhoea, 
rice  milk,  bread  pudding,  and  jellies  may  be  given  in  addition 
to  the  above;  no  animal  food  should  be  allowed.  In  young 
infants,  a still  stricter  diet  is  required,  as  the  stomach  is  often 
very  irritable,  and  will  not  bear  the  lightest  farniaceous  food. 
In  such  cases  a tablespoonful  of  cream  or  new  milk  should  be 
given  every  hour  or  hour  and  a half.  A warm  bath  should  be 
given  for  a few  nights,  and  the  patient  should  be  kept  in  bed 
during  the  commencement  of  the  illness  and  its  acute  periods. 
The  thirst  should  be  met  with  small  pieces  of  ice  or  cold  water. 

The  following  powder  will  be  found  useful  to  regulate  the 
bowels,  if  they  are  disordered,  if  given  at  bed-time  occasionally: 
Mercury,  with  chalk,  3 grains;  powdered  rhubarb,  5 grains; 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  2 grains.  The  following  medicine  may  be 
taken  when  the  fever  is  acute,  the  doses  being  apportioned 
according  to  age:  Powdered  nitre,  3 grains;  ipecacuanha  wine, 
2 drachms;  syrup,  3 drachms;  water  to  make  one  and  a half 
ounces.  Take  one  teaspoonful  three  times  a day.  As  signs 
of  amendment  begin  to  appear,  quinine  wine,  or  steel  wine 
with  quinine  should  be  given. 

Inflammation. — Symptoms. — Inflammation,  while  it  is  cer- 
tainly the  commonest  form  of  disease,  and  the  most  frequent 
cause  of  both  functional  and  structural  maladies,  is  at  the  same 
time  a condition  much  more  frequently  assumed  than  ascer- 
tained. There  exists  a common  apprehension  that  any  inter- 
nal pain,  especially  if  it  be  attended  with  functional  derange- 
ment, proceeds  from  inflammation  of  some  internal  organ.  It 
is  important  that  this  misapprehension  should  be  corrected  if 


480 


MEDICINAL. 


possible,  inasmuch  as  the  treatment  must  differ  widely,  accord- 
ingly as  inflammation  is  present,  or  mere  congestion,  or 
neuralgic  pain. 

Treatment  of  Inflammation  and  its  Results. — The 
general  principles  of  the  treatment  consist  in — ist,  moderating 
the  force  of  the  circulation;  2nd,  in  reducing  the  temperature, 
and  causing  contraction  of  the  loaded  small  vessels;  and,  3rd, 
in  removing  the  effects  of  inflammation.  The  first  indication 
is  effected  by  depletion,  or  by  medicines  which  affect  the  force 
of  the  heart's  action.  Depletion  is  effected  by  bleeding  from 
a vein,  by  cupping  and  by  leeching.  The  last  of  these  is  the 
only  means  of  depletion  that  can  be  employed  by  a non-pro- 
fessional person;  and  is,  indeed,  almost  the  only  means  that  is 
adopted  even  by  professional  persons.  Venesection,  or  bleed- 
ing from  the  arm,  is  now  so  nearly  exploded  that  there  are 
medical  men  who  have  been  many  years  in  practice,  who  have 
never  performed  this  operation.  Even  leeching  is  seldom 
required.  The  occasions  under  which  they  may  be  advisable 
will  be  found  under  the  instructions  for  the  treatment  of 
respective  diseases.  (See  also  Leeching.)  With  the  view  of 
moderating  the  force  of  the  circulation,  the  employment  of  the 
warm  bath  will  be  found  serviceable,  although  it  would  seem 
that  during  the  bath  the  pulse  may  at  first  be  quickened,  faint- 
ness may  be  induced  by  its  prolonged  use.  Short  of  this,  how- 
ever, the  profuse  perspiration  that  often  follows  its  use  reduces 
both  the  rate  of  the  pulse  and  the  temperature  of  the  surface. 

The  next  means  for  fulfilling  this  indication  will  be  found  in 
lowering  medicines — such  as  tartar-emetic,  ipecacuanha,  calo- 
mel, and  various  purgatives.  An  important  means  also  to  the 
same  end  will  be  the  relief  of  pain  by  the  use  of  henbane,  etc. 
The  second  indication  in  the  general  treatment  of  inflammation, 
viz.,  the  reduction  of  the  temperature  and  contraction  of  the 
loaded  vessels,  will,  in  a great  measure,  follow  on  the  successful 
employment  of  the  means  above  named  for  the  first  indication. 
These  will  be  aided  by  local  application  of  cold,  either  by 
evaporating  lotions,  or  by  the  use  of  ice,  or  by  the  astringent 
action  of  certain  medicines  applied  externally,  such  as  nitrate 
of  silver,  extract  of  lead,  tannin,  etc.  If  the  inflammation  be 
seated  in  an  internal  organ,  blistering  and  external  irritants  are 
serviceable.  The  last  indication,  viz.,  the  removal  of  the 
effects  of  inflammation,  such  as  thickening  of  parts  by  deposi- 
tion of  material  into  their  structure,  is  to  be  fulfilled  by  th~  use 
of  stimulants,  internal  and  external,  and  by  tonic  medicines, 
aided  by  a full  diet. 

Inflammation  of  the  Brain,  or  Brain  Fever. — Symptoms. 

* — This  affection,  which  is  also  known  as  water  on  the  brain,  or 


MEDICINAL. 


481 


Hydrocephalus,  is  of  two  forms,  acute,  and  chronic.  In  the 
acute  form,  symptoms  will  vary  with  age. 

In  Children. — In  infants,  the  first  symptoms  that  will  be 
noticed  will  probably  be  simple  restlessness  or  fretfulness.  The 
head  will  become  hot,  and  there  may  be  sickness,  which  will 
soon  become  a predominant  symptom.  The  bowels  are  for 
the  most  part  relaxed;  the  flow  of  urine  notably  diminished. 
If  old  enough  to  express  its  feelings,  the  child  will  complain 
of  pain  in  the  head;  if  too  young  for  that,  the  same  will  be 
indicated  by  its  constantly  putting  its  hand  to  its  head,  and 
rolling  its  head  about.  An  early  symptom  is  the  bending  of 
the  thumb  inwards  on  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  downward 
flexion  of  the  toes.  The  eye  will  be  bloodshot,  and  the  brows 
knitted.  The  sleep  of  the  child  is  disturbed  with  starts,  or  it 
will  wake  up  as  if  alarmed.  In  young  infants,  the  soft  part  on 
the  top  of  the  head  will  be  full  and  throbbing.  These  symp- 
toms are  followed  in  fatal  cases  by  a bending  backward  of  the 
neck,  with  convulsions  and  stupor.  It  will  be  seen  also  that 
one  side  of  the  body  is  more  convulsed  than  the  other,  which 
may  be  paralyzed.  This  disease  may  last  for  several  weeks; 
during  this  time  the  child  is  constantly  uttering  a peculiar  sharp 
cry,  or  moaning,  or  screaming. 

In  Adults. — In  the  adult,  the  symptoms  of  inflammation 
of  the  brain  constitute  what  is  generally  called  “ brain  fever;” 
in  which  there  is  a great  mental  excitement  giving  rise  to 
delirium.  The  senses  become  morbidly  acute,  so  that  the 
ordinary  amount  of  light  is  not  bearable,  and  noise  of  any  kind 
is  intolerable.  The  inflammation  is  attended  with  great  pain 
in  the  head,  hot  skin,  and  fever.  The  eyes  are  bright  and 
bloodshot,  the  pupils  readily  contract.  The  bowels  are  costive, 
the  urine  scanty  and  high  colored.  If  the  disease  do  not  yield 
to  treatment,  twitching  of  the  limbs,  convulsions,  collapse  and 
stupor  precede  death. 

The  chronic  form  is  seen  exclusively  in  children,  and  is 
often  born  with  them.  Its  predominant  sign  in  that  case  is  the 
enlargement  of  the  head,  and  retarded  development  of  the 
mental  powers,  or  their  premature  development.  The  body  is 
badly  nourished,  and  the  digestive  functions  are  disordered. 

Treatment  of  Acute  Inflammation  of  the  Brain. — 
In  infants,  difficult  dentition  is  one  of  the  exciting  causes,  the 
condition  of  the  gums  therefore  should  be  looked  to  in  the 
outset  of  the  symptoms,  and,  if  full  and  swollen,  should  be 
freely  lanced,  as  the  pressure  of  the  gum  upon  the  growing  teeth 
and  their  nerves  keeps  up  irritation  of  the  nervous  centres. 
This  operation  is  simple  enough,  and  requires  only  one  pre- 
caution— viz.,  to  cut  parallel  with  the  edge  of  the  jaw,  toward 

29 


482 


MEDICINAL. 


the  front  of  the  gums.  The  incision  should  be  made  down- 
ward until  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  tooth.  If  it  be  made 
behind  the  middle  lines  of  the  gums,  there  is  a risk  of  cutting 
through  the  sac  of  the  second  set,  which  are  being  developed 
behind  the  first.  The  operation  is  better  performed  with  a 
proper-shaped  gum-lancet,  but  as  this  instrument  is  not  often 
in  the  hands  of  the  non-professional,  a sharp  pen-knife  will 
serve  the  purpose.  The  child’s  head  should  be  steadily  held 
between  the  operator’s  knees,  while  its  hands  are  held  by  some 
one  else. 

Cold  applications,  such  as  spirit  lotions — e.  g.,  one  part  of 
gin  to  ten  of  water,  should  be  kept  constantly  applied  on  a rag; 
or  ice-cold  water  may  be  used. 

If  the  symptoms  be  very  acute,  two  or  three  leeches  may  be 
applied  on  the  bony  prominence  behind  the  ears,  as  pressure 
can  efficiently  be  made  there  to  stop  the  bleeding  as  soon  as 
they  come  off. 

Calomel  should  be  given  in  repeated  small  doses,  unless  it 
produces  diarrhoea;  it  should  be  then  changed  to  grey  powder, 
with  a little  powdered  nitre.  Thus:  Calomel,  2 grains;  nitre, 
6 grains;  white  sugar,  6 grains.  Mix,  and  divide  into  six  pow- 
ders. Give  one  every  four  or  six  hours.  Or,  take  of  grey 
powder,  6 grains;  nitre,  12  grains;  white  sugar,  6 grains.  Mix, 
and  divide  into  six  powders.  Give  one  every  six  hours.  The 
diet  should  be  of  the  lightest  kind,  consisting  mainly  of  milk 
and  water.  A hot  bath  should  be  given  at  least  once  a day; 
and  the  body  of  the  infant  may  with  great  advantage  be 
sponged  over  with  warm  vinegar  and  water,  equal  parts. 

If,  in  about  eight-and-forty  hours  after  the  adoption  of  the 
above  means,  the  symptoms  do  not  abate,  a blister-plaster 
should  be  applied  to  the  nap  of  the  neck.  This,  in  case  of 
infants,  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  on  longer  than  two 
hours.  It  should  then  be  taken  off,  even  if  it  has  not 
raised  a blister.  A muslin  bag  filled  with  bread  and  water 
poultice  should  be  applied  to  the  surface,  where  the  plaster  has 
been;  the  skin  will  then  shortly  begin  to  blister.  The  poultice 
should  be  repeated  every  four  hours,  or  when  it  becomes  cold. 

In  most  cases  the  preceding  means  will  have  succeeded  in 
subduing  the  malady;  if,  however,  as  is  very  frequently  the 
case,  there  is  a scrofulous  constitution,  the  remedies  will  not 
have  so  favorable  an  effect.  The  symptoms  may  continue  for 
many  days  in  a milder  degree,  and  the  little  patient  will  then 
require  the  withdrawal  of  all  mercurial  medicines  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  a fuller  diet  for  the  milk.  Beef-tea  may  then  be 
given  several  times  a day,  and  if  the  sickness  and  diarrhoea 
should  continue,  small  doses  of  brandy  (from  ten  to  twenty 
or  thirty  drops,  according  to  age)  may  be  given  every  three  or 
lour  hours. 


MEDICINAL. 


483 


Mouth,  Inflammation  of. — Symptoms.— Pain  in  moving  the 
tongue,  and  sometimes  in  moving  the  cheeks,  the  insides  of 
which  are  swollen  and  red:  the  gums  and  the  tongue  also  are 
often  much  swollen.  There  appear  numerous  white  patches, 
which  are  in  reality  superficial  ulcers,  covered  with  a white 
false  membrane.  The  tongue  is  cracked,  and  scored  with  a 
whitish-brown  fur,  the  breath  is  very  offensive,  and  there  is 
general  feverish  disturbance,  with  irregularity  of  the  bowels, 
and  sometimes  extreme  prostration.  This  affection  may  almost 
invariably  be  traced  to  the  injuriou  • influence  of  sewage  air. 

Treatment. — The  first  thing  therefore  to  be  done  is,  if 
possible,  to  remove  the  patient  to  a purer  atmosphere.  If  the 
bowels  be  confined,  some  mild  aperient  should  be  given,  such 
as  castor  oil;  or,  in  the  case  of  a child  or  infant,  the  carbonate 
of  magnesia.  The  following  medicine  should  be  given  three 
times  a day:  Chlorate  of  potash,  80  grains;  water,  4 ounces. 
A tablespoonful  for  a dose  for  an  adult,  a teaspoonful  for  a child. 
In  the  latter  case  some  sugar  may  be  added  for  the  sake  of 
flavoring  it.  The  following  lotion  will  also  be  found  useful: 
Chlorate  of  potash,  40  grains;  water,  4 ounces.  The  mouth 
being  repeatedly  washed  with  it.  For  children  it  will  be  as 
well  to  add  a little  honey,  or  for  infants  it  will  often  suffice  to 
smear  borax  and  honey  upon  the  tongue,  whence  it  will  be 
unconsciously  applied  in  the  mouth.  With  adults,  some  tonic 
will  promote  convalescence  when  the  acute  soreness  has  sub- 
sided. 

Itch. — Symptoms. — An  eruption  of  small  pimples,  which 
excite  intense  itching.  They  occur  most  frequently,  to  begin 
with,  between  the  fingers,  and  on  the  backs  of  the  hands.  After 
a few  days,  the  pimples  may  also  be  detected  in  the  bends  of 
the  joints — e.  g.,  on  the  wrist,  on  the  feet,  and  it  may  even 
spread:  all  over  the  body.  The  itching  is  constant,  though  it 
is  worse  at  night,  when  warm  in  bed,  and  after  violent  exercise. 
If  the  disease  be  neglected,  and  if  cleanliness  be  not  suf- 
ficiently attended  to,  the  spots  become  inflamed  and  fill  with 
matter. 

This  disease  is  caused  by  a minute  microscopical  insect, 
called  the  “Acarus  scabies,”  which  burrows  beneath  the  skin. 

Treatment. — The  following  lotion  should  be  applied: 
Quicklime,  1 ounce;  sulphur,  4 ounces;  water,  1 pint  (imperial 
measure).  These  should  be  boiled  together  slowly  for  about 
four  hours,  and  then  allowed  to  stand  till  the  clear  yellow  fluid 
can  be  poured  off.  Water  should  be  added  to  this  to  make  the 
quantity  up  to  two  pints. 

The  mnner  of  applying  this  lotion  is  to  wash  the  affected 
part  with  warm  water,  and  then  to  apply  the  lotion  for  half  an 


484 


MEDICINAL. 


hour.  After  twelve  hours,  the  body  should  be  well  washed 
with  soap  and  water,  and  the  skin  carefully  examined,  to  see  if 
any  spot  remain  unacted  upon  by  the  lotion.  Its  sufficient 
action  must  be  judged  by  the  aspect  of  the  vesicles  or  pimples, 
those  on  which  it  has  taken  effect  will  present  an  opaque  yel- 
low white  head.  This  application,  well  applied  once,  will  gen- 
erally be  found  efficient,  but  it  may  require  a second,  and  even 
a third,  application.  If  the  pimples  be  inflamed,  and  have  heads 
filled  with  matter,  or  be  ulcerated,  the  lotion  will  aggravate 
them  and  give  pain.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  must  either 
be  considerably  diluted  with  water,  or  the  common  sulphur 
ointment  may  be  substituted  for  it.  When  the  ointment  is 
applied,  it  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  skin  for  two  or 
three  days,  fresh  quantities  being  applied  if  it  is  rubbed  off. 
After  the  second  or  third  day,  the  whole  skin  should  be  well 
washed  with  soft  soap  and  water. 

Measles. — This  is  an  infectious,  eruptive  fever,  having  an 
incubative  period  of  about  fourteen  days,  commencing  with 
marked  catarrhal  symptoms,  and  belonging  more  especially  to 
the  ages  of  infancy  and  childhood.  The  little  patient  appears 
to  have  a severe  cold;  he  has  sneezing  and  running  at  the  nose, 
“watering  at  the  eyes,"  and  a short,  hard  cough..  This  condi- 
tion, in  the  course  or  a day  or  two,  or  it  may  be  in  a few  hours, 
becomes  one  of  a distinct  febrile  state.  A general  heat  of  the 
skin  comes  on,  the  pulse  is  quickened,  and  on  the  third  or 
fourth  day,  on  the  face,  chest  and  body  a mottled  rash  begins 
to  show  itself.  The  rash  consists  of  distinct  spots  slightly 
raised  above  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  clustered  in  groups, 
often  having  an  indistinctly  crescentic  arrangement.  It  begins 
to  disappear  again  in  about  three  or  four  days,  and  is  usually 
all  gone  by  the  end  of  a week. 

Treatment. — The  catarrhal  symptoms  which  usher  in  the 
measles  require  only  the  simplest  treatment  of  nursing,  warm 
baths,  and  low  diet.  When  the  eruption  appears  and  makes 
it  clear  that  the  case  is  one  of  measles,  the  same  plan  of  treat- 
ment is  still  applicable.  There  is  a very  large  proportion  of 
cases  of  measles  that  are  in  themselves  so  slight  that  they  really 
amount  to  little  more  than  an  attack  of  common  cold,  and 
require  no  other  treatment.  If,  however,  there  be  fever,  rather 
more  severe,  with  a troublesome  dry  cough  (which  is  very  com- 
monly an  attendant),  a simple  saline  mixture,  as  follows,  will  be 
found  of  service:  Powdered  nitre,  1-2  drachm;  ipecacuanha, 
1 drachm;  paregoric,  1-2  drachm;  water  (sweetened  with 
sugar),  2 ounces.  Mix.  A teaspoonful  to  be  given  every  four 
hours,  to  an  infant  about  two  or  three  years  of  age;  the  doses 
for  older  children  should  be  increased,  on  the  scale  given  in 
the  list  of  medicines.  For  an  infant  under  one  year  old  it  may 


MEDICINAL. 


485 


be  as  well  to  omit  paregoric.  If  there  be  constipation  of  the 
bowels,  some  simple  aperient  should  be  administered,  such  as 
castor  oil  or  grey  powder.  The  body  should  be  sponged  over 
every  day  with  warm  vinegar  and  water. 

Should  the  eruption  suddenly  disappear,  and  difficulty  of 
breathing  or  other  symptoms  of  congestion  of  the  lungs,  as 
shown  by  duskiness  of  the  skin  and  coldness  of  the  surface, 
come  on,  a hot  bath,  with  mustard  in  it,  should  be  had.  At 
the  same  time  stimulants,  such  as  compound  spirits  of  ammonia, 
wine,  or  brandy  should  be  administered — e.  g.,  for  an  adult,  a 
drachm  of  spirits  of  salvolatile  in  a wine-glass  of  water,  every 
two  or  three  hours.  Wine,  to  the  extent  of  four  ounces  in  six 
hours,  may  be  given;  or  brandy  in  proportion,  allowing  for  its 
greater  strength. 

Measles  in  Adults. — When  the  disease  occurs  in  adults 
it  is  usually  more  severe,  and  calls  for  more  active  treatment. 
The  doses  prescribed  above  should  be  augmented  on  the  scale 
given  in  the  list  of  medicines.  There  is  a popular  notion  that 
measles  leave  behind  them  something  that  requires  clearing 
away,  and  acting  thereupon  it  is  not  uncommonly  the  case  that 
the  unfortunate  child  is  actively  physicked  for  a few  days. 
The  whole  proceeding  is  based  on  error.  When  the  child  is 
well,  better  let  well  alone. 

Milk  Fever. — Symptoms. — A light  form  of  puerperal  fever 
is  that  which  is  commonly  known  as  “ milk  fever/'  This  is 
simply  a passing  febrile  condition  attending  the  establishment 
of  the  secretion  of  the  milk,  if  not  drawn  off  freely  enough, 
when  the  breasts  sometimes  become  painfully  distended,  and 
the  fever  is  rather  smart  for  a few  days,  and  then  rapidly  sub- 
sides, with  simple  aperient  salines  and  abstinence  as  far  as  may 
be  from  fluids,  taking  care  that  the  breast  is  emptied  as  thor- 
oughly and  frequently  as  possible. 

Miscarriage,  or  Abortion. — Symptoms. — It  occurs  very 
often  without  any  warning,  but  commonly  it  is  preceded  by  slight 
pains  in  the  back  and  abdomen,  and  by  a slightly  colored 
discharge.  These  symptoms  occurring  in  the  early  months  or 
weeks  of  pregnancy,  are  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  return  of 
the  ordinary  period,  which  may  have  been  supposed  to  have 
been  suppressed  from  some  other  cause.  These  warnings  may 
end  as  such,  or  the  abortion  becomes  completed  by  the  sudden 
expulsion  of  the  contents  of  the  womb,  attended  with  more  or 
less  haemorrhage.  In  some  cases  considerable  haemorrhage 
will  continue  for  several  days  before  miscarriage  is  complete. 

Treatment. — Rest,  with  the  administration  of  opiates  to 
allay  pain.  If  the  haemorrhage  be  profuse,  napkins  wetted  with 


486 


MEDICINAL. 


cold  water,  or  cold  vinegar  and  water,  should  be  applied  to  the 
lower  parts  of  the  body.  The  patient  should  be  kept  as  cool 
as  the  season  will  admit,  and  some  mild  aperient  should  be 
given,  if  the  bowels  have  been  costive.  A light  diet  should  be 
taken.  The  following  pill  should  also  be  given  every  four 
hours,  if  the  bleeding  continue:  Acetate  of  lead,  2 grains; 
opium,  1-4  grain;  conserve,  or  moist  bread  crumb,  enough  to 
make  a pill.  Prevention  is  an  important  point  in  these  cases, 
as  when  the  accident  has  happened  once,  it  is  very  prone  to 
recur  at  the  same  period  of  future  pregnancies.  The  third 
month  is  a very  usual  period  for  abortion  to  occur. 

Nervous  Shock. — On  the  occurrence  of  a severe  accident, 
such  as  a fracture  of  a limb,  or  a fall  from  a height,  the  sufferer 
is  generally  found  pale,  fainting,  and  perhaps  half  uncon- 
scious, with  a small  and  irregular  pulse.  This  condition  of 
shock  to  the  system  may  go  into  a state  of  collapse  from 
which  the  patient  may  never  recover.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, however,  what  is  termed  “ reaction  ” takes  place, 
attended  either  with  complete  recovery  in  a few  minutes,  or 
the  complete  reaction  may  be  prolonged  for  a day  or  two. 

Treatment. — First  and  foremost,  see  that  the  patient  has 
a good  supply  of  fresh  air;  let  him  be  placed  in  the  recumbent 
posture,  with  the  head  on  a line  with  the  body.  Small  quan- 
tities of  stimulants  should  be  given,  such  as  about  a table- 
spoonful of  brandy  in  a wine-glass  of  water,  or  a teaspoonful 
of  compound  spirits  of  ammonia  (spirits  of  salvolatile)  should 
be  given  in  a wine-glass  of  water.  Warmth  should  be  secured 
to  the  surface  of  the  body  by  blankets  and  h ; bottles  to  the 
feet  and  legs. 

Paralysis. — Symptoms. — After  the  immediate  symptoms  of 
an  attack  of  apoplexy  have  passed  away,  more  permanent 
effects  are  often  left  in  the  form  of  palsy  of  some  of  the  mus- 
cles, or  of  insensibility  of  parts  of  the  surface  of  the  body. 
The  body  may  be  palsied  vertically,  that  is,  one-half  of  the 
body  from  head  to  foot,  may  have  lost  its  sensibility  to 
external  impressions,  or  the  muscles  on  the  side  of  the  body 
may  have  lost  their  power  of  moving  the  limbs.  When  the 
right  side  of  the  body  is  paralyzed,  there  is  very  often  a 
defect  in  the  power  of  speech,  by  which  the  patient  uses  wrong 
words  to  express  his  ideas.  Or,  the  palsy  may  effect  the  body 
transversely,  the  trunk  and  limbs  below  a certain  line  having 
lost  their  power.  Another  more  restricted  loss  of  power  may 
occur,  as  local  paralysis.  Thus,  one  hand,  or  one  foot,  may 
be  palsied,  or  the  muscles  of  one  side  of  the  face  alone  may 
suffer;  or,  again,  the  tongue  and  palate,  etc.,  may  have  lost 
their  free  movement  without  impairment  of  the  muscular 
power  of  other  parts  of  the  body. 


MEDICINAL. 


487 


Treatment. — If  the  case  come  under  treatment  soon  after 
the  attack  of  apoplexy,  the  symptoms  more  readily  yield  to 
treatment;  but  the  result  too  commonly  is  that  some  degree  of 
paralytic  impairment  is  commonly  left  behind.  In  the  early 
phases  of  this  affection,  the  careful  administration  of  small 
doses  of  mercurials — e.  g.,  two  grains  of  blue  pill,  night  and 
morning,  continued  for  a week  or  ten  days,  unless  it  produce 
tenderness  of  the  gums  and  flow  of  saliva,  when  it  should 
immediately  be  stopped.  This  effect  should  be  carefully 
watched  against  day  after  day.  The  effects  of  the  mercurial 
will  be  assisted  by  some  form  of  counter  irritation,  such  as 
blistering  the  nape  of  the  neck,  and  keeping  the  blister  open 
by  dressing  it  with  savine  ointment,  or  by  rubbing  the  follow- 
ing ointment  on  the  nape  of  the  neck,  night  and  morning,  until 
nn  eruption  of  pimples  appears:  Tartar  emetic,  i drachm;  lard, 
or  spermaceti  ointment,  i ounce.  Mix. 

After  the  mercurial  has  been  discontinued,  tonic  medicines 
will  be  found  of  service,  such  as  steel,  quinine,  and  cod-liver 
oil. 

Pregnancy. — Signs  of. — It  is  sometimes  a difficult  matter 
to  determine  the  fact  of  pregnancy.  There  is,  however,  strong 
ground  for  belief  in  its  existence,  if  under  possible  conditions 
menstruation  becomes  suspended  in  a healthy  woman,  previ- 
ously regular  in  her  periods.  If  to  this  sign  be  added,  after 
about  four  or  five  weeks,  the  occurrence  of  morning  sickness, 
with  enlargement  of  the  breasts  and  development  of  the 
glands  around  the  nipple,  which  begins  to  be  encircled  by  an 
areola  of  darkening  skin,  the  suspicion  becomes  strengthened, 
and,  generally  speaking,  time  confirms  it. 

Management  of. — Of  the  management  of  the  period  of 
pregnancy  there  is  not  much  to  be  said,  as  each  woman  may 
act  according  to  her  ordinary  mode  of  life  and  circumstances 
when  in  good  health. 

The  Disorders  of  pregnancy  will,  however,  require  notice 
as  to  their  prevention  as  well  as  treatment.  The  stomach 
being,  through  sympathetic  irritation,  prone  to  derangement, 
care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  what  is  known  by  individual 
experience  to  be  indigestible,  avoiding  the  frequent  recourse  to 
stimulants  to  relieve  the  slight  ailments  incidental  to  a natural 
condition.  Indigestion  is  one  of  these,  and  may  generally 
be  relieved  by  bicarbonate  of  soda  or  magnesia,  or  by  a rigidly 
abstemious  diet  for  a few  days.  Costiveness  is  also  a common 
attendant  upon  pregnancy,  and  leads  to  a troublesome  affection 
— piles,  and  should  be  prevented  by  dieting,  or  by  occasional 
doses  of  some  mild  aperient,  such  as  castor  oil,  or  rhubarb  and 
magnesia,  or  citrate  of  magnesia.  Piles,  if  present,  will  also 


488 


MEDICINAL. 


be  relieved  by  the  action  of  the  aperients.  We  would  warn 
against  the  senseless  practice  of  taking  frequent  doses  of  oil  as 
a matter  of  course.  There  is  no  call  in  nature  for  anything  of 
the  kind,  and  no  need  for  such  gratuitous  physicking. 

Vomiting. — The  morning  sickness  that  attends  the  early 
weeks  of  pregnancy  amounts  in  general  to  little  beyond 
annoyance  every  morning.  Sometimes,  however,  it  becomes  so 
constant  and  persistent  as  to  be  a real  illness  of  itself,  prevent- 
ing the  retention  of  food  of  any  kind,  so  that  the  sufferer  be- 
comes enfeebled,  emaciated,  and  as  if  bloodless.  The  ordinary 
morning  sickness  may  be  moderated  by  a teaspoonful  or  two 
of  Noyau,  or  cherry-brandy  in  milk,  taken  quite  early  in  the 
morning  before  rising.  It  should  be  swallowed,  the  patient 
merely  turning  on  her  side  and  raising  only  on  to  her  elbow — 
not  getting  up  into  the  upright  or  sitting  posture.  Then  lying 
quietly  for  an  hour,  and  taking  after  that  time  a small  cup  of 
strong  coffee  and  dry  biscuit;  again  resting  for  half  an  hour 
after  this  breakfast. 

Quickening  is  very  frequently  attended  with  faintness  and 
palpitation  of  the  heart,  but  these  soon  pass  away,  and  are 
relieved  by  simple  means.  These  symptoms,  however,  are  apt 
to  recur  at  any  period,  under  circumstances  that  disturb  health, 
such  as  over-fatigue,  either  in  pursuit  of  pleasure  or  of  duty. 

Enlargement  and  distension  of  the  veins  of  the  legs  are 
apt  to  occur  during  the  latter  months  of  pregnancy,  when  the 
womb,  being  large  arid  heavy,  presses  upon  the  veins  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  body,  and  retards  the  return  of  the  blood 
from  the  limbs.  Hence,  varicose  veins  are  established,  and 
become  a fixed  trouble.  The  recumbent  posture,  by  taking  off 
some  of  the  pressure  from  the  internal  vessels,  is  calculated  to 
diminish  the  distention  of  the  veins  of  the  legs;  additional 
support  may  be  afforded  to  these  by  wearing  elastic-web 
stockings. 

Cutaneous  Irritation  of  the  private  parts  often  occurs 
in  the  early  months  of  pregnancy,  and,  indeed,  in  some  persons 
forms  the  first  indication  of  the  pregnant  condition.  A lotion 
of  carbolic  acid  applied  to  the  parts  several  times  a day  affords 
considerable  comfort.  Take  of  goulard  water,  one-half  pint; 
saturated  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  io  drops.  Mix  and  use  as 
lotion. 

Irritability  of  the  Bladder,  giving  occasion  for  con- 
stant calls  to  micturition,  is  another  excessively  troublesome 
affection  that  often  attends  pregnancy,  especially  during  the 
later  weeks.  The  following  mixture  will  be  found  useful: 
Muriated  tincture  of  iron,  i drachm;  tincture  of  henbane,  one- 
half  ounce;  water  to  6 ounces.  Mix.  Take  a sixth  part  every 
four  or  six  hours. 


MEDICINAL. 


489 


Protrusion  of  the  Navel. — This  frequently  occurs  in  the 
early  weeks  of  infantile  life. 

Treatment. — The  best  method  of  treating  it  is  to  cut  a 
piece  of  cork  or  ivory,  in  the  form  of  a half  sphere,  and  place 
the  rounded  side  on  the  protruded  navel.  Adhesive  plaster 
should  then  be  used  to  retain  it  in  its  place.  It  is  generally 
necessary  to  pursue  this  treatment  for  some  months,  particu- 
larly in  female  children.  The  plaster  should  be  changed  every 
morning,  and  the  skin  washed  before  the  cork  is  replaced. 

Puerperal  Fevers. — Symptoms. — When  a labor  has  been 
protracted,  a degree  of  fever  sometimes  occurs  and  passes  off 
in  the  course  of  a few  days.  This  passing  febrile  state  is, 
however,  very  different  from  the  condition  commonly  known 
as  “ puerperal,”  or  “ child-fever,”  which  does  not  make  its 
appearance  generally  until  several  days,  and  is  indeed  a very 
grave  malady.  It  is  ushered  in  by  indefinite  symptoms  refer- 
able to  the  nervous  system,  such  as  headache  and  sleeplessness. 
If  night  after  night  passes  in  disturbed  sleep,  with  or  without 
dreams  of  a distressing  character,  and  restless  indefinite  discom- 
fort by  day,  suspicion  should  be  aroused,  and  attention  drawn 
to  the  probable  approach  of  fever.  After  this  indefinite  illness 
has  lasted  for  seven  or  eight  days,  it  will  be  found  that  there  is 
a degree  of  tenderness  on  pressure  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen,  with  some  pain  in  moving  or  on  taking  a long  breath. 
There  will  also  be  a degree  of  flatulent  distention  of  the  bowels. 
The  ordinary  discharge  will  have  diminished,  as  will  also  the 
secretion  of  milk.  Shivering  will  occur  alternately  with  flush- 
ing and  heat  of  surface,  as  detectable  by  the  thermometer.  The 
pulse  becomes  rapid,  but  wanting  in  force. 

Treatment. — While  the  symptoms  are  mild,  a few  doses 
of  Dover’s  powder,  with  mild  saline  apefient  and  careful  diet- 
ing, will  generally  suffice  to  insure  their  disappearance.  If 
there  be  pain  in  the  abdomen,  hot  fomentation  or  turpentine 
stupes  will  give  relief.  Should  these  simple  means  prove 
ineffective,  and  the  symptoms  become  aggravated,  with  increase 
of  pain,  reliance  may  be  placed  in  small  repeated  doses  of 
opium,  either  as  Dover’s  powder  or  in  form  of  pill, — e.  g., 
Dover’s  powder,  5 grains  every  six  hours;  opium,  in  form  of 
pill,  half  a grain  every  six  hours;  turpentine  stupes  repeated 
every  morning  and  night.  If  the  bowels  should  be  confined, 
a dose  of  castor  oil  or  a rhubarb  draught  should  be  given.  In 
most  cases  this  treatment  will  suffice,  with  a light  nutritious 
diet.  In  those  cases,  however,  in  which  there  is  a feeling  of 
sinking  and  prostration,  stimulants  may  be  cautiously  given. 
Should  there  be  sickness  or  vomiting,  champagne  may  be 
taken,  or  small  and  frequent  doses  of  soda-water  and  brand)'. 


490 


MEDICINAL. 


This  form  of  fever  will  sometimes  last  two  or  three  weeks,  and 
requires  the  greatest  care  in  nursing,  and  in  diet,  etc.,  during 
convalesence. 

Purpura. — (The  Purples.) — Symptoms. — Patches  or  spots 
of  a purple  color,  resembling  bruises,  their  colors  also  going 
through  the  various  shades  shown  in  bruises.  They  are  some- 
times accompanied  by  a tendency  to  bleeding  at  the  nose. 
There  may  be  some  febrile  disturbance,  but  usually  the  general 
health  shows  no  sign  of  derangement. 

Treatment. — Tonics  are  required  in  this  disorder.  The 
muriated  tincture  of  iron,  with  the  addition  of  quinine,  forms 
a very  useful  medicine.  If  the  bowels  be  confined,  sulphate 
of  magnesia  should  also  be  added.  For  children,  steel  wine 
will  generally  be  sufficient,  together  with  a careful  nutritious 
diet  of  beef  tea,  meat,  etc. 

Remittent  Fever. — Endemic  Fever. — This  fever  is  not 
infectious,  and  it  differs  from  ague  in  there  being  no  distinct 
intermissions,  but  frequently  recurring  attacks,  generally  taking 
place  in  the  morning. 

Symptoms. — The  face  is  flushed,  there  is  headache,  and 
occasionally  delirium;  there  is  great  tenderness  in  the  stomach, 
accompanied  with  vomiting  of  a bilious  nature;  the  bowels  are 
confined,  and  the  urine  is  scanty.  If  the  bowels  are  relieved, 
the  motions  are  of  a dark,  greenish  color,  and  very  offensive. 
The  skin  is  hot,  the  pulse  rapid,  the  tongue  has  a brownish  fur. 
The  fever  becomes  less  as  the  skin  becomes  moist,  and  as  the 
patient  goes  into  a sweat,  the  remission  occurs.  The  remission 
generally  lasts  from  one  to  three  hours,  when  the  fever  again 
comes  on,  and  gradually  increases  in  severity  till  it  attains  the 
intensity  of  the  former  attack,  and  perhaps  exceeds  it. 
During  the  remissions  of  the  attacks,  the  patient  remains  in  a 
state  of  mild  fever,  accompanied  by  giddiness  or  lassitude.  The 
fever  may  last  from  five  days  to  five  weeks.  A patient  may  be 
said  to  have  the  fever  in  a favorable  manner  as  the  remissions 
are  more  distinct. 

Treatment. — If  the  bowels  are  constipated,  the  following 
aperient  mixture  should  be  taken:  Epsom  salts,  one-half  ounce; 
tincture  of  rhubarb,  i drachm;  water  to  make  one  and  a half 
ounces.  Mix.  When  the  remissions  have  clearly  set  in,  the 
patient  should  take  the  following  draught  three  times  a day: 
Sulphate  of  quinine,  3 grains;  syrup  of  orange  peel,  1 drachm; 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  10  minims;  water,  1 ounce.  Mix.  Qui- 
nine is  not  only  of  value  as  a curative  agent  in  the  endemic 
fever,  but  it  is  also  a preventive.  Travelers  in  the  low  and 
marshy  districts  of  tropical  climates  do  well  to  take  two  or 
three  grains  of  quinine  every  morning. 


MEDICINAL. 


491 


Rheumatism — Is  an  inflammation  or  febrile  affection  that 
attacks  the  joints  and  muscles,  or  their  coverings  and  sheaths, 
in  various  parts  of  the  body.  When  the  large  joints  are 
the  seat  of  the  disease,  in  its  most  active  form,  it  is  known  as 
rheumatic  fever,  on  account  of  the  feverish  condition  that 
accompanies  it.  It  is  often,  however,  met  with  in  a less  active 
form,  as  subacute,  chronic,  or  neuralgic  rheumatism. 

General  Symptoms. — In  the  acute  form  the  pain  in  the 
joints  is  so  acute,  and  they  are  so  sensitive  to  the  slightest 
movement,  that  the  patient  dreads  even  a shaking  of  the  bed 
he  lies  on.  The  joints  are  swollen,  and  red  as  well  as  painful. 
A high  degree  of  fever  attends  the  inflammatory  affection  of 
the  joints;  the  pulse  is  full,  strong  and  fast;  the  tongue  is 
furled;  the  bowels  generally  costive;  the  urine  scanty  and  high 
colored.  The  seat  of  the  inflammation  is  rapidly  changed  from 
one  joint  to  another,  the  pain  subsiding  to  return  perhaps  as 
severely  as  before. 

Subacute  Rheumatism. — In  this  form  the  pain  is  less 
severe,  and  there  is  a slighter  amount  of  fever.  It  affects  more 
the  muscles  than  the  joints.  Of  this  kind  are  “ lumbago,” 
“ rheumatic  headache,”  etc. 

Rheumatic  Affection^  of  the  Heart. — In  the  acute 
form,  or  “ rheumatic  fever, ”*the  coverings  and  interior  of  the 
heart  are  prone  to  become  inflamed.  The  occurrence  of  this 
complication  may  be  inferred  if  pain  be  felt  in  the  region  of 
the  heart,  attended  with  palpitation  and  difficulty  of  breathing. 

Treatment. — The  several  joints  as  they  are  affected  should 
be  wrapped  round  in  cotton-wool,  covered  with  gutta-percha 
tissue  or  oil-silk,  the  joint  being  previously  gently  rubbed  with 
belladonna  liniment.  When  the  pain  and  inflammation  first 
come  on,  the  patient  should,  at  b time,  take  the  following 
powder:  Calomel,  2 grains;  Dover’s  powder,  10  grains.  Mix. 
Next  morning  the  patient  should  take  the  following  draught: 
Infusion  of  senna,  2 ounces;  tartrate  of  potash,  2 drachms; 
compound  spirits  of  ammonia  (salvolatile),  one-half  drachm. 
After  the  bowels  have  been  freely  open,  the  following  medicine 
should  be  commenced:  Bicarbonate  of  potash',  2 drachms; 
water,  6 ounces.  Mix.  Two  tablespoonfuls  to  be  taken,  either 
alone  or  effervescing,  with  a tablespoonful  of  lemon  juice,  three 
times  a day.  The  addition  of  ten  minims  of  colchicum  wine 
sometimes  aids  the  effects  of  this  mixture,  but  it  is  apt  to 
product  sickness  and  purging. 

If  there  is  great  pain  and  want  of  sleep,  or  if  the  bowels  are 
Dpen  too  much,  a grain  of  opium,  or  twenty  minims  of  laudanum 
should  be  taken  every  night.  The  above  alkaline  mixture 
should  not  be  continued  too  long,  as  it  is  apt  to  cause  irrita- 


492 


MEDICINAL. 


tion  of  the  intestines.  As  soon  as  the  pain  begins  to  subside, 
and  the  urine  to  assume  its  usual  appearance,  it  should  be 
stopped,  and  the  following  medicine  substituted:  Sulphate  of 
quinine,  1 6 grains;  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  i drachm;  water,  8 
ounces.  Mix.  Two  tablespoonfuls  three  times  a day.  If  there 
be  reason  to  suspect  that  the  coverings  of  the  heart  are  affec- 
ted, a blister  should  be  applied  on  the  front  of  the  chest,  over 
the  seat  of  the  heart. 

A low  diet  of  milk,  arrowroot,  rice  or  sage,  or  beef  tea, 
should  be  continued  throughout  the  acute  stage,  with  a change 
to  a more  liberal  diet  as  the  symptoms  subside. 

Chronic  Rheumatism. — Symptoms. — The  pain  of  this 
form  of  rheumatism  is  less  acute,  and  is  more  frequently 
situated  in  the  muscles  or  their  tendons  than  in  the  joints. 
The  parts  affected  become  stiff  and  painful  on  movement. 
There  is  not  often  much  swelling  or  inflammation  of  the  joints 
— except  of  the  small  joints,  as  of  the  fingers — after  the  disease 
has  lasted  long. 

Treatment. — The  parts  affected  should  be  rubbed  with  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  belladonna  and  soap  liniment,  or  with 
compound  camphor  liniment  (see  External  Applications),  and 
if  the  pain  and  inflammation  be  very  acute,  as  sometimes  they 
are,  turpentine  fomentations  should  be  applied. 

The  following  medicine  should  be  taken:  Iodide  of  potas- 
sium, 40  grains;  bicarbonate  of  potash,  2 drachms;  water  to 
make  8 ounces.  Mix.  Two  tablespoonfuls  three  times  a day. 

Sciatica. — It  sometimes  attacks  the  leg,  beginning  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  back  of  the  thigh,  and  extending  downwards 
to  the  foot.  The  pain  of  this  form  of  rheumatism  is  very  acute, 
and  it  is  by  far  the  most  troublesome  to  treat. 

Treatment. — The  application  of  strong  stimulating  lini- 
ments over  the  seat  of  the  pain.  If  the  pain  be  severe,  it  may 
sometimes  be  allayed  with  half-grain  doses  of  opium  every  six 
hours.  Iodide  of  potassium  and  tincture  of  bark  should  also 
be  given.  (See  Medicines.) 

Scarlatina.  Scarlet  Fever. — Symptoms. — This  is  a highly 
infectious  eruptive  fever,  common  to  all  ages,  which  makes  its 
appearance  sometimes  almost  suddenly,  but  generally  after  a 
day  or  two  of  general  indisposition,  in  which  vomiting  almost 
always  occurs.  The  rash  consists  of  minute  scarlet  spots, 
which  are  scattered  over  the  entire  body.  They  are  not  raised 
above  the  surface  of  the  skin,  over  which  a diffuse  redness 
commonly  prevails.  The  characteristic  appearance  is  presented 
by  the  tongue,  which  is  of  a bright  scarlet  color  round  the 
edges,  the  middle  being  furred  with  the  papillae  of  a bright 


MEDICINAL. 


493 


scarlet  color,  standing  out,  and  giving  it  the  appearance  of  a 
strawberry.  The  throat  is  sore  and  scarlet,  with  difficulty  in 
swallowing.  On  examining  the  throat  it  will  be  found  that  the 
tonsils  are  often  swollen  and  ulcerated.  The  glands  in  the  neck 
are  swollen  also.  The  pulse  is  rapid  and  small.  There  is 
great  thirst,  with  entire  loss  of  appetite  for  food.  The  rash 
lasts  from  five  to  seven  days,  when  it  gradually  fades  away. 
The  skin,  after  a variable  period,  begins  to  peel  off  as  fine  dust 
or  scales;  sometimes  large  flakes  come  off.  The  entire  skin 
of  the  fingers  or  toes  sometimes  comes  off  in  one  piece  like 
the  finger  of  a glove.  The  itching  caused  by  the  eruption  is 
some  es  a source  of  great  irritation  and  sleeplessness.  In  the 
active  ebrile  stage  of  the  disease  it  often  happens  that 
delirium  occurs  during  night,  which  subsides  with  the  fever. 

Treatment. — A hot  bath  should  be  given  night  and  morn- 
ing, so  as  to  promote  the  functions  of  the  skin  and  bring  the 
rash  out  fully.  This  is  an  important  point,  as  when  the  rash  is 
not  out  plenteously,  the  specific  poison  of  the  disease  has  a 
tendency  to  affect  internal  organs,  the  brain  especially.  The 
bowels  should  be  kept  open  by  means  of  saline  aperients.  The 
following  mixture  is  useful  during  eruptions:  Carbonate  of 
ammonia,  40  grains;  simple  syrup,  1 ounce;  water  to  make  8 
ounces.  Two  tablespoonfuls  to  be  taken  three  times  a day, 
one  tablespoonful  by  children  less  than  ten  years  of  age,  and 
less  for  infants;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  get  young  children  to 
swallow  medicine  or  food,  in  consequence  of  the  soreness  of  the 
throat.  If  the  throat  be  ulcerated,  small  blisters  should  be 
applied  outside,  on  the  neck,  under  the  angles  of  the  lower  jaw 
bone.  (See  Blistering).  The  throat  and  tonsils  should  be  painted 
inside  with  the  following:  Nitrate  of  silver,  20  grains;  dissolved 
in  distill : d water,  1 ounce.  The  best  way  of  painting  or  mop- 
ping this  on  the  throat,  is  to  tie  a smah  piece  of  sponge  very 
tightly  on  the  end  of  a piece  of  whalebone,  taking  care  to  touch 
the  tonsils  at  each  application.  The  diet  should  be  light.  Free 
ventilation  is  an  essential  point  in  the  treatment  of  scarlet  fever. 
It  must  be  secured  so  as  not  to  expose  the  patient  to  sudden 
cold  or  chill.  Disinfection  should  be  carefully  attended  to. 

Scarlet  fever  sometimes  assumes  a malignant  form.  From 
the  very  beginning  there  is  a depression  of  nervous  power,  the 
eruption  is  dusky,  and  the  ulceration  of  the  throat  very  acute. 
In  this  case,  stimulants  must  be  given,  as  wine  or  brandy  and 
water;  but  in  other  forms  of  the  disease,  these  are  seldom 
needed. 

Small-pox.  Variola. — Character. — This  is  an  infectious 
eruptive  fever,  having,  in  its  natural  form,  a definite  course 
from  the  moment  of  infection  to  its  termination.  We  shall  in 


494 


MEDICINAL. 


the  first  place  describe  the  disease  as  unmodified,  in  which  its 
course  is  divisible  into  the  several  phases,  or  stages,  of  incuba- 
tion, invasion,  eruption,  decline. 

Incubation. — The  stage  of  incubation,  or  period  during 
which  the  disease  is  being  developed  in  the  system,  covers  a 
lapse  of  twelve  days  from  the  date  of  irffection,  and*  passes 
usually  without  any  manifest  sign  of  disease. 

Invasion. — At  the  end  of  twelve  days,  the  symptoms  of 
invasion  make  their  appearance  in  indefinite  febrile  illness, 
principally  marked  by  pain  in  the  back,  and  at  the  pit  of  the 
stomach.  These  premonitory  symptoms  last  for  forty-eight 
hours,  and  vary  greatly  in  degrees  of  severity — some  cases 
assuming  the  character  of  very  severe  illness,  the  exact  nature 
of  which  is  not  clear.  The  use  of  the  clinical  thermometer 
will  here  be  found  a help  in  diagnosis.  If  the  temperature  of 
the  body  be  as  high  as  ioo  degrees,  or  above  that,  there  will  be 
no  room  for  doubt  that  a fever  is  impending.  Other  circum- 
stances, such  as  possibility  of  infection,  etc.,  will  further  assist 
in  arriving  at  an  opinion.  The  severity  of  the  premonitory 
symptoms  has  usually  a direct  relation  to  the  severity  of  the 
subsequent  eruptive  fever. 

Stage  of  Eruption. — The  premonitory  illness  having 
existed  for  forty-eight  hours,  begins  to  decline  simultaneously 
with  the  outbreak  of  the  eruption,  in  the  shape  of  minute,  red 
pimples,  which  feel  like  millet-seeds  beneath  the  skin.  They 
appear  first  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  and  last  on  the 
legs  and  feet.  In  from  twenty  to  thirty  hours  the  eruption  is 
nearly  as  fully  out  as  it  will  be. 

Varieties. — The  number  and  character  of  the  pimples  give 
rise  to  varieties,  which  have  been  recognized  and  designated 
as:  i.  Distinct,  or  discrete;  the  spots  not  being  very  numerous, 
and  clear  spaces  of  skin  being  left  among  them.  The  fever  is 
slight  in  these  cases.  2.  Confluent:  in  many  cases  the  eruption 
is  more  copious,  the  pimples  running  together  and  forming 
large  clusters.  In  this  form  the  fever  runs  high,  and  the  dan- 
ger is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  pustules.  There 
may  .be  an  intermediate  variety.  3.  The  semi-confluent,  in 
which  the  clusters  occur  in  patches,  leaving  other  portions  of 
skin  free  from  the  eruption.  The  febrile  symptoms  are  neither 
so  mild,  nor  so  severe,  as  in  the  above  varieties. 

Types. — Any  one  or  all  of  these  varieties  of  the  disease 
may  run  through  their  course,  ending  in  perfect  recovery;  or 
the  symptoms  may  be  characterized  by  extreme  severity  or 
prostration  from  the  beginning.  This  is  the  “ malignant”  type 
of  the  disease,  the  others  are  the  “mild  ” or  “benignant.” 


MEDICINAL. 


495 


Course  of  the  Eruption. — In  the  ordinary  course  of  the 
disease,  the  pimples  are  red  and  inflamed  by  the  end  of  the 
second  day;  after  this,  they  gradually  begin  to  show  a conical 
apex,  filled  with  a colorless  fluid,  and,  by  the  fifth  day,  they 
present  a small  vesicle  of  this  fluid  with  flattened  instead  of 
a conical  top.  The  vesicles  from  this  date  alter  in  appearance, 
and  become  pustules,  being  filled  with  matter  which  is  “ ma- 
ture ” by  the  eighth  day.  In  this  state  of  the  eruption  the 
surrounding  skin  is  red  and  swollen,  and  it  is  at  this  point  that 
the  eyelids  swell  considerably  from  the  looseness  of  their  tex- 
ture. The  patient  is  then  commonly  spoken  of  as  being  blind, 
but  in  truth  he  is  only  blinded  for  a time.  Some  pimples  appear 
also  in  the  mouth,  and  throat,  in  most  cases  causing  hoarseness 
and  cough. 

Stage  of  Decline. — After  the  maturation  of  the  pustules 
on  the  eighth  day,  up  to  the  eleventh  day,  the  pustules  begin  to 
dry  up  and  form  scabs.  This  scabbing  process,  however,  does 
not  proceed  equally  over  the  body,  and  may  last  for  several 
weeks  on  the  extremities.  It  is  accompanied  by  a return  of 
febrile  symptoms,  often  rather  severe,  and  attended  with  excite- 
ment of  the  brain.  This  has  been  termed  the  “secondary 
fever.”  It  generally  begins  to  subside  after  the  eleventh  day, 
which  has  been  regarded  by  some  observers  as  a “critical  day.” 
Pitting  is  pretty  sure  to  follow  on  unprotected  or  natural  small- 
pox. Such  is  the  ordinary  course  of  natural  small-pox,  in  its 
non-malignant  form. 

Modified  Small-pox. — If  the  subject  of  small-pox  has 
been  vaccinated,  the  disease  may  be  cut  short  at  any  one  of  its 
stages,  and  disarmed  of  its  dangers.  The  eruption  is  rendered 
slighter,  and  less  likely  to  leave  pits.  The  fever  is  slighter,  so 
much  so  as  often  to  exceed  very  little  that  of  chicken-pox.  It 
may  be  affirmed  that  as  a rule  vaccinated  cases  of  small-pox 
recover  with  very  little  of  ill  effects  of  any  kind,  beyond  dis- 
colored traces  of  the  pustules,  which  gradually  fade  away. 

Malignant  Small-pox. — This  form  of  disease  is  marked 
from  its  outset  by  signs  of  nervous  depression,  and  deteriora- 
tion of  the  blood.  The  pulse  indicates  loss  of  strength,  while 
the  blood  shows  grave  alterations  in  its  composition,  such  as 
blood  spots  on  the  skin,  resembling  bruises  and  flea-bites. 
The  pimples  scarcely  go  into  the  vesicular  or  pustular  stage, 
but  becomes  filled  with  extravasated  blood,  giving  them  a pur- 
ple hue.  When  vesicles  of  this  character  are  seen,  even  if  it  be 
among  others  of  a healthier  aspect,  they  betoken  more  than 
usual  danger.  Haemorrhage  from  internal  organs  most  com- 
monly follows,  and  the  patient  succumbs  in  the  course  of  a few 
days. 


496 


MEDICINAL. 


The  conditions  most  favorable  to  recovery  trom  small-pox 
are  youth,  previous  good  health,  and  vaccination.  The  unfav- 
orable circumstances  are  infancy  and  old  age,  the  supervention 
of  other  diseases,  such  as  erysipelas,  boils,  abscesses,  congestion 
of  internal  organs,  and  pregnancy.  This  last  is  almost  always 
attended  with  abortion  in  small-pox. 

Inflammation  of  the  coats  of  the  eye  is  very  prone  to  occur 
during  an  attack  of  small-pox — in  severe  cases  running  on 
sometimes  to  the  total  destruction  of  the  globe  of  the  eye. 

Propagation. — Small-pox  may  be  propagated  by  infection, 
or  by  inoculation.  The  latter  is  now  never  practiced,  since  it 
has  been  made  to  be,  in  law,  a felony,  punished  by  heavy  fine 
or  imprisonment.  The  incurrence  of  the  disease  by  infection 
is  called  “taking  it  in  the  natural  way.”  How  long  after  the 
subsidence  of  all  the  symptoms  of  small-pox  an  individual 
may  be  able  to  communicate  it  “in  the  natural  way  ” is  not 
known.  Probably  no  risk  exists  of  its  propagation  from  the 
person  after  all  the  scabs  have  fallen  off,  and  the  patient  has 
had  repeated  baths.  To  prevent  its  propagation  the  thorough 
disinfection  of  all  clothing  and  bedding  should  be  effected  as 
early  as  possible. 

Treatment. — For  the  disease  itself  the  treatment  consists 
more  in  watching  its  course  and  relieving  complications  than 
in  the  administration  of  remedies  with  any  view  to  cure. 
Small-pox  having  a definite  course  cannot  be  interfered  with 
by  active  treatment  without  fear  of  causing  mischief: — all  that 
need  be  done  is  to  administer  some  mild  aperient  in  the  outset, 
and  then  some  simple  saline  mixture  if  the  fever  run  high.  A 
mild  distinct  case  is  far  better  left  to  run  its  natural  course. 
Separation  of  the  sick  from  the  healthy,  and  a plentiful  sup- 
ply of  pure  air,  are  of  greater  importance,  almost,  than  the 
adoption  of  curative  measures.  The  sleeplessness  and  delirium 
which  often  attends  the  febrile  state  that  accompanies  matura- 
tion of  the  vesicles,  are  readily  allayed  by  Dover’s  powder. 
If  the  entire  surface  of  the  body  be  sponged  daily  with  warm 
water,  or  vinegar  and  water,  the  irritation  of  the  skin  is  much 
allayed  thereby.  Inflammation  of  the  eyes  should  be  imme- 
diately attended  to.  A small  piece  of  linen  rag,  dipped  in  cold 
water,  or  Goulard  water,  should  be  laid  over  the  eyelids  and 
be  kept  constantly  wetted.  The  main  treatment  of  mild  or 
simple  small-pox  resolves  itself  into  nursing  and  dieting. 
During  the  early  febrile  stages,  diet  of  bread  and  milk  is  the 
best.  Light  slops,  such  as  broths,  may  be  allowed  also,  and 
ripe  fruits,  such  as  grapes,  oranges,  etc.,  to  allay  thirst.  When 
the  process  of  scabbing  has  advanced  a few  days,  and  the  sec- 
ondary fever  is  on  the  decline,  meat  should  be  given,  and  if 
the  pulse  becomes  feeble  some  wine  in  addition  will  prove 


MEDICINAL. 


497 


beneficial.  In  the  severer  or  malignant  small-pox,  wine  or 
brandy  will  be  required  earlier.  The  indication  will  be  a 
sense  of  sinking  expressed  by  the  patient,  and  feebleness  of  the 
pulse.  In  the  malignant  or  haemorrhage  form  wine  should  be 
given  to  begin  with,  and  doses  of  the  muriated  tincture  of  iron. 

Prevention  of  Pitting. — A point  in  treatment  to  which 
great  importance  is  attached  is  to  prevent  pitting  or  scarring. 
Countless  have  been  the  schemes  that  have  been  put  forward 
with  great  boast  and  pretention  as  infallible  preventives  of  the 
disfigurement.  Having  tried  a great  many  of  the  plans,  and 
seen  them  tried  on  a great  scale,  we  cannot  advise  our  readers 
to  rely  upon  any  one  that  has  yet  been  put  forward,  except  pre- 
vious vaccination.  This  exerts  such  a controlling  power  over 
the  disease  that  it,  even  in  severe  cases,  may  pass  away  without 
pitting.  The  separation  of  the  scabs  is  promoted  by  painting 
them  with  sweet  oil  as  soon  as  they  are  formed. 

Spasm,  or  Cramp,  may  be  a symptom  of  some  nervous 
affection,  or  of  inflammation  of  some  internal  organ.  Essen- 
tially they  are  the  same  thing,  but  a distinction  is  generally 
made  to  the  effect  that  spasm  affects  internal  muscular  parts,  as 
of  the  stomach  or  intestines,  while  cramp  affects  the  muscles 
of  the  limbs.  Internal  cramp  or  spasm  may  be  distinguished 
from  inflammation  by  pressing  on  the  part.  Steady  pressure 
gradually  affords  some  relief  in  spasm,  whereas  the  pain  is 
increased  thereby  if  its  cause  be  inflammation. 

Treatment. — For  immediate  relief  of  spasms  or  cramp, 
an  adult  may  take  laudanum,  20  minims;  ether,  30  minims;  or, 
chloric  ether,  30  minims,  in  a wineglass  of  water.  And  repeat 
every  three  or  four  hours. 

Splinters,  Thorns,  etc. — These  should  be  removed,  if  possi- 
ble, by  the  use  of  forceps.  If  they  are  left  in  they  may  cause 
inflammation,  and  the  formation  of  abscesses,  or  gatherings. 
If  the  foreign  body  cannot  be  extracted,  a linseed-meal  or 
bread-poultice  should  be  applied.  Matter  will  probably  form, 
and  may  be  required  to  be  let  out  by  a puncture,  in  which  case 
most  probably  the  thorn  or  splinter  will  be  evacuated  at  the 
same  time.  The  inflammation  will  begin  to  subside  as  soon  as 
this  has  occurred. 

Stings  of  Insects,  etc. — Symptoms. — The  stings  of  wasps 
or  ants,  or  bees,  as,  indeed,  do  most  of  the  bites  of  insects, 
present  very  much  the  appearance  of  what  are  called  poisoned 
wounds.  The  history  of  the  case  will  generally  be  that  the 
patient  has  suddenly  felt  a very  sharp  pain  in  the  part  affected, 
though,  perhaps,  he  has  not  noticed  any  unusual  appearance 
about  it.  Within  a short,  but  variable  period,  there  is  a feel- 
30 


49S 


MEDICINAL. 


ing  of  irritation  about  the  spot,  which  rapidly  becomes  red  and 
swollen,  and  sometimes  acutely  painful.  On  close  examination, 
it  will  be  found  that  there  is  a small  speck  about  the  centre  of 
the  inflamed  part,  and  in  this  the  sting  of  the  insect  is  some- 
times found.  The  severity  of  the  symptoms  will  of  course  vary, 
according  to  the  state  of  health,  or  constitution  of  the  patient. 
The  inflammation  may  be  confined  to  a small  circumscribed 
| spot,  or  it  may  spread  over  a whole  limb,  and  be  attended  with 
| signs  of  prostration. 

Treatment. — If  the  sting  have  been  left  in,  as  it  usually  is 
by  wasps,  it  should  be  carefully  extracted,  if  it  can  be  got  hold 
of,  by  forceps  or  tweezers.  If  there  be  simply  a small  red 
irritable  spot,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  dress  it  with  a cold  evapor- 
ating lotion,  such  as  the  following: 

Vinegar,  i ounce;  spirits  of  wine,  i ounce;  water,  4 ounces. 
Mix.  This  should  be  kept  constantly  applied  by  means  of  a 
piece  of  lint,  or  soft  linen  rag. 

Spirits  of  salvolatile  is  also  very  useful  for  local  application 
in  slight  cases  of  stings.  Should,  however,  the  inflammation 
spread  much,  poultices  of  linseed-meal  should  be  applied. 

Should  the  wound  have  been  inflicted  by  a snake  or  other 
venomous  insect,  and  the  system  be  at  all  affected,  if  the 
patient  seem  faint  or  prostrated,  stimulants  should  be  given 
freely,  thus:  Spirits  of  salvolatile,  1 drachm;  water  to  1 ounce; 
every  hour;  or  brandy  and  water,  if  the  ammonia  be  not  at 
hand.  If  the  bite  proceed  from  some  animal,  whose  bite  is 
known  to  be  of  a dangerous  nature,  nitrate  of  silver  should 
be  freely  applied  to  the  wound  as  quickly  as  possible.  If  the 
wound  be  on  a limb,  it  will  be  as  well  to  tie  a handkerchief  or 
other  ligature  tightly  round  it  above  the  part  bitten. 

The  venomous  effect  of  certain  snake  bites,  as  that  of  the 
cobra  di  capello,  are  so  rapid  in  their  development  that,  unless 
speedy  or  immediate  aid  be  rendered,  the  patient  will  stand  but 
little  chance  of  recovery.  The  bite  of  the  adder  is  occasion- 
ally followed  by  very  serious  symptoms.  The  bite,  or  rather  the 
stings,  of  certain  scorpions  are  often  of  a severe  nature.  In 
nearly  all  cases  of  snake-bite,  the  symptoms  consist  in  a fearful 
state  of  depression,  during  which,  unless  the  strength  be  sup- 
ported, the  patient  will  sink. 

If  the  wound  be  inflicted  on  one  of  the  limbs,  a ligature 
should  be  very  tightly  tied  round  it  above  the  wound. 

The  object  of  the  treatment,  as  above  stated,  is  to  support 
the  strength  of  the  patient  until  the  poison  shall  have  passed 
out  of  the  system. 

Stomach-Ache:  1.  In  Children;  2.  In  Adults. — 1.  To 
begin  with  this  very  “ common  heritage  ” of  infantine  and 


MEDICINAL. 


499 


childish  “woe,”  first  and  foremost  show  your  sense,  as  far  as  a 
fond  (and  foolish?)  papa  or  mamma  can  be  supposed  to  show 
it,  by  preventing  the  “ little  ones  ” from  eating  and  drinking 
what  you  know,  and  they  don’t  know,  to  be  a likely  fons  et 
origo  malorum.  For  instance,  prevent  their  eating  raw  and 
unripe  fruit;  going  into  the  garden  and  picking  and  swallowing 
green  peas,  sour  gooseberries,  and  so  on;  in  short,  keep  them 
on  their  proper  diet,  eggs  and  milk,  in  especial,  the  only  two 
perfect  per  se  kinds  of  food;  good  brown  bread,  made  at  home 
of  whole-ground  wheat,  infinitely  more  nourishing  than  the  fine 
white  bread,  too  often  adulterated,  for  the  sake  of  the  color, 
with  alum,  to  the  ruin  of  the  teeth  and  confinement  of  the 
bowels;  Scotch  oatmeal  porridge,  with  plenty  of  milk,  not 
odious  salt  and  the  like.  N.  B. — Do  not  expect  your  young 
child  to  thrive  on  tea  and  white  bread  and  butter  only;  still 
less  on  buttered  toast.  A growing  child  needs  something  bet- 
ter at  breakfast  than  that.  If  you  yourself  know  nothing 
about  the  proper  diet  for  a child,  then  buy  one  of  the  London 
Hospital  Pharmacopoeias,  particularly  one  of  the  “ Children’s 
Hospital  Pharmacopoeias,”  at  the  end  of  which  a proper  dietary 
for  a child,  according  to  its  age,  is  given. 

If  stomach-ache  does  come,  in  spite  of  all  reasonable  pre- 
cautions, then,  if  you  have  no  doctor  at  hand,  or  in  case  you 
don’t,  in  your  wisdom,  think  fit  to  call  one  in,  or  in  case 
you  cannot  pay  him  if  you  do — then,  faute  de  mieux,  give  from 
a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  tincture  of  rhubarb  to  half  an  ounce, 
according  to  age  and  strength,  with  from  two  to  four  drops  of 
laudanum,  and  four  or  five  drops  of  essence  of  ginger  in  about 
a wineglass  or  a little  more  of  water.  A little  sugar  and  grated 
nutmeg  in  it  will  do  no  harm,  and  make  it  more  palatable. 
Cut  him,  or  her,  as  the  case  may  be,  a bit  of  thin  fresh  lemon- 
peel,  and  give  it  to  set  the  little  teeth  into  as  soon  as  the  succus 
amarus  is  swallowed,  to  take  the  taste  away;  or,  if  you  cannot 
get  this,  then  a thin  slice  of  a ripe  apple,  or  a small  suck  at  an 
orange.  A child  won’t  take  medicine  any  the  better  another 
time,  for  having  had  the  nasty  taste  in  its  mouth  for  minutes 
after  it  has  swallowed  its  first  dose.  Put  the  child  to  bed, 
warm  and  comfortable;  and,  if  the  pain  continues,  repeat  the 
dose,  and  apply  warm  fomentations,  flannels  wrung  out  in  hot 
water,  with  a few  drops  of  spirits  of  turpentine  sprinkled  on 
them  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach. 

Better  still,  if  you  are  near  and  have  access  to  a hospital 
dispensary;  or,  failing  that,  to  a good  chemist’s,  then  have  the 
following  recipe  made  up,  and  give  it:  Ten  grains  of  carbonate 
of  magnesia;  io  grains  of  aromatic  powdered  chalk;  15  to  20 
drops  of  the  tincture  of  rhubarb;  1 ounce  of  peppermint  water. 
Repeat  the  dose  in  half  an  hour  if  the  pain  be  not  quieted. 
This  will  suit  a child  of  eight  or  ten  years  of  age. 


600 


MEDICINAL. 


For  pain  in  the  stomach  in  infants,  try,  before  you  give  Dili 
or  any  other  medicine,  gentle  pressure  with  the  palm  of  the 
warm  hand  on  the  abdomen,  quietly  and  steadily  applied.  The 
pain,  probably  owing  to  wind  only,  will  pass  away. 

N.  B. — Have  woolen  clothing  (as  soft  flannel)  worn  next 
the  skin.  Whole-meal  bread,  but  not  bran  bread  for  little 
children,  and  fine  oatmeal  only  should  be  used.  Avoid  newly- 
baked  bread  too.  Second  day  bread  is  the  best,  well-fired, 
and  not  raw  and  doughy. 

If  pain  be  aggravated  by  pressure  and  rubbing,  the  stomach- 
ache maybe  more  serious,  and  advice  should  be  sought.  Warm 
light  poultices  and  one  dose  only  of  castor-oil.  The  directions 
for  the  use  of  laudanum  must  be  regulated  according  to  the 
age  of  the  child;  viz.,  one  drop  for  every  year  of  its  age.  For 
adults,  the  castor  oil  and  peppermint  draught  should  be  advised 
too. 

2.  In  an  Adult. — Act  much  in  the  same  manner  as  with 
this  complaint  in  a child,  if  you  have  nothing  better  within 
reach  than  tincture  of  rhubarb;  only,  of  course,  use  a stronger 
dose,  say  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  of  the  tincture,  and 
from  five  to  ten  drops  of  laudanum.  In  case  you  can  get  it 
made  up,  probably  no  better  prescription  can  be  given  than 
that  which  bears  in  Hospital  Pharmacopoeias  the  barbarous 
Latin  name  of  Haustus  carminativus , the  draught,  that  is,  that 
acts  like  a charm,  viz:  Five  grains  of  rhubarb  powder,  with 
the  same  quantity  of  powdered  ginger;  io  grains  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda;  20  drops  of  the  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  and  1 
ounce  of  cinnamon  water;  or,  if  you  cannot  get  that,  plain 
water  will  do. 

Stone-Pock. — Symptoms. — This  troublesome  and  disfiuring 
affection  of  the  skin  has  the  synonyms  of  “Acne,”  “Carbuncle- 
race,”  and  “Rosy  drop.”  It  consists  in  scattered  pimples, 
occurring  usually  on  the  face,  chest,  back,  and  shoulders.  They 
appear  first  as  small  hard  pimples,  with  minute  black  points, 
consisting  of  obstructed  openings  of  the  glands  of  the  skin. 
After  an  uncertain  period,  the  pimples  increase  in  size,  become 
inflamed  at  their  base,  pus  forms,  presenting  yellow  heads, 
then  scabbing  off  in  the  course  of  a week  or  ten  days.  This  is 
the  form  in  which  the  eruption  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
young  and  healthy,  about  the  period  of  puberty,  to  their  great 
annoyance  and  discomfort.  In  advanced  life  the  eruption 
assumes  a congestive  character,  and  is  of  a dark  or  fiery  red 
hue,  often  very  obstinate  and  chronic  in  its  nature.  It  is  this 
form  which  has  acquired  the  rather  approbrious  synonym  of 
“Carbuncle-face.” 

Treatment. — However  anxious  young  people  may  be  to 


MEDICINAL. 


501 


get  rid  of  what  they  feel  to  be  a very  disfiguring  eruption,  they 
must  make  up  their  minds  to  endure  it  with  as  much  patience 
as  may  be,  since  it  will  often  last  for  a year  or  two,  and  then 
gradually  disappear.  We  would,  therefore,  warn  our  readers 
against  taking  strong  medicines  with  a view  of  getting  rid  of  it. 
A more  important  point  is  attention  to  diet  and  the  general 
state  of  health.  A nutritious,  unstimulating  diet  should  be 
taken.  A simple  aperient  of  an  alkaline  character,  taken  occa- 
sionally, together  with  the  use  of  mild  lotions,  are  the  utmost 
that  should  be  attempted.  Thus,  for  aperient  mixture:  Bicar- 
bonate of  potash  (or  soda),  2 drachms;  infusion  of  senna,  2 
ounces;  infusion  of  gentian,  6 ounces.  Mix.  Take  an  eighth 
part  twice  a day.  For  lotion:  Corrosive  sublimate,  2 grains; 
rose-water,  or  pure  water,  8 ounces.  Mix,  and  mark  “poison- 
ous.” Apply  to  the  skin  night  and  morning.  Or,  common 
washing  soda,  1 drachm,  to  a pint  of  water,  and  apply  freely, 
drying  the  skin  again  with  a soft  towel.  Or,  half  an  ounce  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  or  potash,  added  to  the  water  of  a sponge 
bath. 

The  chronic  form  of  acne  may  be  taken  as  a type  for  the 
treatment  of  chronic  diseases  of  a pustular  order  generally. 

In  all  these,  attention  to  diet  is  equally  important,  but  it 
may  be  fuller,  and  some  stimulant  should  be  taken  in  the  cases 
of  adults.  The  internal  use  of  arsenic;  and  of  mineral  acids, 
according  to  the  age  and  state  of  constitution,  will  be  found 
most  serviceable,  due  attention  being  paid  also  to  the  func- 
tions of  the  liver  and  kidneys.  The  following  prescriptions 
may  be  tried:  Diluted  nitric  acid,  2 drachms;  compound 
tincture  of  bark,  10  drachms.  Mix.  Take  a teaspoonful  three 
times  a day  in  a wineglass  of  water.  Or,  Fowler’s  solution  of 
arsenic,  1 drachm;  solution  of  potash,  3 drachms;  tincture  of 
gentian,  to  2 ounces.  Given  as  above.  The  dose  of  solution 
of  arsenic  should  be  cautiously  increased  by  30  drops  to  the 
bottle  at  end  of  each  ten  days,  for  about  three  times.  The 
dose  will  then  be  as  large  as  it  will  be  safe  to  entrust  to  non- 
professional hands. 

If,  during  the  administration  of  arsenic  in  these  small  medi- 
cine doses,  there  should  occur  griping  sickness  and  itching  of 
the  eyelids,  the  medicine  should  be  stopped.  Its  use  should 
also  be  discontinued  if  it  seems  to  exert  a depressing  influence 
on  the  system. 

For  outward  application,  in  chronic  acne  and  other  pustu- 
lar affections,  there  are  several  ointments  and  lotions.  Thus: 
Sulphate  of  zinc,  20  grains;  glycerine,  1-2  ounce;  water,  to  6 
ounces.  Mix. 

Stranguary  (Difficult  Micturition).  — Symptoms.  — This 
spasmodic  affection  may  be  caused  by  the  application  of  a 


502 


MEDICINAL. 


blister-plaster  or  of  blistering  liquid  to  any  part  of  the  body; 
or  by  inflammation  of  the  bladder  or  other  disorder  of  the 
urinary  organs;  by  hysteria  or  by  pregnancy.  The  spasm 
causes  great  distress  by  the  ineffectual  efforts  that  are  made  to 
empty  the  bladder,  which,  the  more  it  is  distended,  the  more 
severe  the  pain  becomes,  so  that  the  slightest  movement  or 
pressure  becomes  intolerable. 

Treatment. — It  is  caused  by  the  irritation  of  a blister- 
plaster,  a sedative  (as  tincture  of  henbane,  or  laudanum)  and 
warm  drinks,  with  time,  will  relieve  the  suffering. 

When  it  proceeds  from  internal  causes  it  will  depend  also 
on  these  for  its  treatment;  when,  however,  it  occurs  in  hysteri- 
cal states,  the  tincture  of  perchloride  of  iron,  with  tincture  of 
valerian,  or  assafoetida,  may  be  tried.  (See  List  of  Medi- 
cines.) 

Struma,  or  Scrofula. — This  is  an  unhealthy  state  of  consti- 
tution, which  gives  a character  to  the  diseases  or  disorders  of 
those  who  possess  it.  Thus  it  is  regarded  as  the  basis  of 
glandular  swellings  in  the  neck,  and  is  somewhat  loosely  spoken 
of  as  “scorbutic  habit  of  body.” 

All  diseases  occurring  in  strumous  habits  require  a support- 
ing and  tonic  treatment. 

Sunstroke. — Symptoms. — These  resemble  the  symptoms  of 
congestion  of  the  brain,  and  come  on  occasionally  with  great 
suddenness  after  exposure  to  the  direct  heat  of  the  sun.  In 
other  cases  the  symptoms  are  slower  in  their  approach,  and  in 
children  resemble  those  of  affection  of  the  brain  from  teething. 

Treatment. — Apply  cold  to  the  head,  and  mustard-plas- 
ters to  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  calves  of  the  legs,  giving 
repeated  moderate  doses  of  stimulants  at  the  same  time. 

Swallowing  Foreign  Bodies. — It  often  happens  that  chil- 
dren swallow  money,  or  other  hard  substances,  such  as  pins, 
etc.  In  these  cases,  if  the  substance  be  completely  swallowed, 
it  should  be  left  to  take  its  course  through  the  stomach  and 
intestines.  The  custom  of  giving  purgatives  in  such  cases  is 
altogether  contrary  to  physiological  principles,  as  the  intestinal 
movements  will  more  safely  carry  them  through  than  if  vio- 
lently urged  by  physic. 

Toothache,  Howto  Treat. — To  alleviate  the  wretched  pain 
— for  nothing  probably  short  of  “cold  steel,”  that  is,  extraction, 
can  work  a perfect  cure — take  at  once  a tolerably  strong  dose 
of  opening  medicine;  as  soon  as  this  operates,  in  all  probability 
the  pain  will  be  gone  for  a week  or  two.  Meanwhile,  apply  a 
small  mustard  poultice  outside,  just  over  the  place  where 
the  pain  is  most  violent,  and  rub  the  gum  and  the 


MEDICINAL. 


503 


tooth  with  chloroform  and  laudanum.  It  will  ease  the  dread- 
ful pain.  A little  bit  of  cotton  dipped  in  a solution  of  shellac, 
or  of  gum  mastic  and  spirits  of  wine,  makes  a good  temporary 
stopping  for  bad  teeth.  Avoid  the  ordinary  vaunted  “nos- 
trums,” that  is,  the  quack  medicines  said  instantly  to  remove 
toothache.  Kreasote  is  the  safest  domestic  remedy  to  employ, 
if  the  pain  be  very  bad;  only  get  a friend  to  employ  it,  by 
putting  a little  bit  of  cotton-wool  dipped  in  it  into  the  hollow 
of  the  tooth  for  you,  and  do  not  try  to  put  it  in  yourself,  or  you 
will  scarify  your  tongue  and  gums. 

Vomiting,  Obstinate. — When  the  Stomach  will  Retain 
Nothing. — General  Directions,  when  a Doctor  Cannot 
be  Got. — Keep  the  patient  perfectly  quiet,  in  a bed,  if  possible, 
and  on  his  back.  Give  no  food  for  some  time,  and  then  only 
teaspoonful  doses  at  a time,  with  long  intervals;  leave  him  to 
himself  for  an  hour  or  two;  then  give  five  drops  of  chlorodyne 
in  a little  water,  and,  after  an  interval,  a little  chicken-broth  or 
beef-tea.  Milk,  pure  and  simple,  or  milk  with  lime-water,  in 
very  small  quantities  at  a time,  is  often  useful.  If  you  cannot 
keep  these  down  lay  a piece  of  lint  soaked  in  a teaspoonful  of 
brandy  and  a teaspoonful  of  laudanum  mixed,  on  the  pit  of  the 
stomach,  cover  it  with  a bit  of  oiled  silk  or  guttapercha  twice 
the  size  of  the  lint,  and  renew  it  every  four  or  five  hours.  A 
mustard  plaster  will  answer  the  same  purpose,  and  is,  probably, 
more  easily  procured.  Either  application  will  help  to  quiet 
the  stomach.  A teaspoonful  of  lime-water  in  a teacupful  of 
milk  or  of  cold  beef-tea  (I  have  found  that  the  stomach  will 
always  keep  down  the  white  of  an  egg,  well  beaten  up  with 
a teaspoonful  of  brandy,  and  given  a very  little  at  a time,  when 
it  would  retain  nothing  else),  or  of  arrowroot,  will  often  abate 
the  vomiting  and  enable  the  stomach  to  retain  a small  quantity 
of  food. 

Thirty  drops  of  wood  naphtha  and  as  much  of  the  tincture 
of  cardamoms,  in  a tablespoonful  or  two  of  water  is  sometimes 
used  in  this  distressing  complaint,  and  with  success.  It  is  very 
useful  in  preventing  the  vomiting  of  consumptive  patients. 
Other  experienced  doctors  say,  use  one  drop  of  ipecacuanha 
wine  every  half  hour. 

Typhoid  Fever.— Intestinal,  or  Enteric,  Fever— Symptoms. 
— This  fever  generally  begins  with  slight  premonitory  symp- 
toms, such  as  chilliness,  loss  of  appetite,  and  heat  of  skin; 
sometimes  vomiting,  and  generally  diarrhoea,  which  seems  to 
defy  remedies.  The  patient  becomes  weaker,  and,  from  about 
the  seventh  to  the  tenth  day  from  the  seizure,  there  appear  on 
different  parts  of  the  body — generally  on  the  back  and  front  of 
the  chest  and  abdomen — rose-colored  spots,  which  are  slightly 


504 


MEDICINAL. 


raised  above  the  surface,  but  which  disappear  on  pressure,  and 
quickly  return  when  the  finger  is  removed.  At  first,  only  two 
or  three  make  their  appearance,  and  are  liable  to  be  over- 
looked. More  come  out,  but  they  are  very  variable  in  number; 
in  ordinary  cases,  about  a dozen.  In  forty-eight  hours  these 
spots  fade  out,  and  are  replaced  by  fresh  ones;  this  crop  also 
fades  as  the  former,  and  is  replaced  by  another,  and  so  on. 
The  probable  severity  and  danger  bear  some  relation  to  the 
number  of  the  spots;  the 'abdomen  feels  hard,  and  is  tender, 
but  more  particularly  just  above  the  right  groin.  The  tongue 
is  furred  in  the  centre  and  red  at  the  tip,  as  the  diarrhoea  con- 
tinues, the  motions  being  loose,  sometimes  quite  black,  at  other 
times  light-colored.  If  this  continue,  the  tongue  becomes 
ulcerated,  brown,  and  dry.  The  teeth  become  caked  over  with 
a brown  matter  called  “sordes,”  and  there  is  great  thirst.  The 
pulse  ranges  between  90  and  120.  The  temperature  will  reach 
102  degrees  to  104  degrees.  The  patient  may  become  deliri- 
ous, but  this  does  not  always  denote  that  the  disease  will  assume 
a serious  form.  In  favorable  cases  the  improvement  is  gener- 
ally slow.  It  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  stools  diminishing 
and  becoming  more  and  more  solid.  The  spots  disappear,  the 
skin  becomes  cooler  and  moist,  the  appetite  returns,  and,  as 
convalesence  progresses,  sometimes  becomes  ravenous.  The 
appetite  requires  to  be  carefully  controlled  during  convalescence. 
Ulceration  of  the  bowels  being  the  dangerous  tendency  of  the 
fever,  indiscretion  in  diet  will  easily  induce  a relapse. 

Treatment, — The  diet  is  an  important  point  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  disease.  It  should  consist  of  light  fluid  food, 
easy  of  digestion;  nothing  solid  should  on  any  account  be 
given.  The  patient  should  have  milk  and  beef  tea,  coffee  or 
tea;  arrowroot  or  gruel  are  both  useful.  The  staple  article  of 
diet  should  be  milk  during  the  first  ten  or  twelve  days,  unless 
symptoms  of  extreme  debility  should  occur,  in  which  case 
beef  tea  and  port  wine  may  be  given.  Soups  also  may  be 
given,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  they  are  clear  from  indi- 
gestible fibres  of  meat  and  vegetable. 

The  administration  of  wine  is  often  a most  difficult  problem 
in  the  treatment  of  fever.  If  the  signs  of  debility  are  so  evi- 
dent as  to  render  prostration  imminent,  an  ounce  of  port  wine, 
or  even  brandy,  may  be  given  every  four  or  six  hours;  but  it  is 
necessary  to  caution  the  reader  not  to  mistake  the  feeling  of 
weakness,  which  is  an  inseparable  attendant  on  fever,  for  dan- 
gerous debility.  A vastly  larger  proportion  of  cases  would  do 
well  without  stimulants  than  is  generally  believed.  It  may  be 
a help  to  the  determination  of  the  question  if  we  point  out 
some  symptoms  that  will  call  for  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants. These  are  great  fluctuations  in  the  number  of  the  pulse 


MEDICINAL. 


505 


and  in  the  degrees  of  temperature  of  the  body,  and  a want  of 
muscular  power  to  maintain  a comfortable  posture  in  bed, 
accompanied  with  sighing  and  irregular  breathing.  It  may  be 
stated  broadly  that  it  is  not  the  number  of  the  pulse  that  is  so 
important  as  its  steadiness.  A pulse  of  a hundred  and  fifty — 
if  it  continue  day  after  day  at  that  number — affords  a better 
sign  than  a pulse  that  beats  a hundred  at  one  time,  and  a hun- 
dred and  twenty  at  another,  and  a hundred  and  something  else 
at  anoiher  time.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  readings  of 
the  clinical  thermometer.  If  these  are  steady,  the  case  will,  in 
all  probability,  do  well  without  the  use  of  alcohol. 

For  medicinal  means,  but  little  is  required  in  the  shape  of 
drugs.  Some  simple  effervescing  saline,  or  soda-water,  which 
will  serve  to  allay  thirst  and  fever,  will  suffice  in  mild  cases. 
Dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  in  small  doses,  is  often  of  some  ser- 
vice. Diarrhoea  may  be  checked  by  chalk  mixture,  to  which, 
if  there  be  pain  in  the  bowels,  small  doses  of  Dover’s  powder 
may  be  added.  If  there  be  tenderness  on  pressure  of  the 
abdomen,  a mustard  plaster  may  be  applied,  or  a linseed  poul- 
tice should  be  kept  on  day  and  night.  When  convalescence 
begins  it  may  be  assisted  by  the  administration  of  quinine. 

Typhoid  fever  has  a specific  duration,  viz.:  either  twenty- 
one  or  twenty-eight  days;  this,  the  ordinary  duration,  may,  how- 
ever, be  interfered  with  by  the  complication  of  inflammation 
of  any  internal  organ,  and  convalesence  may  be  prolonged 
through  many  weeks  by  the  occurrence  of  mischief  in  the  in- 
testines. The  termination  of  the  disease,  if  not  in  health,  is 
in  exhaustion;  or  sometimes  by  inflammation  in  the  cavity  of 
the  abdomen,  through  the  perforation  of  an  ulcer  in  the  intes- 
tines. In  this  last  case,  pain  of  a most  intense  character  sets 
in  suddenly,  and  is  rapidly  followed  by  collapse  and  death. 

Typhoid  fever  is  not,  as  supposed,  a milder  form  of  typhus; 
it  is  distinctly  different.  Typhus  is  infectious;  typhoid  is  not. 
The  prominent  symptom  of  typhus  fever  is  the  disturbance  it 
causes  in  the  brain.  Diarrhoea  is  the  prominent  symptom  of 
typhoid. 

The  above  distinctions  are  sufficient  reasons  with  some 
authorities  for  dispensing  with  the  name  “ typhoid,”  as  that, 
from  its  similarity  to  “ typhus,”  is  liable  to  mislead,  hence  the 
name  “ Enteric  ” as  the  more  appropriate  distinctive  designa- 
tion of  this  fever  is  frequently  employed. 

Typhus. — This  is  an  infectious  fever  of  a very  grave  char- 
acter, known  under  various  names  as  jail-fever,  camp-fever, 
etc.  It  begins  like  most  other  fevers  with  indefinite  symptoms 
of  malaise,  lasting  an  uncertain  period:  The  incursion  of  the 
fever  is  sometimes  sudden,  commencing  with  a shivering  fit, 


506 


MEDICINAL. 


headache,  and  feeling  of  extreme  debility.  As  the  fever 
becomes  more  pronounced,  the  pulse  is  rapid,  the  temperature 
of  the  skin  above  ioo  degrees;  thirst  becomes  urgent,  the 
tongue  furred;  vomiting  sometimes  occurs.  Severe  headache 
and  delirium  occur  early  in  the  course  of  this  fever.  With  the 
advance  of  the  disease,  the  tongue  becomes  coated  with  fur, 
the  eyes  bloodshot,  the  skin  hot  and  dry,  the  urine  scanty,  and 
the  skin  assumes  a dusky  hue. 

A characteristic  eruption,  distinctive  of  symptoms,  appears 
on  the  chest  and  body,  usually  after  the  fifth  day.  By  the 
peculiar  features  of  this  eruption,  the  disease  may  be  identified 
and  distinguished  from  typhoid.  The  appearance  of  the 
eruption  somewhat  resembles  that  of  measles,  but  has  mixed 
with  it  numerous  minute  spots  like  flea-bites.  The  stress  of 
typhus  is  on  the  brain,  as  manifested  by  the  early  occurrence 
of  severe  headache,  delirium,  painful  dreams,  sleeplessness, 
twitching  of  the  muscles,  and,  lastly,  coma.  The  bowels, 
usually,  are  confined,  a condition  the  reverse  of  what  is  observed 
in  typhoid.  Cough  and  shortness  of  breathing  direct  attention 
to  the  organs  of  respiration,  inflammation  of  the  lungs  of  a 
low  and  insidious  character,  being  one  of  the  most  frequent 
and  most  dangerous  complications  of  this  fever. 

Typhus  fever  has  no  definite  duration,  like  typhoid,  but 
generally  declines  in  fourteen  days,  although  some  cases  last 
many  days  longer. 

Treatment. — A well  ventilated  apartment  is  essential  to 
the  success  of  treatment,  and  should  by  any  means  be  secured. 
In  the  winter  time  a fire  should  be  kept  burning,  as  it  not  only 
supplies  warmth,  but  it  secures  a change  of  air  in  the  apart- 
ment. The  tendency  of  typhus  being  towards  depression  and 
prostration  of  the  nervous  energies,  the  point  in  treatment  is 
to  support  the  vital  powers  by  beef  tea,  milk,  port  wine,  or 
brandy.  The  dose  and  the  frequency  of  the  repetition  of  the 
stimulants  must  be  guided  by  their  effects  oji  the  pulse. 

In  cases  where  the  debility  is  extreme  and  the  pulse  very 
rapid,  a judiciously  administered  dose  of  alcohol  will  give  it 
force  and  reduce  its  frequency.  In  this  case  the  dose  should 
be  repeated  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours,  closely  watching 
the  effect  on  the  pulse.  In  cases  in  which  the  debility  is  not 
so  intensely  marked,  wine  may  be  omitted,  and  the  patient 
supported  on  milk,  beef  tea,  soups,  etc.  Mild  aperients  should 
be  given  if  the  bowels  be  costive,  and  for  medicine,  four  or 
five  grains  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  dissolved  in  water, 
should  be  given  every  four  hours. 

The  head  symptoms — e.  g.,  headache,  delirium  and  sleep- 
lessness— will  be  relieved  by  blistering  the  back  of  the  neck. 
(See  Blistering.)  If  the  head  be  hot,  ice-cold  water  should  be 


MEDICINAL. 


507 


constantly  applied.  If  the  excitement  of  the  brain  prevent 
sleep,  a small  dose  of  Dover’s  powder  at  bed-time  will  have  a 
soothing  effect,  and  perhaps  favor  perspiration.  If  there  is 
cough  and  symptoms  signifying  that  the  chest  is  becoming 
affected,  mustard-plasters  should  be  applied.  We  repeat,  how- 
ever, that  the  most  important  of  all  measures  is  good  nursing 
and  careful  dieting. 

The  infection  of  typhus  may  be  guarded  against  by  the 
free  use  of  disinfectants,  such  as  carbolic  acid  or  Condy’s 
fluid  (see  Disinfection),  and  by  free  ventilation,  which  is  of  the 
first  importance,  and  goes  a long  way  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
all  sorts  of  infectious  diseases. 

Vaccination. — Vaccination  is  the  insertion  into  the  human 
system  of  the  infectious  matter  of  a mild  disease  called  cow- 
pox.  Cow-pox  is  really  small-pox,  which,  having  been  acted 
on  by  the  system  of  the  cow,  has  been  thus  rendered  innocu- 
ous to  the  human  body,  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  protective  of 
a second  attack.  Thus,  in  vaccination  we  have  a mild  and 
harmless  form  of  small-pox,  which  is  voluntarily  accepted  in 
the  place  of  the  more  malignant  form  of  small-pox,  which 
seizes  its  victims  against  their  will. 

Vaccination  is  the  only  real  protector  we  have  against  the 
ravages  of  small-pox.  This  is  proved  by  the  following  facts, 
among  many  others:  In  proportion  as  vaccination  is  properly 
and  efficiently  performed,  so  the  mortality  of  small-pox  is 
reduced.  Secondly,  by  the  freedom  from  infection  which  is 
enjoyed  by  properly  re-vaccinated  persons,  in  constant  attend- 
ance upon,  and  actual  contact  with,  small-pox  patients.  There 
has  never  been  a case  of  small-pox  among  the  nurses  or  the 
attendants  at  the  Small-pox  Hospital,  Highgate,  within  a 
period  of  considerably  over  thirty  years.  This  is  simply 
because  they  are  all  properly  re-vaccinated  before  they  enter 
upon  their  duties. 

Mode  of  Vaccination. — The  operation  oi  vaccination  is 
simple,  but  so  highly  important  that  no  care  bestowed  upon  its 
performance  is  thrown  away. 

The  following  instructions  will  be  sufficient,  if  carefully  fol- 
lowed: Select  an  arm  of  a vaccinated  infant  that  has  good 
vesicles  on  the  eighth  day,  i.  e.,  the  day  week  on  which  the 
lymph  was  inserted.  Then,  with  a perfectly  clean  lancet,  make 
several  punctures  in  the  clear  part  of  the  vesicles,  avoiding 
the  red  border  of  the  inflamed  skin,  so  as  not  to  draw  blood. 
A clear  watery  fluid  will  ooze  out  in  beads.  Take  off  some  of 
this  clear  fluid  on  the  point  of  the  lancet,  and  then,  taking 
the  arm  of  the  infant,  or  person  to  be  vaccinated,  draw  the 
skin  tense  and  insert  the  point  of  the  lancet  nearly  horizontally 


508 


MEDICINAL. 


into  the  skin  to  an  extent  of  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  (-); 
then  give  the  lancet  a turn  round,  withdraw  it,  and  press  it 
down  upon  the  puncture.  Five  such  punctures,  to  the  distance 
of  about  half  an  inch  apart,  should  be  made  on  one  arm. 

Supposing  that  an  arm  with  mature  vesicles  should  not  be 
available,  lymph  may  be  procur- 
ed from  any  vaccine  station.  It 
will  be  received  in  that  case, 
preserved  either  in  tubes,  or  on 
small  points  of  ivory.  If  in  tubes, 
the  point  at  each  end  of  one 
must  be  broken  off,  and  the  con- 
tained lymph  be  gently  breathed 
on  to  the  point  of  the  lancet, 
and  inserted  as  above  directed. 

If  the  lymph  have  been  preserved 
dry  on  “points,”  one  of  these 
should  be  used  for  each  punc- 
ture. Dip  the  point  quickly  into 
cold  water,  and  shake  off  any  excess  of  water.  The  object  is 
just  sufficiently  to  moisten  the  lymph,  that  it  will  be  easily 
scraped  off  on  to  the  point  of  the  lancet,  and  inserted  as^  before 
directed. 

Some  degree  of  inflammation  occasionally  occurs  on  the 
vaccinated  arm.  This  will  generally  disappear  quickly  under 
the  application  of  simple  water-dressing.  A slight  eruption  of 
small,  colorless  pimples  on  various  parts  of  the  body  also 
occasionally  follows  vaccination,  and  disappears  in  the  course 
of  a few  days. 

To  ensure  the  success  of  vaccination,  the  infant  to  be  vac- 
cinated should  be  in  good  health,  and  free  from  any  eruption 
of  the  skin,  and  the  child  from  whom  the  lymph  is  taken  should 
also  be  in  perfectly  good  health.  With  these  precautions,  there 
is  no  ground  for  the  fear  that  other  diseases  than  cow-pox  will 
be  transmitted  by  the  operation.  Very  great  exaggerations 
and  misrepresentations  have  been  put  forth  on  this  point  in 
order  to  excite  prejudice  against  vaccination. 

Re-vaccination. — The  primary  vaccination  of  infancy,  if 
well  and  thoroughly  performed,  as  shown  by  the  existence  of 
several  well-marked  cicatrices,  affords  protection  for  life  from 
severe  small-pox — protection,  however,  not  so  complete  but 
that  modified  small-pox  shall  not  occur.  It  is  shown  by  a vast 
accumulation  of  statistics  that  there  is  a greater  tendency  in 
vaccinated  persons  to  take  the  small-pox  between  the  ages  of 
fifteen  and  twenty-five  than  at  all  other  ages  put  together.  It 
is,  therefore,  advisable,  in  order  to  obtain  complete  protection, 
the  operation  of  vaccination  should  be  performed  at  puberty, 


VACCINE  VESICLES. 


MEDICINAL. 


509 


or  when  growth  is  completed.  The  insertion  of  lymph  by  three 
punctures  is  sufficient  for  re-vaccination.  The  lymph  from  a 
re- vaccinated  vesicle  should  never  be  used  for  primary  vaccin- 
ation. 

Voice,  Loss  of. — Sometimes  without  the  existence  of  catarrh, 
or  inflammation  of  the  larynx,  the  voice  suddenly  becomes 
reduced  to  the  faintest  possible  whisper,  or  without  great 
difficulty  even  this  is  not  achieved.  It  occurs  sometimes  after 
long  continued  speaking,  but  it  is  most  frequently  met  with  in 
hysterical  females.  The  same  thing  may,  however,  happen  as 
the  result  of  a cold,  or  from  a more  serious  cause,  some  form 
of  paralysis  of  the  organs  of  the  voice. 

Treatment. — When  the  affection  is  the  result  of  catarrh, 
it  may  be  relieved  by  the  inhalation  of  the  steam  of  hot  water, 
with  a few  drops  of  creasote,  or  a teaspoonful  of  spirits  of 
salvolatile.  When  it  proceeds  from  hysteria  or  paralysis,  the 
treatment  must  be  sought  under  the  heads  of  those  diseases. 

Wounds,  Cuts,  Stabs. — These  are  of  several  kinds — e.  g., 
incised,  contused,  lacerated,  punctured — requiring  each  a 
modified  treatment. 

Incised  Wounds. — These  are  clean  cuts  or  wounds,  with 
smooth  defined  edges. 

Contused  Wounds — Are  wounds  attended  with  bruising 
of  the  parts,  such  as  seen  in  gunshot  injuries. 

Lacerated  Wounds — Are  pretty  much  the  same  as  bruised 
wounds — the  edges  are  rough  and  jagged. 

Punctured  Wounds — Are  where  the  orifice  of  the  cut  is 
small,  but  its  extent  deep,  such  as  in  stabs. 

Treatment. — Incised  Wounds. — In  the  case  of  incised 
wound  or  clean  cut,  if  not  large  in  extent,  it  will  heal  readily 
by  the  edges  being  brought  together  by  means  of  some  simple 
unirritating  plaster,  such  as  “ adhesive  plaster,”  or  “ isinglass 
plaster,”  or  goldbeater’s  skin.  It  may  be  advisable  to  bring 
the  edges  of  a wound  together  with  stitches.  The  most  con- 
venient needle  for  this  purpose  is  a glover’s  needle,  and  white 
silk  is  the  best  material  for  the  sewing.  If  the  wound  has  been 
inflicted  by  broken  glass,  etc.,  the  surfaces  should  be  carefully 
searched  for  any  fragments  or  foreign  bodies,  before  the  edges 
are  brought  together.  If  the  bleeding  be  profuse,  the  wound 
should  be  left  exposed  to  the  air  for  a while,  or  the  ordinary 
means  used  to  stop  the  bleeding.  If  the  cut  be  a long  one, 
there  should  be  small  intervals  left  between  the  strips  of  plaster, 
in  order  to  allow  blood  or  other  fluids  to  escape.  This  strap- 
ping plaster  need  not  be  removed  for  three  or  four  days, 


510 


MEDICINAL. 


unless  there  be  pain  and  throbbing  in  the  wound;  in  this  case 
they  should  be  loosened,  or  even  removed,  as  these  symptoms 
indicate  inflammation.  If  it  be  necessary  to  remove  the  strap- 
ping before  union  has  taken  place,  the  wound  should  then  be 
dressed  with  water  and  lint,  covered  with  oil-silk  or  gutta- 
percha. 

Scalp  Wounds. — Cuts  on  the  scalp  should  be  carefully 
cleansed  from  hair,  which  should  also  be  removed  for  about 
half  an  inch  around  the  wound.  If  small,  the  edges  can  be 
brought  together  with  plaster.  If  the  wound  be  large,  it  is 
better  simply  treated  with  cold  water  dressing.  No  stitches 
should  be  put  in  these  wounds,  unless  they  are  very  ragged  and 
gaping,  as  they  are  prone  to  excite  erysipelas  in  this  part  of  the 
skin. 

Bruised,  Contused,  and  Lacerated  Wounds.  — In 
consequence  of  the  tearing  or  bruising  of  the  edges  of  a 
lacerated  wound,  the  vitality  of  those  parts  is  more  or  less 
impaired;  hence  these  wounds  do  not  heal  as  readily  as  a clean 
cut.  In  treating  a contused  wound,  the  surface  should  first  be 
carefully  sponged  clean  of  clotted  blood,  or  foreign  bodies  of 
any  kind,  such  as  portions  of  clothing,  small  shot,  etc.  The 
simple  water  dressing,  or  wet  lint,  covered  with  oil-silk,  is  the 
most  suitable  for  this  kind  of  injury.  If  the  soft  parts  be 
much  torn,  they  may  be  bound  down  by  a roller  and  water 
dressing  applied.  After  a time,  the  surface  of  a wound  of  this 
kind  becomes  sluggish  in  its  healing,  and  resembles  an  ulcer. 
It  should  then  be  treated  with  zinc  ointment  or  yellow  basilicon. 

Stabs,  or  Punctured  Wounds — Require  special  treat- 
ment, varying  with  their  depth,  and  the  part  in  which  they 
occur.  A slight  wound  of  this  sort,  not  penetrating  deeply, 
may  be  dressed  with  isinglass-plaster,  adhesive-plaster,  or  gold- 
beater’s skin.  If,  however,  deeper,  but  not  entering  a cavity, 
the  simple  water  dressing  should  be  applied,  and  the  part 
wounded  be  so  placed  that  blood  may  escape  freely.  For  this 
reason  it  is  not  advisable  to  endeavor  to  heal  a punctured 
wound  quickly.  If  the  bleeding  from  the  wound  does  not  stop 
from  the  exposure  to  cold,  the  wound  may  be  plugged  with 
t lint  or  soft  linen,  soaked  in  tincture  of  perchloride  of  iron, 
diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  or  with  tincture  of 
matico.  The  plugging  may  be  allowed  to  remain  in  twelve 
hours.  After  its  removal,  if  the  bleeding  be  checked,  dress  as 
above  directed  with  water.  A deeply  punctured  wound  is 
prone  to  heal  at  the  surface.  This  should  be  prevented  by 
inserting  a strip  of  linen  between  the  lips  of  the  wound,  so  as 
to  allow  of  the  escape  of  matter.  The  healing  from  the  bot- 
tom is  sometimes  to  be  promoted  by  injecting  with  a weak 
solution  of  Condy’s  fluid  (a  teaspoonful  to  a pint  of  water). 


MEDICINAL. 


511 


Stabs,  or  Punctured  Wounds  of  the  Chest. — The  dan- 
ger of  these  will  depend  upon  the  fact  and  extent  of  penetration. 
Those  wounds  that  do  not  pene- 
trate the  cavity  of  the  chest  may 
be  treated  as  ordinary  stabs.  (See 
previous  directions.)  Penetration 
of  the  chest  is  probably  attended 
with  a wound  in  the  lung.  This 
may  be  inferred  if  there  be  diffi- 
culty in  breathing,  or  spitting  of 
blood,  with  distress  and  anxiety 
of  countenance. 

The  first  indication  of  treat- 
ment in  wounds  of  the  chest  is  to 
give  remedies  to  stop  the  bleeding. 

Should  this  proceed  from  a vessel 
in  the  wall  of  the  chest,  it  should 
be  sought  for,  and,  if  possible, 
tied;  should  it,  however,  proceed 
from  the  lungs,  ice  and  cold  drinks 
should  be  given. 

For  the  organs  within  the  chest, 
see  diagram,  which  will  point  out 
the  parts  probably  wounded. 

A draught  as  follows:  Tincture  of  opium,  20  minims; 
infusion  of  oak-bark,  to  make  one  ounce.  This  should  be 
given  every  hour  until  the  patient  sleeps,  and  then  discontinued. 
The  sleeping  is  important,  as  it  diminishes  the  force  of  breath- 
ing, and  so  insures  a certain  amount  of  rest  to  the  wounded 
lung.  The  wound  in  the  wall  of  the  chest  should  then  be 
accurately  closed  with  stitches,  or  plaster,  and  the  patient 
kept  as  quiet  as  possible. 

Should  there  be  any  heat,  swelling,  or  pain  in  the  part,  or 
should  the  patient  have  any  shivering  fits,  small  doses  of  opium 
should  be  continued  at  frequent  intervals;  thus:  Compound 
ipecacuanha  powder  (Dover’s  powder),  two  and  a half  grains. 
Every  two  hours.  It  will  be  as  well,  when  these  symptoms 
show  themselves,  to  give  the  patient  also  half  an  ounce  of 
Epsom  salts,  in  order  to  open  the  bowels.  He  should  be 
allowed  a light,  cool  diet. 

Pleurisy  is  often  a consequence  of  wounds  in  the  walls  of 
the  chest.  For  its  treatment,  see  under  the  name  “Pleurisy.” 

Punctured  Wounds  of  the  Abdomen. — These  may  be 
slight  and  easily  repaired,  or  they  may  be  so  serious  as  to  end 
fatally  in  the  course  of  a few  hours.  The  gravity  will  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  injury  inflicted  upon  the  intestines.  The 
following  divisions  of  the  subject  will  illustrate  this  ooint: 


512 


MEDICINAL. 


ist.  Non-perforating  Wounds. — A simple  wound  of  the 
walls  of  the  abdomen,  not  passing  through  into  the  abdominal 
cavity,  is  not  more  serious  than  an  incised  or  punctured  wound 
elsewhere,  and  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  A probe, 
or  the  finger,  will  readily  detect  the  fact  of  a perforation;  be- 
sides that,  in  the  event  of  such  an  occurrence,  there  will  prob- 
ably be  more  severe  pain  in  the  part. 

2d.  Perforating  Wounds. — In  the  event  of  a stab  of  the 
abdomen  passing  through  its  walls,  either  the  intestines,  or 
some  other  organ,  may  be  wounded.  Which  of  these  may  be 
injured,  it  may  be  difficult  even  for  a surgeon  to  determine 
exactly.  As,  however,  this  treatise  will  be  of  more  service  to 
those  who  are  beyond  the  reach  of  surgical  aid,  we  shall 
endeaver  to  assist  their  diagnosis  by  referring  to  the  positions 
of  the  principal  internal  organs  relatively  one  to  the  other.  A 
perforating  wound,  reaching  to  any  one  of  the  organs  in  the 
abdomen  cavity,  is  attended  with  symptoms  of  alarming  pros- 
tration. Means  should  be  taken  to  stanch  the  bleeding  of  the 
external  wound,  and  the  patient  must  be  supported  by  stimu- 
lants and  light  diet.  Opium  must  be  given  freely  to  relieve 
pain.  It  acts  beneficially  also  by  moderating  the  muscular 
movements  of  the  intestines.  If  there  be  vomiting  of  blood,  it 
may  be  feared  that  the  stomach  is  wounded.  There  is  every 
inducement  and  hope  that  by  rigidly  enforcing  rest  and  quiet- 
ness, with  the  above  means,  life  may  be  saved.  Wounds  even 
of  the  liver  and  spleen  have  been  known  to  heal. 

The  next  most  serious  effects  of  stabs  in  the  abdomen,  and 
those  which  give  rise  to  great  fear  for  the  results,  are  those 
attended  with  protrusion  of  the  intestines.  If,  however,  the 
latter  be  not  wounded,  it  may  be  returned,  and  the  wound 
closed  as  directed  above.  Wounds  of  the  walls  of  the  abdo- 
men, through  which  the  intestines  protrude,  and  are  themselves 
wounded,  call  for  particular  treatment. 

The  wounds  in  the  intestines  should  first  be  attended  to. 
The  edges  of  these  should  be  united  by  means  of  a continuous 
or  glover’s  stitch,  similar  to  the  stitch  used  in  hemming.  It 
should  be  so  done  that  the  exterior  surface  of  the  bowel,  on 
either  side  of  the  cut,  shall  be  in  contact;  and  then  the  bowel 
having  been  carefully  washed  in  luke-warm  water,  should  be 
returned,  stitches  and  all.  If  all  goes  0V1  well,  the  silk  will  be 
removed  by  the  bowel  when  the  wound  is  healed.  The  after 
treatment  is  to  be  conducted  as  for  a simple  punctured  wound. 
The  general  treatment  of  the  perforated  wound  of  the  intes- 
tines will  be  the  same  as  that  of  wounds  of  other  organs  in  the 
abdomen — viz.,  rest  of  the  parts  secured  by  opiates,  and  sup- 
port of  the  system  by  stimulants  and  light  food. 

Gunshot  Wounds  are  perforated,  bruised  wounds,  compli- 


MEDICINAL. 


513 


cated  with  nervous  shock.  These  wounds  do  not  bleed  so 
much  as  cuts,  but  they  are  more  troublesome  to  heal  on 
account  of  the  large  amount  of  destruction  of  tissue  they  occa- 
sion. This  varies  on  account  of  the  size  of  bullet.  Another 
cause  for  their  being  more  dangerous  than  cuts  is  that  it  some- 
times happens  a piece  of  the  wad  becomes  lodged  in  the 
wound,  and  being  difficult  to  detect,  is  sometimes  left  behind 
when  the  bullet  is  extracted,  causing  mischief  by  its  presence 
until  removed  or  thrown  off  in  the  ploughing  of  the  wound. 
Inflammation  generally  sets  in  about  the  wound  within  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  external  parts  become  swollen  and  red,  the 
patient  complains  of  pain  in  the  wound.  After  another  day  or 
so  a discharge  of  pus  and  matter  appears.  The  bruised  parts, 
or  rather  those  parts  with  which  the  ball  in  its  passage  has  come 
in  contact,  will  now  begin  to  be  cast  off  by  sloughing,  though 
this  process  may  occupy  several  weeks  before  all  the  dead  parts 
or  foreign  substances  are  cast  off.  Mortification  may  follow  a 
gunshot  wound  if  the  destruction  of  tissue  be  considerable,  or 
if  much  bone  be  included  in  it;  if  the  patient  be  in  a bad  state 
of  health,  or  if  the  atmosphere  is  confined  and  of  an  unhealthy 
character. 

Treatment. — Stimulants,  such  as  brandy  or  wine,  should 
be  given  to  relieve  the  depression;  then,  if  the  bullet  has  com- 
pletely passed  through,  the  surface  should  be  cleaned,  and  a 
piece  of  wet  lint  should  be  applied.  This  should  be  continued 
for  three  or  four  days,  and  then  the  patient  treated  as  for  a 
bruised  wound.  Bullets  are  frequently  lodged  in  the  wound. 
If  visible  at  the  orifice,  they  should  be  removed,  but  if  not, 
there  should  be  no  attempt  made  by  a non-professional  person 
to  find  them,  as  much  injury  may  be  inflicted  in  the  attempt  to 
explore  for  them.  Their  removal  must  be  postponed  until 
surgical  aid  can  be  obtained. 

Wounds  and  Bruises.  Dressings  for. — Carded  Oakum 
Stypium. — A convenient  dressing  for  confused  and  lacerated 
wounds.  Oakum  has  this  advantage,  that  where  old  rope  is  to 
be  found,  this  substance  can  be  made.  It  can,  however,  be 
obtained  “carded”  for  surgical  purposes,  and  in  this  shape, 
known  as  “stypium,”  it  is  a clean  and  useful  means  of  arrest- 
ing haemorrhage  from  wounds  by  causing  coagulation  of  the 
blood  in  its  meshes,  as  well  as  absorbing  discharges.  The 
creasote,  which  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  tar,  has  preserva- 
tive properties,  stimulates  a sluggish  surface,  and  destroys  un- 
pleasant odors.  It  will  be  found  very  useful  in  the  wounds  of 
compound  and  comminuted  fracture. 

Carbolated  Oil. — Solid  carbolic  acid  liquefied  by  heat, 
48  minims;  olive  oil  to  4 fluid  ounces.  Mix.  This  is  an  ad- 

91 


514 


MEDICINAL. 


mirable  dressing  for  the  suppurating  surface  of  open  wounds. 
It  should  be  applied  as  follows:  A piece  of  soft  linen  rag, 
rather  larger  than  the  surface  to  be  covered,  should  be  steeped 
in  the  mixture,  and  carefully  drawn  from  the  edge  of  the  wound 
right  across  it  until  it  is  completely  covered.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  exclude  all  bubbles  of  air,  which  should  be  pressed 
gently  out,  in  order  that  the  oil  may  be  in  contact  with  the 
whole  surface. 

Isinglass  Plaster. — A very  clean,  simple  and  useful  kind 
of  plaster  can  be  home-made — that  is  isinglass  plaster.  What 
is  called  “Persian”  silk,  is  to  be  firmly  stretched  and  painted 
with  a moderately  thick  solution  of  isinglass,  which  is  then  suf- 
fered to  dry.  This  plaster  has  the  advantage  of  allowing  the 
state  of  a cut  beneath  it  to  be  pretty  clearly  seen — it  is  besides 
readily  removed,  when  required,  by  the  application  of  warm 
water. 

Wounds,  Haemorrhage  or  Bleeding  from. — Meaning  of 
the  Word  “Traumatic.” — We  have  elsewhere  spoken  of  the 
various  forms  of  haemorrhage  that  arise  out  of  the  disease  of 
the  internal  organs,  and  require  what  is,  more  strictly  speaking, 
called  “medical  treatment.”  By  “traumatic”  bleeding  is  meant 
the  consequence  of  wounding  of  the  blood  vessels,  calling  for 
surgical  means  to  its  arrest.  Traumatic  or  surgical  bleeding 
may  be  either  arterial  or  venous,  and  require  different  treat- 
ment accordingly. 

Arterial  Haemorrhage. — When  a wound  or  other  injury 
causes  bleeding  of  a bright  or  vermillion  red  color,  the  blood 
flows  from  an  artery.  This  is  rendered  clearer  still  if  the 
blood  flow  in  spirts  or  intermittent  jets  corresponding  with  the 
beats  of  the  pulse. 

Venous  Haemorrhage  is  known  by  the  even  flow  of  the 
blood  and  its  darker  color. 

Treatment. — Venous  Bleeding. — If  the  bleeding  from  a 
wound  be  of  the  dark  venous  character,  or  being,  as  is  often 
the  case,  partly  arterial  also,  but  not  very  profuse,  gentle  pres- 
sure will  sometimes  suffice  to  check  the  flow;  or  the  application 
of  cold  water  or  ice,  or  exposure  to  cold  air,  may  stop  the 
bleeding.  A slight  flow  of  blood  can  be  arrested  by  matico, 
or  by  a piece  of  linen  lint  soaked  in  Friar’s  balsam  or  tincture 
of  perchloride  of  iron. 

Arterial  Bleeding. — If  the  bleeding  be  arterial,  as  indi- 
cated by  its  flowing  in  jets,  firm  pressure  should  be  made  over 
the  wounded  vessel,  if  in  such  a position  as  to  admit  of  it. 
Supposing  that  the  pressure  of  the  hand  does  not  suffice  to 
stanch  the  bleeding,  then  pressure  should  be  made  by  tying  a 


MEDICINAL. 


515 


handkerchief  or  bandage  so  that  the  knot  shall  press  over  tne 
wound.  If  the  wound  has  been  inflicted  on  one  of  the  ex- 
tremities, the  bleeding  may  be  arrested  by  tying  a ligature 
round  the  limb,  so  as  to  press  a pad  of  lint  upon  the  artery.  If 
the  pad  be  soaked  in  Friar’s  balsam,  or  tincture  of  matico,  it 
will  be  of  more  service. 

Arresting  Bleeding  from  the  Arm. — Pressure  by  the 
fingers  on  the  main  artery  of  the  arm,  as  it  passes  in  the  arm- 
pit  along  the  inner  side  of  the  arm  under  the  shoulder  joint, 
will  assist  in  checking  the  haemorrhage  from  a wound  of  the 
forearm  or  hand.  The  artery  may  also  be  firmly  compressed 
at  the  elbow-joint  by  bending  the  arm  firmly,  and  laying  the 
hand  of  the  same  side  on  the  point  of  the  shoulder. 

Artery  of  the  Thigh. — In  cases  of  obstinate  arterial 
bleeding  from  any  part  of  the  lower  extremity,  firm  pressure 
should  be  made  in  the  groin,  where  the  large  artery  of  the  limb 
may  be  easily  felt  beating  as  it  passes  down  the  thigh.  When, 
by  the  means  above  described,  the  bleeding  has  been  arrested, 
ive  should  proceed  to  examine  the  wound  with  the  help  of  a 
sponge,  and  search  for  the  bleeding  vessel. 

Of  Tying  an  Artery. — Supposing  that  all  these  means 
have  been  tried,  and  the  bleeding  still  continues  or  returns 
when  the  pressure  is  taken  off,  the  wound  should  be  carefully 
washed  with  a sponge  and  cold  water,  and  pressure  being  ap- 
plied, the  cut  end  of  the  wounded  vessel  sought  for  and  tied, 
thus:  When  found,  the  bleeding  end  of  the  vessel  should  be 
taken  hold  of  with  a pair  of  fine-pointed  forceps  and  held  up, 
so  that  an  assistant  may  pass  a piece  of  silk  or  thread  round  it, 
which  should  then  be  tied  into  a double  knot,  taking  care  that 
the  thread  be  not  tied  too  tightly,  as  by  doing  so  the  artery 
may  again  be  divided.  One  end  of  the  thread  should  then  be 
cut  off  and  the  other  left  hanging  out  of  the  wound,  which 
should  then  be  dressed  with  lint  or  linen  dipped  in  cold  water. 
The  ligature  will  generally  come  away  in  about  a week.  There 
are  other  means  of  checking  bleeding,  if  the  vessel  wounded  is 
not  very  large,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most  handy: 

A piece  of  lint  or  cotton  wool  soaked  in  the  tincture  of  the 
perchloride  of  iron  or  tincture  of  matico  may  be  pressed  down 
into  the  wound  in  contact  with  the  bleeding  vessel.  Or,  the 
vessel  should  be  lightly  and  rapidly  touched  with  a piece  of 
iron  ware  heated  red  hot.  This  is,  perhaps,  the  most  effective 
way  of  checking  the  bleeding,  and  is  by  no  means  so  painful 
as  it  might  seem.  Another  plan  is  to  touch  the  orifice  of  the 
bleeding  vessel  with  a stick  of  nitrate  of  silver. 

Leech  Bites. — The  bleeding  from  these  is  often  very 
troublesome,  more  especially  when  the  leeches  have  been  inad- 


516 


MEDICINAL, 


vertently  applied  at  some  part  of  the  body  where,  from  the  ab- 
sence of  bone,  there  is  a difficulty  in  applying  firm  pressure. 
For  this  reason  leeches,  when  applied,  should  always  be  placed 
over  some  bone  or  other  hard  part  upon  which  the  necessary 
pressure  can  be  applied  and  continued  for  some  minutes.  If 
pressure  cannot,  for  the  reason  above  stated,  be  applied,  the 
bites  may  be  touched  with  the  point  of  a camel's  hair  brush 
steeped  in  tincture  of  the  perchloride  of  iron,  or  they  may  be 
touched  with  a stick  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and,  as  this  is  generally 
at  hand,  it  is  a convenient  means.  A ready  method  is  to  cut  a 
small  piece  of  glazed  visiting  card,  and,  having  pressed  with  a 
dry  handkerchief  for  a short  time  on  the  bites,  then  quickly, 
before  the  blood  comes  again,  press  the  glazed  surface  of  the 
card  on  the  bite,  and  fasten  it  there  with  plaster  or  a bandage. 

Matico,  and  Tincture  of  Matico. — A valuable  styptic 
may  be  kept  readily  at  hand  by  steeping  a few  matico  leaves  in 
a phial  with  gin,  brandy  or  proof  spirit.  A piece  of  lint  soaked 
in  this  will  stay  the  bleeding  of  slight  cuts.  Matico  leaf  itself 
laid  on  a bleeding  surface,  or  a slight  cut,  or  a leech  bite,  will 
also  stanch  the  bleeding. 

Fainting. — The  faintness  that  often  occurs  in  cases  of 
bleeding,  from  whatever  cause,  favors  the  stanching  of  the 
blood.  All  that  is  required  is  to  place  the  patient  on  his  back 
with  his  head  low,  and  administer  some  slight  stimulant. 

Worms,  Intestinal. — Symptoms.— Variable  and  vitiated 
appetite,  foetid  breath,  feverishness,  grinding  of  teeth,  picking 
at  the  nose,  itching  at  the  seat,  disordered  bowels,  and  pains  in 
the  stomach.  There  are  three  varieties  of  worms  voided  from 
the  intestines,  viz.:  ist,  the  round  worm,  resembling  the  common 
earthworm;  2d,  the  threadworm — some  short  white  worms, 
some  of  a larger  variety;  3d,  tapeworm,  the  length  of  which 
extends  to  many  feet,  and  which  consists  of  small  square  joints. 

Treatment. — The  first  two  of  these  varieties  may  be  ex- 
pelled by  doses  of  calomel  and  scammony,  or  of  santonine. 
The  third  (tapeworm)  requires  either  the  oil  of  male  fern  (one 
drachm  in  an  ounce  of  water),  taken  fasting  early  in  the  morn- 
ing; or:  Castor  oil,  one-half  ounce;  spirits  of  turpentine,  one- 
half  ounce;  cinnamon  water  or  peppermint  water,  2 ounces. 
Mixed,  and  taken  fasting. 

It  is  seldom  necessary  to  repeat  this  dose.  The  tapeworm 
when  voided  should  be  carefully  examined  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain that  the  head  is  expelled,  since,  if  this  be  not  the  case  the 
worm  quickly  grows  again.  The  head  may  be  recognized  by 
means  of  a common  pocket  lens.  It  is  very  minute,  but  is 
rounded,  on  a narrow  neck,  and  presents  on  its  surface  sucking 
discs,  by  which  it  attaches  itself  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
bowel. 


MEDICINAL. 


517 


MISCELLANEOUS  RECIPES. 

.Remedy  for  Diphtheria. — The  treatment  consists  in  thor- 
oughly swabbing  the  back  of  the  mouth  and  throat  with  a 
wash  made  thus:  Table  salt,  2 drachms;  black  pepper,  gold- 
en seal,  nitrate  of  potash,  alum,  1 drachm  each;  mix  and 
pulverize;  put  into  a teacup  half  full  of  water;  stir  well  and 
then  fill  up  with  good  vinegar.  Use  every  half  hour,  one,  two, 
and  four  hours,  as  recovery  progresses.  The  patient  may 
swallow  a little  each  time.  Apply  1 ounce  each  of  spirits  of 
turpentine,  sweet  oil,  and  aqua  ammonia,  mixed,  every  hour,  to 
the  whole  of  the  throat,  and  to  the  breast  bone  every  four 
hours,  keeping  flannel  to  the  part. 

Worm  Lozenges. — Powdered  lump  sugar,  10  ounces;  starch, 
5 ounces;  mix  with  mucilage;  and  to  every  ounce  add  12  grains 
calomel,  divided  into  20  grain  lozenges.  Dose,  two  to  six. 

Soothing  Syrup. — Take  I pound  of  honey;  add  2 table- 
spoonfuls of  paregoric,  and  the  same  of  oil  of  anise  seed;  add 
enough  water  to  make  a thick  syrup,  and  bottle.  For  children 
teething,  dose,  teaspoonful  occasionally. 

Infants’  Syrup. — This  syrup  is  made  thus:  1 pound  best  box 
raisins;  1-2  ounce  anise  seed;  2 sticks  licorice;  split  the 
raisins,  pound  the  anise  seed,  and  cut  the  licorice  fine;  add  to 
it  3 quarts  of  rain  water,  and  boil  down  to  two  quarts.  Feed 
three  or  four  times  a day,  as  much  as  the  child  will  willingly 
drink.  The  raisins  are  to  strengthen,  the  anise  is  to  expel  the 
wind,  and  the  licorice  as  a physic. 

Swaim’s  Vermifuge. — Wormseed,  2 ounces;  valerian,  rhu- 
barb, pink-root,  white  agaric,  of  each  1 1-2  ounces;  boil  in 
sufficient  water  to  yield  3 quarts  of  decoction;  add  to  it  30 
drops  of  tansy  and  45  drops  of  oil  of  cloves,  dissolved  in  a 
quart  of  rectified  spirits.  Dose,  1 tablespoonful  at  night. 

Ayer’s  Cherry  Pectoral. — Take  4 grains  of  the  acetate  of 
morphia;  2 fluid  drachms  of  tincture  of  bloodroot;  a fluid 
drachm  each  of  antimonial  wine  and  wine  of  ipecacuanha,  and 
3 fluid  ounces  of  syrup  of  wild  cherry.  Mix. 

Brown’s  Bronchial  Troches. — Take  1 pound  of  pulverized 
extract  of  licorice;  1 1-2  pounds  of  pulverized  sugar;  4 ounces 
of  pulverized  cubebs;  4 ounces  of  pulverized  gum  arabic,  and 
1 ounce  of  pulverized  extract  of  conium.  Mix. 

Russia  Salve. — Take  equal  parts  of  yellow  wax  and  sweet 
oil;  melt  slowly,  carefully  stirring;  when  cooling,  stir  in  a small 
quantity  of  glycerine.  Good  for  all  kinds  of  wounds,  etc. 

To  Extract  Teeth  with  Little  or  no  Pain.— Tincture  of 


518 


MEDICINAL. 


aconite,  chloroform,  and  alcohol,  of  each  i ounce.  Mix 
Moisten  two  pledgets  of  cotton  with  the  liquid,  and  apply  to 
the  gums  on  each  side  of  the  tooth  to  be  extracted,  holding 
them  in  their  place  with  pliers  or  other  instruments  for  from 
five  to  ten  minutes,  rubbing  the  gum  freely  inside  and  out. 

Tooth  Wash. — To  Remove  Blackness. — Pure  muriatic 
acid,  i ounce;  water,  i ounce;  honey,  2 ounces.  Mix.  Take 
a tooth  brush  and  wet  it  freely  with  the  preparation,  and  briskly 
rub  the  black  teeth,  and  in  a moment’s  time  they  will  be  per- 
fectly white;  then  immediately  wash  out  the  mouth  with  water, 
that  the  acid  may  not  act  upon  the  enamel  of  the  teeth. 

Compound  Extract  of  Buchu. — Buchu  leaves,  1 pound; 
boiling  distilled  water,  3 gallons;  boil  the  leaves  in  2 gallons  of 
the  water  down  to  6 quarts;  then  boil  it  again  in  the  remaining 
water  till  reduced  to  2 quarts.  Evaporate  the  mixed  liquors 
down  to  6 pints,  and  add  1 quart  strong  sage  tea,  2 drachms 
bicarbonate  of  potassa,  2 drachms  tincture  of  cannabis  Indica, 
5 ounces  rectified  spirits,  2 ounces  balsam  of  copabia,  and 
Harlem  oil.  Bottle. 

New  Method  of  Embalming. — Mix  together  5 pounds  of 
dry  sulphate  of  alumine,  1 quart  of  warm  water,  and  100  grains 
of  arsenious  acid.  Inject  three  or  four  quarts  of  this  mixture 
into  all  the  vessels  of  the  human  body.  This  applies  as  well  to 
all  animals,  birds,  fishes,  etc.  This  process  supercedes  the  old 
and  revolting  mode,  and  has  been  introduced  into  the  great 
anatomical  schools  of  Paris. 

Hair  Dye. — No.  1. — Take  galic  acid,  1-2  ounce;  alcohol,  8 
ounces;  soft  water,  16  ounces.  Put  the  acid  in  the  alcohol, 
then  add  the  water. 

No.  2. — Crystalized  nitrate  of  silver,  1 ounce;  strongest 
ammonia,  3 ounces;  gum  arabic,  1-2  ounce;  soft  water,  6 
ounces.  Put  the  silver  in  the  ammonia;  do  not  cork  till  it  is 
dissolved;  dissolve  the  gum  in  the  water,  then  mix,  and  it  is 
ready  for  use. 

Keep  Nos.  1 and  2 in  separate  bottles,  and  apply  each  alter- 
nately to  the  hair.  Be  particular  to  cleanse  the  hair  before 
applying  the  dye. 

Another. — Nitrate  of  silver,  n drachms;  nitric  acid,  1 
drachm;  distilled  water,  1 pint;  sap  green,  3 drachms;  gum 
arabic,  1 drachm.  Mix. 

Another. — Nitric  acid,  1 drachm;  nitrate  of  silver,  10 
drachms;  sap  green,  9 drachms;  mucilage,  5 drachms;  distilled 
water,  37  1-2  fluid  ounces. 


MEDICINAL. 


519 


Hair  Invigorator — Bay  rum,  2 pints;  alcohol,  i pint; 
castor-oil,  1 ounce;  carbonate  of  ammonia,  1-2  ounce;  tincture 
of  cantharides,  1 ounce.  Mix  them  well.  This  compound 
will  promote  the  growth  of  the  hair  and  prevent  it  from  fall- 
ing out. 

Razor-Strop  Paste.-— Wet  the  strop  with  a little  sweet  oil, 
and  apply  a little  flour  of  emery  evenly  over  the  surface. 

Oriental  Cold  Cream. — Oil  of  almonds,  4 ounces;  white 
wax  and  spermaceti,  of  each,  2 drachms;  melt  and  add  rose 
water,  4 ounces;  orange-flower  water,  1 ounce.  Used  to  soften 
the  skin.  Apply  as  the  last. 

Shaving  Cream. — White  wax,  spermaceti,  and  almond  oil, 
of  each,  1-4  ounce;  melt,  and  while  warm  beat  in  two  squares 
of  Windsor  soap,  previously  reduced  to  a paste  with  rose  water. 

Circassian  Cream. — Take  2 ounces  of  perfectly  fresh  suet, 
either  of  mutton  or  venison;  3 ounces  of  olive  oil;  1 ounce  of 
gum  benzoin  in  powder;  and  1-4  ounce  of  alkanet  root.  Put 
the  whole  into  a jam  jar,  which,  if  without  a lid,  must  be  tied 
over  with  bladder,  and  place  the  jar  in  a sauce  pan  containing 
boiling  water,  at  the  side  of  the  fire.  Digest  for  a whole  day, 
then  strain  away  all  that  is  fluid  through  fine  muslin,  and  stir 
till  nearly  cold.  Add,  say  1 drachm  of  essence  of  almonds 
roses,  bergamot,  or  any  other  perfume  desired. 

Yankee  Shaving  Soap. — Take  3 pounds  of  white  bar  soap, 
1 pound  of  Castile  soap,  1 quart  of  rain  water,  1-2  pint  of 
beef’s  gall,  1 gill  spirits  of  turpentine.  Cut  the  soap  into 
thin  slices,  and  boil  five  minutes  after  the  soap  is  dissolved; 
stir  while  boiling;  scent  with  oil  of  rose  or  almonds.  If  wished 
to  color  it,  use  1-2  ounce  vermillion. 

Freckle  Cure. — Take  2 ounces  of  lemon  juice,  or  1-2  drachm 
of  powdered  borax,  and  1 drachm  of  sugar;  mix  together,  and 
let  them  stand  in  a glass  bottle  for  a few  days,  then  rub  on  the 
face  occasionally. 

Hair  Restorative. — Sugar  of  lead,  borax,  and  lac-sulphur, 
of  each,  1 ounce;  aqua  ammonia,  1-2  ounce;  alcohol,  1 gill. 
These  articles  are  to  stand  mixed  for  14  hours;  then  add  bay 
rum,  1 gill;  fine  table  salt,  1 tablespoonful;  soft  water,  3 pints; 
essence  of  bergamot,  1 ounce.  This  preparation  gives  a splendid 
glossy  appearance  to  the  hair,  turns  gray  hair  to  a dark  color, 
and  restores  the  hair  when  common  baldness  sets  in.  When 
the  hair  is  thin  or  bald,  apply  twice  a day  with  a hard  brush, 
working  into  the  roots  of  the  hair.  For  gray  hair,  once  a day 
is  sufficient. 


520 


MEDICINAL. 


Barber’s  Shampoo  Mixture —Soft  water,  i pint;  sal  soda, 

1 ounce;  cream  tartar,  1-4  ounce.  Apply  thoroughly  to  the 
hair. 

Febrifuge  Wine. — Quinine,  25  grains;  water,  1 pint;  sul- 
phuric acid,  15  drops;  epsom  salts,  2 ounces;  color  with  tinc- 
ture of  red  sanders.  Dose,  a wine  glass,  three  times  a day. 
This  is  a world-renowned  medicine. 

Barrell’s  Indian  Liniment. — Alcohol,  1 quart;  tincture  of 
capsicum,  1 ounce;  oils  of  origanum,  sassafras,  pennyroyal, 
and  hemlock,  of  each,  1-2  ounce.  Mix.  More  than  $70,000 
have  been  cleared  by  the  sale  of  this  medicine  during  the  last 
twelve  years  in  the  Western  States. 

Paregoric. — Best  opium,  1-2  drachm;  dissolve  it  in  about 

2 tablespoonfuls  of  boiling  water;  then  add  benzoic  acid,  1-2 
drachm;  oil  of  anise,  1-2  a fluid  drachm;  clarified  honey,  1 
ounce;  camphor  gum,  1 scruple;  alcohol,  76  per  cent.,  n fluid 
ounces;  distilled  water,  4 fluid  ounces.  Macerate  (keep  warm) 
for  two  weeks.  Dose,  for  children,  5 to  20  drops;  adults,  1 to 
2 teaspoonfuls. 

Cough  Syrup. — Syrup  of  squills,  2 ounces;  tartarized  anti- 
mony, 8 grains;  sulphate  of  morphine,  5 grains;  pulverized  gum 
arabic,  1-4  ounce;  honey,  1 ounce;  water,  1 ounce.  Mix. 
Dose  for  an  adult,  one  small  teaspoonful;  repeat  in  half  an 
hour  if  it  does  not  relieve.  Child  in  proportion. 

Camphor  Ice. — Spermaceti,  1 1-2  ounce;  gum  camphor,  3-4 
ounce;  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  4 teaspoonfuls.  Set  on  stove  in 
an  earthen  dish  till  dissolved;  heat  just  enough  to  dissolve  it. 
While  warm,  put  into  small  moulds,  if  desired  to  sell;  then 
paper,  and  put  into  tinfoil.  Used  for  chaps  on  hands  or  lips. 

Imperial  Drops  for  Gravel  and  Kidney  Complaints. — Oil 

of  origanum,  1 ounce;  oil  of  hemlock,  1-4  ounce;  oil  of  sassa- 
fras, 1-4  ounce;  oil  of  anise,  1-2  ounce;  alcohol,  1 pint.  Mix. 
Dose,  from  1-2  to  1 teaspoonful  three  times  a day  in  sweetened 
water,  will  soon  give  relief  when  constant  weakness  is  felt  across 
the  small  of  the  back,  as  well  as  gravelly  affections  causing  pain 
about  the  kidneys. 

Positive  Cure  for  Gonorrohoea. — Liquor  of  potass,  1-2 
ounce;  bitter  apple,  1-2  ounce;  spirits  of  sweet  nitre,  1-2  ounce; 
balsam  of  copabia,  1-2  ounce;  best  gum,  1-4  ounce.  To  use, 
mix  with  peppermint  water.  Take  1-2  teaspoonful  three  times 
a day.  Cure  certain  in  nine  days. 

Celebrated  Pile  Ointment— Take  carbonate  of  lead,  1-2 
ounce;  sulphate  of  morphia,  15  grains;  stramonium  ointment,  1 


MEDICINAL. 


521 


ounce;  olive  oil,  20  drops.  Mix,  and  apply  three  times  a day, 
or  as  the  pain  may  require. 

Sweating  Drops. — Ipecac,  saffron,  boneset  and  champhor 
gum,  of  each,  3 ounces;  opium,  1 ounce;  alcohol,  2 ■ quarts. 
Let  stand  two  weeks  and  filter.  A teaspoonful  in  a cup  of  hot 
sage  or  catnip  tea  every  hour  until  free  perspiration  is  induced; 
excellent  in  colds,  fevers,  inflammations,  etc.  Bathe  the  feet  in 
hot  water  at  the  same  time. 

Syrup  for  Consumptives. — Of  tamarac  bark,  take  from  the 
tree  without  rossing,  1 peck;  spikenard  root,  1-2  pound;  dan- 
delion root  1-4  pound;  hops,  2 ounces.  Boil  these  sufficient  to 
get  the  strength  in  two  or  three  gallons  of  water;  strain  and 
boil  down  to  one  gallon;  when  blood  warm,  add  three  pounds 
of  best  honey,  and  3 pints  of  best  brandy;  bottle  and  keep  in 
a cool  place.  Dose,  drink  freely  of  it  three  times  per  day 
before  meals,  at  least  a gill  or  more;  cure  very  certain. 

Female  Complaints. — Pills  to  Promote  Menstrual 
Secretion. — Take  pills  of  aloes  and  myrrh,  4 drachms;  com- 
pound iron  pills,  280  grains.  Mix,  and  form  into  100  pills. 
Dose  2,  twice  a day. 

For  Obstructed  Menstruation. — Sulphate  of  iron,  60 
grains;  potassa  (sub.  carb.),  60  grains;  myrrh,  2 drachms. 
Make  them  into  three  and  one-half-grain  pills;  two  to  be  taken 
three  times  a day,  in  the  absence  of  fever.  For  painful  men- 
struation, take  pulverized  rhei,  2 drachms;  pulverized  jalap,  2 
drachms;  pulverized  opium,  2 drachms:  syrup  of  poppies  to 
mix.  Divide  into  200  pills,  and  take  night  and  morning.  T o 
check  immoderate  flow:  Tincture  of  ergot,  1 ounce;  liquor  of 
ammonia,  3 drachms.  Mix.  Dose  teaspoonful  in  water  three 
times  a day. 

Stimulant. — In  Low  Fevers  and  After  Uterine  Hem- 
orrhages.— Best  brandy  and  cinnamon  water,  of  each  4 fluid 
ounces;  the  yolks  of  2 eggs,  well  beaten;  loaf  sugar,  1-2  ounce; 
oil  of  cinnamon,  2 drops.  Mix.  Dose,  from  one-half  to  one 
(fluid)  ounce,  as  often  as  required.  This  makes  both  meat 
and  drink.  Of  course,  any  other  flavoring  oils  can  be  used,  if 
preferred,  in  place  of  the  cinnamon. 

For  Female  Complaints. — One  of  the  best  laxative  pills 
for  female  complaints  is  macrotin  and  rhubarb,  each  10  grains; 
extract  of  hyoscyamus,  10  grains;  Castile  soap,  40  grains. 
Scrape  the  soap,  and  mix  well  together,  forming  into  common 
sized  pills  with  gum  solution.  Dose,  one  pill  at  bedtime,  or 
sufficiently  often  to  keep  the  bowels  in  a laxative  state. 

Anodyne  for  Painful  Menstruation. — Extract  of  stra- 
monium and  sulphate  of  quinine,  each  16  grains;  macrotin,  8 


522 


MEDICINAL. 


grains;  morphine,  i grain.  Make  into  8 pills.  Dose,  one  pill, 
repeating  once  or  twice  only,  forty  to  fifty  minutes  apart,  if  the 
pain  does  not  subside  before  this  time.  Pain  must  subside 
under  the  use  of  this  pill,  and  costiveness  is  not  increased. 

Powder  for  Excessive  Flooding. — Gums  kino  and  cate- 
chu, each  i drachm;  sugar  of  lead  and  alum,  each  1-2  drachm. 
Pulverize  all  and  thoroughly  mix,  then  divide  into  7 to  10 
grain  powders.  Dose,  one  every  two  or  three  hours  until 
checked,  then  less  often  merely  to  control  the  flow. 

Injection  for  Leucorrhea. — When  the  glairy  mucus  dis- 
charge is  present,  prepare  a tea  of  hemlock  inner  [bark  and 
witch  hazel  (often  called  spotted  alder)  leaves  and  bark,  have  a 
female  syringe  large  enough  to  fill  the  vagina,  and  inject  the 
tea,  twice  daily;  and  occasionally  in  bad  cases,  say  twice  a 
week,  inject  a syringe  of  the  following  composition: 

For  Chronic  Female  Complaints. — White  vitriol  and 
sugar  of  lead,  each  1-8  ounce;  common  salt,  pulverized  alum, 
and  loaf  sugar,  of  each,  1-2  drachm;  soft  water,  1 pint.  Inject 
as  above. 

For  Prolapsus  Uteri,  or  Falling  of  the  Womb. — Not 
only  the  cheapest  but  the  best  support  will  be  found  to  be  a 
piece  of  firm  sponge,  cut  to  a proper  size  to  admit,  when  damp, 
of  being  pressed  up  the  vagina  to  hold  the  womb  in  its  place. 
The  sponge  should  have  a stout  piece  of  small  cord  sewed  two 
or  three  times  through  its  centre  up  and  down,  and  left  suffic- 
iently long  to  allow  its  being  taken  hold  of  to  remove  the 
sponge  once  a day,  or  every  other  day  at  the  farthest,  for  the 
purpose  of  washing,  cleaning,  and  using  the  necessary  injec- 
tions; and  this  must  be  done  while  the  patient  is  lying  down, 
to  prevent  the  womb  from  again  falling  or  prolapsing.  After 
having  injected  some  of  the  above  tea,  wet  the  sponge  in  the 
same,  and  intro  luce  it  sufficiently  high  to  hold  the  womb  in 
its  place.  If  pain  is  felt  about  the  head,  back,  or  loins,  for  a 
few  days  before  the  menses  appear,  prepare  and  use  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Uterine  Haemorrhages. — Unfailing  cure.  Sugar  of  lead, 
10  grains;  ergot,  10  grains;  opium,  3 grains;  epicac,  1 grain; 
All  pulverized  and  well  mixed.  Dose,  10  to  12  grains,  given 
in  a little  honey  or  syrup.  In  very  bad  cases  after  childbirth, 
it  might  be  repeated  in  thirty  minutes,  or  the  dose  increased  to 
15  or  18  grains;  but  in  cases  of  rather  profuse  masting,  repeat 
it  once  at  the  end  of  three  hours,  or  as  the  urgency  of  the  case 
may  require. 

In  every  case  of  female  debility  make  a liberal  use  of  iron, 
as  the  want  of  iron  in  the  system  is  often  the  cause  of  the 
trouble.  Mix  fine  iron  filings  with  as  much  ground  ginger. 


MEDICINAL. 


523 


Dose,  half  of  a teaspoonful  three  times  daily  in  a little  honey  or 
molasses;  increase  or  lessen  the  dose  to  produce  a blackness  cf 
the  stools.  Continue  this  course  until  well. 

Nerve  and  Bone  Liniment. — Beef’s  gall,  i quart;  alcohol,  i 
pint;  volatile  liniment,  i pound;  spirits  of  turpentine,  i pound; 
oil  origanum,  4 ounces;  aqua  ammonia,  4 ounces;  tincture  of 
cayenne,  1-2  pint;  oil  of  amber,  3 ounces;  tincture  of  Spanish 
flies,  6 ounces.  Mix  well. 

Positive  Cure  for  Ague  Without  Quinine. — Peruvian  bark, 
2 ounces;  wild  cherry  tree  bark,  1 ounce;  cinnamon,  1 drachm; 
capsicum,  1 teaspoonful;  sulphur,  1 ounce;  port  wine,  2 quarts. 
Let  it  stand  two  days.  Buy  your  Peruvian  bark  and  pulverize 
it  yourself,  as  it  is  often  adulterated  otherwise.  Dose,  a wine- 
glass full  every  two  or  three  hours  after  fever  is  off,  then  two 
or  three  per  day  till  all  is  used.  A certain  cure.  Before  taking 
the  above,  cleanse  the  bowels  with  a dose  of  epsom  salts,  or 
other  purgative. 

Green  Mountain  Salve. — For  rheumatism,  burns,  pains  in 
the  back  or  side,  &c.  Take  2 pounds  of  rosin;  burgundy 
pitch,  1-4  pound;  beeswax,  1-4  pound;  mutton  tallow,  1-4 
pound.  Melt  slowly.  When  not  too  warm,  add  oil  hemlock, 
1 ounce;  balsam  fir,  1 ounce;  oil  of  origanum,  1 ounce;  oil  of 
red  cedar,  1 ounce;  Venice  turpentine,  1 ounce;  oil  of  worm- 
wood, 1 ounce;  verdigris,  1-2  ounce.  The  verdigris  must  be 
finely  pulverized  and  mixed  with  the  oils;  then  add  as  above, 
and  work  in  cold  water  like  wax  till  cold  enough  to  roll;  rolls 
five  inches  long,  one  inch  in  diameter,  sell  for  25  cents. 

English  Remedy  for  Cancer. — Take  chloride  of  zinc,  blood 
root  pulverized,  and  flour,  equal  quantities  of  each, worked  into  a 
paste  and  applied.  First  spread  a common  sticking-plaster, 
much  larger  than  the  cancer,  cutting  a circular  piece  from  the 
centre  of  it  a little  larger  than  the  cancer,  applying  it,  which 
exposes  a narrow  rim  of  healthy  skin;  then  apply  the  cancer 
plaster,  and  keep  it  on  24  hours.  On  removing  it,  the  cancer 
will  be  found  to  have  been  burned  into,  and  appears  the  color 
of  an  old  shoe  sole,  and  the  rim  outside  will  appear  white  and 
parboiled,  as  if  burned  by  steam.  Dress  with  slippery-elm 
poultice  until  suppuration  takes  place,  then  heal  with  any  com- 
mon salve. 

Charcoal,  a Cure  for  Sick  Headache. — It  is  stated  that  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  finely  powdered  charcoal,  drank  in  half  a tumbler 
of  water  will,  in  less  than  fifteen  minutes,  give  relief  to  the  sick 
headache,  when  caused,  as  in  most  cases  it  is,  by  superabund- 
ance of  acid  on  the  stomach. 

Felons. — If  Recent,  to  Cure  in  Six  Hours. — Venice 
turpentine,  1 ounce;  and  put  it  into  half  a teaspoonful  of  water, 


524 


MEDICINAL. 


and  stir  with  a rough  stick  until  the  mass  looks  like  a candied 
honey;  then  spread  a good  coat  on  a cloth,  and  wrap 
around  the  finger.  If  the  case  is  only  recent  it  will  remove  the 
pain  in  6 hours. 

Felon  Salve. — A salve  made  by  burning  one  tablespoonful 
of  copperas,  then  pulverizing  it  and  mixing  with  the  yolk  of  an 
egg,  is  said  to  relieve  the  pain,  and  cure  the  felon  in  24  hours; 
then  heal  with  cream  two  parts,  and  soft  soap  one  part.  Apply 
the  healing  salve  daily  after  soaking  the  part  in  warm  water. 

Felon  Ointment. — Take  sweet  oil,  1-2  pint,  and  stew  a 
three-cent  plug  of  tobacco  in  it  until  the  tobacco  is  crisped; 
then  squeeze  it  out  and  add  red  lead,  1 ounce;'  and  boil  until 
black;  when  a little  cool  add  pulverized  camphor  gum,  1 
ounce. 

Warts  and  Corns. — To  Cure  in  Ten  Minutes. — Take  a 
small  piece  of  potash,  and  let  it  stand  in  the  open  air  until  it 
slacks,  then  thicken  it  to  a paste  with  pulverized  gum  arabic, 
which  prevents  it  from  spreading  where  it  is  not  wanted. 

Liniment  for  Old  Sores. — Alcohol,  1 quart;  aqua  ammonia, 
4 ounces;  oil  of  origanum^  2 ounces;  camphor  gum,  2 ounces; 
opium,  2 ounces;  gum  myrch,  2 ounces;  common  salt.  2 table- 
spoonfuls. Mix,  and  shake  occasionally  for  a week. 

Liniment. — Good  Samaritan. — Take  98  per  cent,  alcohol, 
2 quarts,  and  add  to  it  the  following  articles:  Oil  of  sassafras, 
hemlock,  spirits  of  turpentine,  tincture  of  cayenne,  catechu, 
guaiac,  (guac)  and  laudanum,  of  each  1 ounce;  tincture  of 
myrrh,  4 ounces;  oil  of  origanum,  2 ounces;  oil  of  wintergreen, 
1-2  ounce;  gum  camphor,  2 ounces;  and  chloroform,  1 1-2 
ounces.  This  is  one  of  the  best  applications  for  internal  pains 
known;  it  is  superior  to  any  other  enumerated  in  this  work. 

Electro-Magnetic  Liniment. — Best  alcohol,  1 gallon;  oil  of 
amber,  8 ounces;  gum  camphor,  8 ounces;  Castile  soap,  shaved 
fine,  2 ounces;  beef’s  gall,  4 ounces;  ammonia,  3 F’s  strong,  12 
ounces.  Mix,  and  shake  occasionally  for  12  hours,  and  it  is  fit 
for  use.  This  will  be  found  a strong  and  valuable  liniment. 

Great  London  Liniment. — Take  chloroform,  olive  oil,  and 
aqua  ammonia,  of  each  1 ounce;  acetate  of  morphia,  10  grains. 
Mix  and  use  as  other  liniments.  Very  valuable. 

Ointments. — For  Old  Sores. — Red  precipitate,  1-2  ounce; 
sugar  of  lead,  1-2  ounce;  burnt  alum,  1 ounce;  white  vitriol,  1-4 
ounce,  or  a little  less;  all  to  be  very  finely  pulverized;  have 
mutton  tallow  made  warm,  1-2  pound;  stir  all  in,  and  stir  until 
cool. 


MEDICINAL. 


525 


Judkins  Ointment. — Linseed  oil,  I pint;  sweet  oil,  i ounce; 
and  boil  them  in  a kettle  on  coals  for  nearly  4 hours,  as  warm 
as  you  can;  then  have  pulverized  and  mixed  borax,  1-2  ounce; 
red  lead,  4 ounces;  and  sugar  of  lead,  1 1-2  ounce;  remove  the 
kettle  from  the  fire,  and  thicken  in  the  powder;  continue  the 
stirring  until  cooled  to  blood-heat,  then  stir  in  1 ounce  of 
spirits  of  turpentine;  and  now  take  out  a little,  letting  it  get 
cold,  and,  if  not  then  sufficiently  thick  to  spread  upon  thin, 
soft  linen,  as  a salve,  you  will  boil  again  until  this  point  is 
reached.  It  is  good  for  all  kinds  of  wounds,  bruises,  sores, 
burns,  white  swellings,  rheumatisms,  ulcers,  sore  breasts;  and, 
even  when  there  are  wounds  on  the  inside,  it  has  been  used 
with,  advantage  by  applying  a plaster  over  the  part. 

Green  Ointment. — Honey  and  bees-wax,  each  1-2  pound; 
spirits  of  turpentine,  1 ounce;  wintergreen  oil  and  laudanum, 
each  2 ounces;  verdigris,  finely  pulverized,  1-4  ounce;  lard,  1 1-2 
pounds;  mix  by  a stove  fire,  in  a copper  kettle,  heating  slowly. 

Mead’s  Salt-Rheum  Ointment. — Aqua  fortis,  1 ounce;  quick- 
silver, 1 ounce;  good  hard  soap  dissolved  so  as  to  mix  readily, 

1 ounce;  prepared  chalk,  1 ounce;  mixed  with  1 pound  of  lard; 
incorporate  the  above  by  putting  the  aqua  fortis  and  quick- 
silver into  an  earthen  vessel,  and,  when  done  effervescing,  mix 
with  the  other  ingredients,  putting  the  chalk  in  last,  add  a little 
spirits  of  turpentine,  say  1-2  tablespoonful. 

Itch  Ointment. — Unsalted  butter,  1 pound;  burgundy  pitch, 

2 ounces;  spirits  of  turpentine,  2 ounces;  red  precipitate,  pul- 
verized, 1 1-4  ounces;  melt  the  pitch  and  add  the  butter;  stir- 
ring well  together;  then  remove  from  the  fire,  and,  when  a little 
cool,  add  the  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  lastly  the  precipitate, 
and  stir  until  cold. 

Jaundice. — Dr.  Peabody’s  Cure. — In  its  Worst  Forms. 
— Red  iodide  of  mercury,  7 grains;  iodide  of  potassium,  9 
grains;  aqua  dis  (distilled  water)  1 ounce;  mix.  Commence  by 
giving  6 drops  three  or  four  times  a day,  increasing  1 drop  a 
day  until  12  or  15  drops  are  given  at  a dose.  Give  in  a little 
water,  immediately  after  meals.  If  it  causes  a griping  sensa- 
tion in  the  bowels,  and  fullness  in  the  head,  when  you  get  up 
to  12  or  15  drops,  go  back  to  6 drops,  and  up  again  as  before. 

Inflammatory  Rheumatism.  — Wright’s-  Cure. — Sulphur 
and  salt-petre,  of  each  1 ounce;  gum  guaiac.,  1-2  ounce;  col- 
chicum  root,  or  seed,  and  nutmegs,  of  each  1-4  ounce;  all  to  be 
pulverized  and  mixed  with  simple  syrup,  or  molasses,  2 ounces. 
Dose,  1 teaspoonful  every  two  hours  until  it  moves  the  bowels 
rather  freely;  then  3 or  4 times  daily  until  cured. 

Asthma  Remedies. — Elecampane,  angelica,  confrey,  and 
spikenard  roots  with  hoarhound  tops,  of  each  1 ounce;  bruise 


526 


MEDICINAL. 


and  steep  in  honey,  i pint.  Dose,  a tablespoonful,  taken  hot 
every  few  minutes  until  a cure  is  affected. 

Another. — Oil  of  tar,  i drachm;  tincture  of  veratum  vi- 
ride,  2 drachms;  simple  syrup,  2 drachms;  mix.  Dose,  for 
adults,  15  drops  3 or  4 times  daily.  Iodide  of  potassium  has 
cured  a bad  case  of  asthma  by  taking  5 grain  doses,  3 times 
daily.  Take  1-3  ounce,  and  put  into  a phial,  and  add  32  tea- 
spoonful of  water;  then  1 teaspoonful  of  it  will  contain  the  5 
grains,  in  which  put  1-2  gill  more  water,  and  drink  before  meals. 

Dropsy  Pills. — Jalap,  50  grains;  gamboge,  30  grains;  podo- 
phyllin,  20  grains;  elatarium,  12  grains;  aloes,  30  grains;  cay- 
enne, 35  grains;  Castile  soap,  shaved  and  pulverized,  20  grains; 
croton  oil,  90  drops;  powder  all  finely,  and  mix  thoroughly; 
then  form  into  a pill  mass,  by  using  a thick  mucilage  made  of 
equal  parts  of  gum  arabic  and  gum  tragacanth,  and  divide  in 
3 grain  pills.  Dose:  1 pill  every  2 days  for  the  first  week;  then 
every  3 or  4 days,  until  the  water  is  evacuated  by  the  com- 
bined aid  of  the  pill  with  the  alum  syrup.  This  is  a powerful 
medicine,  and  will  thoroughly  accomplish  its  work. 

Eclectic  Liver  Pills. — Podophyllin,  10  grains;  leptandrin, 
20  grains;  sanguinarian,  10  grains;  extract  of  dandelion,  20 
grains;  formed  into  20  pills  by  being  moistened  a little  with 
some  essential  oil,  as  cinnamon,  peppermint,  etc.  Dose:  In 
chronic  diseases  of  the  liver,  take  a pill  at  night  for  several 
days,  or  2 may  be  taken  at  first  to  move  the  bowels;  then  1 
daily. 

Positive  Cure  for  Hydrophobia— The  dried  root  of  elecam- 
pane, pulverize  it, and  measure  out  9 heaping  tablespoonfuls,  and 
mix  it  with  2 or  3 teaspoonfuls  of  pulverized  gum  arabic;  then 
divide  into  9 equal  portions.  When  a person  is  bitten  by  a 
rabid  animal,  take  one  of  these  portions,  and  steep  it  in  1 pint 
of  new  milk,  until  nearly  half  the  quantity  of  milk  is  evaporated; 
then  strain,  and  drink  it  in  the  morning,  fasting  for  four  or 
five  hours  after.  The  same  dose  is  to  be  repeated  three  morn- 
ings in  succession,  then  skip  three,  and  so  on  till  the  9 doses 
are  taken. 

The  patient  must  avoid  getting  wet,  or  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
and  abstain  from  high-seasoned  diet,  or  hard  exercise,  and,  if 
costive,  take  a dose  of  salts.  The  above  quantity  is  for  an 
adult;  children  will  take  less  according  to  age. 

Eye  Preparations. — Eye  Water. — Table  salt  and  white 
vitriol, of  each  1 tablespoonful;  heat  them  up  on  copper  or  earthen 
until  dry;  the  heating  drives  off  the  acrid  or  biting  water,  called 
the  water  of  crystalization,  making  them  much  milder  in  their 
action;  now  add  them  to  soft  water,  1-2  pint;  putting  in  white 
sugar,  1 tablespoonful;  blue  vitriol,  a piece  the  size  of  a common 


MEDICINAL. 


527 


pea.  If  it  should  prove  too  strong  in  any  case,  add  a little 
more  soft  water  to  a phial  of  it.  Apply  it  to  the  eyes  three  or 
four  times  daily. 

India  Prescription  for  Sore  Eyes. — Sulphate  of  zinc, 
3 grains;  tincture  of  opium  (laudanum)  i drachm;  rose  water, 
2 ounces;  mix.  Put  a drop  or  two  in  the  eye,  two  or  three 
times  daily. 

Another. — Sulphate  of  zinc,  acetate  of  lead,  and  rock 
salt,  of  each,  1-2  ounce;  loaf  sugar,  1 ounce;  soft  water,  12 
ounces;  mix  without  heat,  and  use  as  other  eye  waters. 

If  sore  eyes  shed  much  water,  put  a little  of  the  oxide  of 
zinc  into  a phial  of  water ; and  use  it  rather  freely.  It  will 
soon  cure  that  difficulty. 

Copperas  and  water  has  cured  sore  eyes  of  long  standing; 
and  used  quite  strong,  it  makes  an  excellent  application  in  ery- 
sipelas. 

Indian  Eye  Water. — Soft  water,  1 pint;  gum  arabic,  1 
ounce;  white  vitriol,  1 ounce;  fine  salt,  1-2  teaspoonful;  put  all 
into  a bottle,  and  shake  until  dissolved.  Put  into  the  eye  just 
as  you  retire  to  bed. 

Egyptian  Cure  for  Cholera. — Best  Jamaica  ginger  root 
bruised,  1 ounce;  cayenne,  2 teaspoonfuls.  Boil  all  in  one 
quart  of  water  to  one-half  pint,  and  add  loaf  sugar  to  form  a 
thick  syrup.  Dose:  One  tablespoonful  every  fifteen  minutes, 
until  vomiting  and  purging  ceases:  then  follow  up  with  a black- 
berry tea. 

King  of  Oils,  for  Neuralgia  and  Rheumatism. — Burning 
fluid,  1 pint;  oils  of  cedar,  hemlock,  sassafras  and  origanum, 
of  each,  2 ounces;  carbonate  of  ammonia,  pulverized,  1 ounce. 
Mix.  Directions. — Apply  freely  to  the  nerve  and  gums 
around  the  tooth;  and  to  the  face  in  neuralgic  pains,  by  wet- 
ting brown  paper  and  laying  on  the  parts,  not  too  long,  for  fear 
of  blistering.  To  the  nerves  of  teeth  by  lint. 

Neuralgia.  — Internal  Remedy.  — Sal-ammoniac,  1-2 
drachm;  dissolve  in  water,  1 ounce.  Dose,  one  tablespoonful 
every  3 minutes  for  20  minutes,  at  the  end  of  which  time,  if 
not  before,  the  pain  will  have  disappeared. 

Wens. — To  Cure. — Dissolve  copperas  in  water  to  make  it 
very  strong;  now  take  a pin,  needle,  or  sharp  knife,  and  prick 
or  cut  the  wen  in  about  a dozen  places,  just  sufficient  to  cause 
it  to  bleed;  then  wet  it  thoroughly  with  the  copperas  water 
daily. 


528 


MEDICINAL. 


POISONS. 

Animal  Poisons. — In  the  first  class  is  poisoning  from  cer- 
tain shellfish,  such  as  mussels,  lobsters,  etc.,  the  eating  of  which 
is  sometimes  followed  by  an  eruption  of  nettle-rash  over  the 
whole  body,  which  causes  it  to  have  a swollen,  bloated  appear- 
ance, and  produces  difficulty  of  breathing,  accompanied  with 
giddiness,  nausea,  stomach-ache,  and  great  thirst. 

Treatment. — If  commenced  within  two  or  three  hours 
after  the  appearance  of  the  symptoms,  an  emetic  of  mustard, 
salt,  and  warm  water,  should  be  given.  The  emetic  should  be 
compounded  thus: 

Mustard,  i teaspoonful. 

Common  salt,  i teaspoonful. 

Warm  water,  i tumblerful. 

Mix,  and  take  as  a draught. 

Should,  however,  a longer  time  have  elapsed,  purgatives, 
such  as  a teaspoonful  of  castor-oil,  or  half  an  ounce  of  epsom 
salts,  should  be  administered  and  repeated  until  full  action  is 
obtained.  Stimulants,  such  as  salvolatile,  or  aromatic  spirits 
of  ammonia,  and  ether,  may  also  be  administered  if  there  be 
much  depression. 

The  following  form  would  be  a useful  draught:  Take  of 
nitrous  spirits  of  ether,  30  minims;  spirits  of  salvolatile,  30 
minims;  water,  to  make  up  1 1-2  ounces.  Repeat  the  dose 
every  two  or  three  hours  until  the  system  rallies. 

Vegetable  Poisons. — Of  these,  the  most  commonly  met 
with  are  the  aconite  or  monkshood,  belladonna  or  deadly  night- 
shade; the  hellebore,  hemlock,  henbane,  foxglove,  laburnum, 
yew,  colchicum,  or  meadow  saffron,  and  mushrooms,  all  of 
which  are  indigeneous  to  this  country.  Others,  such  as  opium, 
Indian  hemp,  nux  vomica,  and  gamboge,  are  not  native  here. 

Among  vegetable  poisons  should  be  included  oxalic  acid, 
and  that  most  deadly  of  all  poisons,  prussic  acid,  which  is 
found  in  undiluted  “ almond  flavoring,”  used  for  culinary 
purposes. 

Symptoms. — Vegetable  poisons  have  many  features  in  com- 
mon, thus  they  are  strongly  acrid  and  narcotic,  or  depressing, 
causing  drowsiness,  feebleness  of  pulse,  vomiting,  purging, 
griping. 

Under  the  following  enumeration,  the  symptoms  peculiar  to 
each  will  be  found,  together  with  their  appropriate  treatment: 

Aconite  ( Monkshood ). — Symptoms. — A sensation  of  burn- 
ing, tingling  or  numbness,  in  the  mouth  and  throat.  Giddiness, 
loss  of  power  to  stand  firmly,  pain  in  the  region  of  the  stomach, 
frothing  at  the  mouth,  vomiting  and  purging.  The  pupils  are 


MEDICINAL. 


529 


dilated,  the  skin  cold  and  livid,  the  breathing  becomes  difficult. 
In  some  cases  delirium  and  paralysis  follow. 

Treatment. — An  emetic  should  immediately  be  given, 
such  as  a mixture  of  mustard,  salt,  and  warm  water,  thus: 
Mustard,  i teaspoonful;  common  salt,  i teaspoonful;  warm 
water,  a tumblerful.  Or,  sulphate  of  zinc,  20  grains;  water,  1 
ounce.  Given  every  half  hour  until  the  stomach  has  been 
emptied  of  the  poison.  Acidulous  fluids,  such  as  vinegar  and 
water,  and  cordials  should  be  given  freely.  External  warmth 
should  be  kept  up  by  mustard  plasters,  hot  water  bottles  to  the 
feet  and  friction  to  the  surface. 

Distinction. — The  root  of  this  plant  is  often  mistaken  for 
horseradish  which  it  closely  resembles;  therefore  great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  two  plants  to  grow  in  the 
same  garden.  The  leaves  and  seeds  of  the  plant  are  also  pois- 
onous. 

Belladonna  (. Deadly  Nightshade). — The  leaves,  berries, 
stalks — or  extract  or  tincture  made  from  these — are  most  com- 
monly met  with  as  a cause  of  poison. 

Symptoms. — Heat  and  dryness  of  mouth,  a feeling  of  tight- 
ness in  the  throat.  Nausea,  vomiting,  giddiness,  indistinct  or 
double  sight,  intense  excitement,  delirium  of  a peculiar  kind, 
the  patient  twists  himself  round  and  round,  butts  against  the 
wall  with  his  head,  and  performs  various  other  antics.  These 
are  followed  by  heaviness  and  lethargy 

Treatment. — Begin  by  giving  freely  a mixture  of  about 
one  part  of  vinegar  to  two  of  water.  Then  cause  evacuation 
of  the.  stomach  by  means  of  emetics,  such  as  mustard,  1 tea- 
spoonful; common  salt,  1 ditto;  warm  water,  a tumblerful. 
Taken  at  a draught.  Or,  sulphate  of  zinc,  20  grains;  water,  1 
ounce.  Dissolved,  and  taken  as  a draught.  Promote  vomiting 
by  warm  water  slightly  acidulated  with  vinegar.  The  bowels 
should  be  emptied  by  injections  of  castor  oil. 

Digitalis  Purpurea  (Foxglove). — Symptoms.  — Vomiting, 
purging,  accompanied  with  severe  pain  in  the  stomach.  This 
is  followed  by  a state  of  lethargy,  during  which  the  patient 
will  sleep  for  hours;  this,  again,  is  followed  by  convulsions. 
The  pupils  are  dilated  and  insensible  to  the  stimulating  effect 
of  light;  the  pulse  becomes  small  an'd  irregular;  and,  should 
the  dose  have  been  large,  and  the  proper  measures  not  adopted, 
coma  or  insensibility  of  a severe  kind  will  rapidly  set  in,  and 
be  followed  by  death. 

Treatment. — A free  use  of  emetics  (see  under  Hemlock) 
should  be  pursued.  Drinks  containing  tannic  acid,  such  as 

32 


530 


MEDICINAL. 


strong  tea  and  infusion  of  gall-nuts,  should  be  given;  if  the 
prostration  be  great,  brandy  should  be  given  freely. 

All  the  parts  of  this  plant  are  poisonous.  They  owe  their 
poisonous  properties  to  an  active  principle  called  digitalin. 
This,  in  combination  with  tannic  acid,  is  rendered  innocuous; 
hence  the  reason  for  its  administration  in  cases  of  poisoning. 

I Gamboge  ( Cambogia ). — Symptoms. — Violent  vomiting,  se- 
j vere  pain  in  the  stomach  and  excessive  purging,  followed  by 
I great  prostration  of  strength. 

Treatment.— Carbonate  of  potash  should  be  given  as  fol- 
lows: Carbonate  of  potash,  20  grains;  mucilage,  or  solution 
of  gum,  1-2  ounce;  water  to  make  up  1 ounce.  Mix,  and  take 
every  hour  until  the  purging  has  stopped.  When  this  is  the 
case,  and  the  poison  is  supposed  to  have  been  evacuated,  give 
the  following  every  half  hour:  Tincture  of  opium,  10  drops; 
water,  1 ounce.  Mix.  Gamboge  is  a gum  resin  obtained  from 
the  Garcinia  Morelia,  a native  of  Spain.  It  is  but  little  used 
in  legitimate  medicine,  on  account  of  its  violent  and  uncertain 
action.  Quack  pills  contain  it  in  very  variable  quantities. 

Hellebores,  the. — The  Green  Hellebore  [Helleborus  virids). 
The  White  Hellebore  ( Veratrum  album).  The  Black  Hellebore, 
or  Christmas  rose  ( Helleborus  niger).  The  Foetid  Hellebore 
( Helleborus  Fcetida).  All  of  these  are  powerful  poisons,  the 
white  hellebore  especially  so. 

Symptoms. — Vomiting,  purging,  giddiness,  dilation  of  the 
pupils,  convulsions,  insensibility,  great  heat  of  the  throat,  and 
tightness,  with  severe  pain  in  the  stomach. 

Treatment. — Vomiting  should  be  excited  by  large  doses 
of  solution  of  gum,  and  other  mucilaginous  fluids,  such  as 
milk,  white  of  egg,  etc.,  and  injections  of  the  same  materials 
should  be  thrown  up  into  the  bowel.  Coffee  should  then  be 
given  freely,  and  acidulous  fluids  and  camphor-water.  The 
roots  and  leaves  of  this  plant  are  both  poisonous,  the  roots 
especially. 

Hemlock  ( Conium  Maculatuni). — Symptoms. — This  plant 
attacks  the  muscular  power,  and  causes  paralysis  of  the  limbs, 
sickness,  pain  in  the  head,  drowsiness,  and  sometimes  it  so 
affects  the  muscles  of  respiration  as  to  cause  death. 

Treatment. — The  stomach  should  be  evacuated  by  some 
powerful  emetic,  such  as  the  following:  Sulphate  of  zinc,  20 
grains;  dissolved  in  water,  a wineglassful.  Or,  mustard,  1 tea- 
spoonful; common  salt,  1 teaspoonful;  water,  a tumblerful. 
After  this  cold  water  should  be  applied  to  the  head.  Vinegar 
and  water  (see  under  Deadly  Nightshade)  should  be  adminis- 
tered. The  poisonous  properties  of  this  plant  reside  in  the 


MEDICINAL. 


531 


leaves,  which  somewhat  resemble  parsley,  for  which  they  have 
occasionally  been  mistaken.  The  seeds  and  the  root  are  also 
poisonous. 

Henbane  ( Hyoscyamus ). — Symptoms. — Vomiting,  double 
vision,  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  sleepiness,  loss  of  muscular 
power,  a peculiar  tremulous  motion  of  the  limbs,  flushing  of 
the  countenance,  heat  and  weight  of  head,  giddiness,  fullness  of 
the  pulse  and  general  excitement.  If  the  dose  has  been  a 
large  one,  the  symptoms  will  be  aggravated;  there  will  be  loss  of 
speech,  delirium,  coma,  coldness  of  the  surface,  and  jerkings 
of  the  muscles. 

Treatment. — As  soon  as  possible  empty  the  stomach  by 
emetics,  and  give  acidulous  drinks;  if,  however,  the  poison  has 
entered  the  system,  purgatives  must  be  given.  The  seeds  are 
the  most  poisonous,  the  leaves  next,  and  the  roots  last. 

Indian  Hemp  {Cannabis  Indica).  — Haschisch. — Symp- 
toms.— Much  the  same  as  those  of  opium,  but  are  of  a much 
more  pleasant  nature  to  the  patient,  being  associated  with 
delightful  dreams  and  visions. 

Treatment. — Much  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  poisoning 
by  opium. 

Cases  of  poisoning  by  this  plant  are  very  rarely  met  with  in 
America.  In  hot  climates,  however,  it  is  frequently  met  with, 
especially  in  India. 

Laburnum  ( Cyitalisus  Laburnum). — Symptoms. — Pain  in  the 
stomach,  followed  by  vomiting  and  severe  convulsions  if  the 
dose  has  been  a large  one.  There  is  also  shivering,  great 
feebleness,  and  severe  purging. 

Treatment. — The  vomiting  should  be  encouraged  by  muci- 
lage, milk,  white  of  an  egg,  flour  and  water.  Should  the 
feebleness  be  very  great,  cordials  and  brandy  should  be  given 
in  repeated  and  small  doses.  The  bark  and  seeds  of  this  plant 
are  poisonous,  and  owe  their  deleterious  properties  to  an  active 
principle  called  Cytisine. 

Meadow  Saffron  ( Colchicum  autumnale). — Symptoms. — 
A burning  pain  in  the  gullet  and  stomach,  violent  vomiting, 
and  sometimes  bilious  purging. 

Treatment. — Give  some  mild  emetic,  thus:  Ipecacuanha 
wine,  one-half  ounce;  honey,  i tablespoonful;  milk,  a teacup- 
ful. Stir  up  and  mix  thoroughly,  and  let  the  patient  take  it  at 
a draught.  This  should  be  repeated  every  quarter  of  an  hour 
till  vomiting  sets  in.  Of  course  the  dose  of  ipecacuanha  wine 
should  be  smaller  for  children,  one-half  or  one-fourth  of  the 
abo  v being  ample  for  a child  under  five  years  old. 


532 


MEDICINAL. 


Then  give  opium  as  follows  (to  adults  only);  Powdered  opium, 
3 grains;  confection  of  dog  rose,  sufficient  to  make  a small 
mass  with  the  opium.  Divide  this  into  six  pills,  and  let  the 
patient  have  one  every  four  hours,  until  the  symptoms  of 
poisoning  abate.  Or,  tincture  of  opium,  i fluid  drachm;  water, 
to  six  fluid  ounces.  Mix.  Two  tablespoonfuls  to  be  taken 
every  two  hours. 

Mushrooms  ( Fungi ). — Symptoms. — Pain  in  the  stomach 
accompanied  with  vomiting,  giddiness,  drowsiness,  dimness  of 
sight,  and  debility.  The  patient  appears  to  be  intoxicated. 

Treatment. — This  cannot  be  better  expressed  than  in  the 
terse  and  plain  terms  of  Professor  Taylor.  They  are:  “The 
free  use  of  emetics  and  castor  oil.” 

Nux  Vomica  ( Strychnine ).  - — Symptoms.  — An  intensely 
bitter  taste  in  the  mouth.  Tipsy  manner,  sickness,  headache, 
jerking  of  the  arms  and  legs,  and  twitching  of  the  body;  lock- 
jaw, great  difficulty  in  breathing,  with  intense  pain  in  the  chest, 
and  a sense  of  suffocation. 

Treatment. — Evacuate  the  stomach  and  bowels.  Give 
vinegar  (see  Deadly  Nightshade)  and  other  acidulous  drinks. 
If  the  spasm  be  very  severe  and  constant,  and  do  not  yield  to 
the  emetics,  etc.,  then  try  injections  of  infusions  of  tobacco,  as 
follows:  Tobacco  (shag),  30  grains;  water,  8 fluid  ounces. 
Mix,  and  allow  to  stand  for  half  an  hour,  occasionally  shaking. 
Then  strain  and  inject  into  the  bowel  in  the  intervals  of  the 
spasms. 

Strychnia  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  poisons,  a very  small 
quantity  being  capable  of  killing  a strong  man. 

Opium. — An  extract  from  the  poppy.  (Pap aver  Somnifera). 
— Symptoms. — Drowsiness,  stupor,  delirium,  pallid  counte- 
nance, contracted  pupil,  sighing,  loud  or  snoring  respiration, 
cold  sweats,  coma,  and  death. 

Treatment. — Emetics  of  the  sulphated  zinc  (see  under 
Hemlock),  or,  if  the  patient  be  too  far  gone  to  take  these,  the 
stomach  pump  should  be  applied.  The  patient  should  on  no 
account  be  allowed  to  sleep,  but  his  attention  should  be  con- 
stantly aroused.  A good  plan  is  to  walk  the  patient  rapidly 
and  incessantly  about.  A tepid  bath  is  useful  for  arousing  the 
sleeping  energies,  and  cold  water  should  be  dashed  over  the 
head  at  the  same  time.  Opium  is  the  juice  of  the  poppy,  which 
runs  from  the  incisions  made  in  the  unripe  fruit.  Its  principal 
properties  are  due  to  an  active  principle  contained  in  it,  which 
is  called  morphia.  In  cases  of  overdoses  of  this  drug,  the  same 
treatment  should  be  adopted. 


MEDICINAL. 


533 


Oxalic  Acid. — Symptoms. — If  the  dose  be  a large  one,  while 
it  is  being  swallowed  a hot,  burning,  acid  taste  is  experienced, 
extending  downward  to  the  stomach;  vomiting  then  occurs,  or 
within  a few  minutes.  There  is  a severe  feeling  of  tightness 
in  the  throat,  and  sometimes  delirium.  When  the  dose  is 
smaller  the  pain  is  less,  and  vomiting  does  not  set  in  so  soon. 
At  times  there  is  no  vomiting,  at  others  it  alone  causes  death 
by  causing  exhaustion. 

Treatment. — Some  chalk  and  water  should  be  immedi- 
ately administered,  and  a quantity  of  water  drunk  to  encourage 
vomiting.  This  is  not  often  administered  with  a criminal 
intent,  the  taste  is  too  strong;  but  it  is  taken  sometimes  in  mis- 
take for  epsom  salts,  which  it  somewhat  resembles. 

Prussic  Acid  (Hydrocyanic  Acid). — Symptoms. — Pallid 
appearance,  giddiness,  great  nervous  prostration,  loss  of  sight 
more  or  less  complete,  faintness,  labored  and  hard  respiration, 
loss  of  power  of  motion. 

Treatment. — The  stomach  pump  should  be  applied;  or, 
if. this  is  not  handy,  emetics,  such  as  mustard,  salt  and  water. 
(See  under  Hemlock).  Dash  cold  water  over  the  head  and 
chest.  Give  salvolatile  as  follows:  Spirits  of  sal  volatile,  i 
drachm;  water,  to  i ounce.  Mix.  Every  quarter  of  an  hour 
until  there  is  some  signs  of  revival.  Prussic  acid  is  the  most 
powerful  poison  known.  This  poison  is  often  met  with  in  the 
essential  oil  of  almonds,  and  great  care  should  therefore  be 
taken  in  the  use  of  this  pleasant  flavoring. 

Yew  ( Taxus  baccatdy. — Symptoms. — Professor  Taylor 
gives  the  symptoms  of  poisoning  by  this  plant  as  follows: 
“Convulsions,  insensibility,  coma,  dilated  pupils,  pale  counte- 
nance, small  pulse,  and  cold  extremities  are  the  most  promi- 
nent; vomiting  and  purging  are  also  observed  among  the  symp- 
toms.” 

Treatment.— As  in  many  other  vegetable,  indeed  it  might 
safely  be  said  in  all  poisons,  vomiting  should  be  excited,  and 
this  is  best  done,  and  perhaps  in  the  quickest,  safest  manner,  by 
an  emetic  of  mustard,  salt  and  water.  Should  the  convulsions 
be  very  acute,  and  there  be  great  heat  of  head,  cold  should 
be  applied.  If  the  pulse  is  very  small,  and  the  prostration  of 
the  patient  is  great,  as  soon  as  the  stomach  is  thoroughly 
emptied,  brandy  should  be  given. 

It  is  commonly  supposed  that  the  leaves  of  this  plant  are 
not  poisonous  when  fresh,  but  this  is  erroneous.  They  are  at 
all  times  poisonous.  The  berries  also  are  very  dangerous,  more 
especially  to  children,  as  they  have  an  agreeable  taste,  and  look 
tempting.  The  danger  of  the  leaves  is  not  so  much  for  the 
human  race  as  it  is  for  cattle,  who  are  fond  of  eating  them. 


534 


MEDICINAL. 


Mineral  Poisons. — The  mineral  poisons  are  perhaps  the 
most  commonly  used  for  criminal  and  suicidal  purposes,  and 
they  are  certainly  more  easily  detected  by  chemical  means  than 
are  either  the  vegetable  or  animal  poisons.  Science  has  yet 
found  out  but  few  certain  tests  for  the  vegetable  poisons  com- 
pared with  the  large  number  of  accurate  and  easily  available 
tests  for  the  mineral  poisons. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  of  this  class  of  poisons  is 
arsenic,  as  it  is  certainly  the  most  fatal;  others,  such  as  anti- 
mony, copper,  lead,  mercury,  and  the  acids,  are  in  many  cases 
very  fatal,  but  few  of  these  possess  the  power  of  destroying 
life  to  anything  like  the  extent  that  is  possessed  by  arsenic. 

Acid,  Carbolic. — The  powerful  odor  of  this  acid  prevents 
its  being  frequently  taken  accidentally,  but  it  has  been  taken 
with  suicidal  intent. 

Symptoms. — These  are  much  the  same  as  the  other  power- 
ful irritant  poisons.  There  is  an  intense  burning  in  the  mouth 
and  gullet,  accompanied  with  a feeling  of  tightness  in  the  throat, 
vomiting  of  shreds  of  mucus,  griping  pain  in  the  stomach, 
the  lips  and  insides  of  the  cheeks  present  a charred  appearance, 
and,  if  its  action  be  not  checked,  the  nervous  system  suffers, 
and  the  organs  of  the  senses  are  impaired,  and  death  rapidly 
follows. 

Treatment. — Albuminous  fluids  should  be  given  in  large 
doses,  such  as  white  of  egg,  flour^  and  water,  gruel  and  milk. 
Magnesia,  and  chalk  and  water,  is  used  in  these  cases.  Emetics 
of  mustard  should  also  be  freely  administered. 

Acid,  Hydrochloric  (. Muriatic  Acid.  Spirits  of  Salt). — 
Both  the  symptoms  and  treatment  of  a case  of  poisoning  by 
this  acid  are  given  under  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Acid,  Nitric  ( Aqua  Fortis ). — Symptoms. — (See  Sulphuric 
Acid.)  The  only  difference  is  that  nitric  acid  does  not  cause 
such  a dark  discoloration  of  the  lips  and  mouth. 

Treatment. — Precisely  the  same  as  under  case  of  Sulphuric 
Acid. 

Acid,  Sulphuric  ( Oil  of  Vitriol). — This  acts  as  a poison  by 
its  powerful  corrosive  powers.  It  seldom  causes  death  by  its 
absorption  into  the  system,  but  rather  by  the  excessive  irrita- 
tion and  inflammation  which  it  causes  to  the  lining  of  the 
mouth,  the  gullet,  and  the  stomach.  It  immediately  causes  the 
skin  to  have  a charred  appearance  of  a whitish  hue,  which 
gradually  becomes  darker  and  browner;  it  causes  pain  in  the 
stomach,  vomiting,  and  eructations  of  a gaseous  character; 
great  nervous  depression,  which  is  also  shared  by  the  pulse; 
convulsions,  and  death. 


MEDICINAL. 


535 


Treatment. — Give  magnesia  and  water,  or  lime-water;  or, 
should  neither  of  these  be  at  hand,  give  soap  and  water  freely. 

Antimony  ( Tartar  Emetic  Butter  of  Antimony). — Symp- 
toms.— These  are  very  much  the  same  as  those  of  arsenic,  with 
the  exception  that  the  depression,  vomiting,  and  collapse  are 
much  more  rapid,  owing  to  the  immediate  action  of  the  poison 
on  the  heart. 

Treatment. — Should  the  vomiting  not  occur  freely,  it  will 
be  as  well  to  give  an  emetic,  and  afterwards  a dose  of  tannic 
acid  and  water,  thus:  Tannic  acid,  io  grains;  water,  i ounce. 
Mix.  Or,  a dose  of  Very  strong  tea,  or  infusion  of  gall-nuts, 
mixed  with  magnesia. 

Arsenic  (. Realgar  or  Red  Arsenic , White  Arsenic , Scheele's 
Green,  Orpiment,  or  Yellow  Arsenic). — Symptoms. — An  un- 
pleasantly strong  metallic  taste,  a tightness  in  the  throat, 
vomiting  of  a brown  mucus  character,  mixed  with  blood, 
fainting,  great  thirst,  excessive  pain  in  the  stomach,  with 
shivering  purging,  the  stools  being  very  offensive  and  of  a 
dark  character,  pulse  small  and  rapid,  great  nervous  prostra- 
tion and  delirium.  Arsenic  is  sometimes  administered  in 
repeated  small  doses,  and  by  this  means  is  produced  a state 
which  is  called  “ chronic  arsenical  poisoning.”  In  this  case, 
disorder  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  exists,  but  does  not  form 
such  a prominent  symptom  as  in  the  more  acute  form  of  this 
poisoning.  There  will  be  redness  and  smarting  in  the  eyes, 
great  sensibility  of  the  skin,  at  times  accompanied  either  by  a 
rash,  which  consists  of  minute  vesicles  or  blisters,  or  else  by 
nettle-rash.  There  is  also  local  paralysis — that  is  to  say,  par- 
alysis of  one  particular  set  of  muscles,  accompanied,  or  rather 
preceded,  by  numbness  and  tingling  in  the  fingers  and  toes. 
The  patient  loses  flesh  and  becomes  exhausted.  Sometimes 
the  skin  peels  off,  and  loss  of  hair  occurs. 

Treatment. — A substance  termed  hydrated  peroxide  of 
iron  has  been  strongly  vaunted  as  an  antidote  to  arsenic.  The 
best  way  to  give  it  is  to  mix  a tablespoonful  with  water,  and 
give  every  five  or  ten  minutes.  Should  this  not  be  procurable, 
it  is  best  to  use  the  stomach-pump  or  emetics.  (See  under 
Hemlock.)  Large  quantities  of  mucilage  should  be  given  to 
drink,  or  eggs,  or  milk.  When  the  worst  symptoms  have 
subsided,  and  the  patient  is  out  of  immediate  danger,  he  should 
be  kept  in  bed,  with  warm  poultices  applied  to  the  pit  of  the 
stomach.  Small  pills  of  one  grain  of  opium  should  be  given 
every  four  hours  while  pain  continues,  but  no  violent  aperient. 
Arsenic  is  one  of  those  poisons  which,  begun  with  very  small 
doses,  and  gradually  increasing  them,  may  become  almost 
harmless.  One  form  of  arsenic  (u  Scheele’s  green  ”)  is  largely 


536 


MEDICINAL. 


used  as  a coloring  for  room  papers.  In  this  form  it  often  does 
insidious  mischief,  as  it  separates  from  the  paper  in  minute 
particles,  and  circulates  freely  in  the  air  of  the  room  as  dust. 
This  fact  may  be  proved  by  submitting  some  of  the  dust  which 
collects  on  bookshelves,  etc.,  in  a room  thus  ornamented  to  a 
few  simple  chemical  tests,  or  by  causing  some  expert  to  analyze 
it.  By  so  doing,  the  inquirer  will  often  receive  satisfactory 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  this  poison,  if  he  has  not  previ- 
ously had  some  practical  experience  of  its  effects. 

Copper  (Blue  Vitriol.  Mineral  Green.  Verdigris). — Symp- 
toms.-— These,  again,  are  much  the  same  as  in  arsenic,  but  rather 
less  acute.  It  may  here  be  stated  that  many  alleged  cases  of 
poison  by  verdigris,  from  cooking  vessels,  etc.,  are  in  reality 
owing  to  bad  or  decomposed  food.  A poisonous  dose  of  salts 
of  copper  is  always  followed  (if  the  patient  recovers  from  the 
first  effects)  by  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 

Treatment. — Begin  with  the  stomach-pump,  or  an  emetic. 
When  the  stomach  has  been  evacuated,  give  white  of  egg,  flour 
and  water,  milk.  The  subsequent  inflammation  of  the  bowels 
should  be  treated  as  described  under  arsenic. 

Lead  (White  Lead.  Sugar  of  Lead).- — Symptoms. — This 
also  causes  many  of  the  symptoms  described  under  arsenic, 
when  taken  in  a large  quantity;  but  there  is  a particular  form 
of  disease  called  lead  colic,  which  particularly  affects  workers 
in  lead  (see  colic);  these  people  are  also  subject  to  a form  of 
paralysis  (see  paralysis). 

Treatment. — When  taken  in  a large  dose,  give  an  emetic 
of  sulphur  of  zinc  or  copper  (see  hemlock).  If  the  pain  in  the 
stomach  be  severe,  small  doses  of  tincture  of  opium,  about  io 
minims,  should  be  given  at  short  intervals,  combined  with 
sulphate  of  magnesia. 

Mercury  ( Corrosive  Sublimate.  Calomel.  White  Precipi - 
tate). — Symptoms. — Intense  metallic  taste  in  the  mouth,  pain 
in  the  stomach,  purging,  vomiting,  etc.;  in  fact,  the  symptoms 
of  nearly  all  metallic  poisons  are  similar.  There  are,  of  course, 
certain  peculiarities  belonging  to  each,  and  that  belonging  to 
mercury  is  the  largely  increased  flow  of  saliva,  commonly  called 
“ salivation,”  which  almost  invariably  follows  a poisonous  dose 
of  mercury  in  any  of  its  forms.  The  period  which  elapses 
between  the  taking  of  the  poison  and  appearance  of  the  saliva- 
tion, varies  from  a few  hours  to  some  days. 

Treatment. — An  emetic  of  sulphate  of  zinc  or  copper  (as 
under  hemlock)  should  be  given  in  white  of  egg,  mixed  with 
milk  or  water,  milk,  and  flour  and  water  in  large  draughts. 
When  the  salivation  sets  in,  the  following  will  be  found  useful 


MEDICINAL. 


537 


when  in  conjunction  with  astringent  gargles:  Iodide  of  potas- 
sium, 24  grains;  tincture  of  bark,  1 ounce;  water,  to  8 ounces. 
Mix,  and  take  two  tablespoonfuls  three  times  a day.  A good 
form  of  an  astringent  gargle  is  as  follows:  Alum,  30  grains; 
water,  to  4 ounces.  Mix,-  and  use  about  a tablespoonful  as  a 
gargle  every  three  or  four  hours. 

Ammonia. — Symptoms. — Pungent  acrid  odor,  hot  taste, 
stomach-ache,  followed  by  convulsions,  delirium,  and  death. 

Treatment. — Vinegar  and  water  in  large  doses,  lemon 
juice  and  olive  oil.  For  any  other  of  the  alkalies,  soda  or 
potash,  in  their  caustic  forms,  the  same  treatment  should  be 
pursued. 

Chloride  of  Zinc. — Symptoms. — Pain  of  a burning  kind  in 
the  throat,  nausea  and  vomiting,  griping  pains  in  the  stomach, 
pallor  and  coldness,  the  legs  are  drawn  up,  and  there  are 
appearances  of.  collapse. 

Alkalies. — The  strong  or  concentrated  preparation  acts 
with  extreme  corrosive  violence  on  the  mouth,  gullet,  and  stom- 
ach. Should  the  action  of  this  poison  be  further  continued,  it 
will*  be  found  that  it  affects  the  nervous  system.  This  will  be 
demonstrated  by  the  patient’s  sight  becoming  dim,  and  the 
power  of  taste  and  smell  less  acute  than  it  is  normally — by 
extreme  depression,  syncope,  and  death. 

Treatment. — Milk  and  white  of  egg  should  be  given  freely, 
and  emetics  of  mustard  and  warm  water,  combined  with  flour 
or  oatmeal. 

Baths  and  Bathing. — In  infancy,  bathing  or  washing  at 
least  twice  a day  is  necessary  to  preserve  the  skin  in  a healthy 
condition.  In  so  doing,  however,  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
surface  of  the  body  be  not  chilled;  a judicious  warmth  (avoid- 
ing too  great  heat)  should  be  studied.  In  the  early  weeks  of 
life  the  body  does  not  readily  maintain  its  own  temperature; 
hence  the  reason  that  the  young  of  animals  remain  a certain 
time  constantly  near  their  mother.  It  is  the  same  with  our 
infants;  no  warmth  is  so  equable  or  so  good  for  them  during  the 
few  first  days  or  weeks  of  life  as  the  warmth  of  their  mother; 
hence,  also,  the  necessity  for  a warm  bath  as  the  means  of 
cleanliness. 

A fallacy  lurks  in  the  notion  of  hardening  children.  The 
argument  in  favor  of  the  attempt  so  to  do,  drawn  from  the 
“state  of  nature,”  is  altogether  a dangerous  fallacy.  All  that 
can  really  be  said  in  its  favor  is  that  it  is  not  possible  to  kill  all 
the  children  submitted  to  the  system.  The  delicate  ones  will 
be  sifted  out,  and  the  hardy  ones  will  survive  in  spite  of  “sys- 


538 


MEDICINAL. 


tem.”  It  is  an  error  in  reasoning  to  quote  the  savage  state  as 
that  of  nature,  and,  therefore,  worthy  of  imitation.  It  may  be 
urged  with  greater  force  that  the  nature  of  man’s  mental  en- 
dowments tends  to  raise  him  from  the  savage  to  the  civilized 
state.  The  natural  state  of  man  is  that  of  civilization,  with  its 
attendant  fostering  care  of  infantile  existence. 

Sponge  Bath. — In  after-life  the  daily  sponge  bath  con- 
tributes greatly  to  the  preservation  of  health,  by  the  promotion 
of  cleanliness,  and  by  the  exhilarating  influence  in  stimulating 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  on  the  surface  of  the  body.  The 
warmth  of  reaction  is  more  sure  to  follow  if  the  bath  be  used 
on  rising,  while  the  body  is  still  warm,  and  before  the  surface 
is  chilled  by  exposure  in  dressing  In  using  this,  a due  regard 
to  the  feelings  should  be  observed.  Some  persons  are  extremly 
sensitive  to  cold,  while  others  enjoy  its  reaction  and  bracing 
influence.  The  temperature  of  the  water  should,  therefore,  be 
regulated  by  the  climate,  weather,  and  individual  susceptibility. 
After  sponging,  the  whole  body  should  be  briskly  dried  with  a 
rough  towel,  and  a glow  of  warmth  will  follow. 

Cold  Bath. — (Temperature  5o°to  6o°.) — A cold  bath 
will  vary  in  its  effects  according  as  it  is  taken  in  a small  bath, 
or  in  a river,  the  sea,  or  a quantity  of  water  large  enough  for 
swimming,  and  according  to  the  temperature  of  the  air.  The 
benefit  to  be  derived  from  a cold  bath  is  governed  also  pretty 
much  by  the  state  of  the  bather,  or  on  the  greater  or  less  vigor 
of  the  heart’s  action,  and  of  the  circulation  in  the  skin.  A cold 
bath  should  not  be  taken  with  a cold  skin;  the  best  preparation 
is  the  warm  glow  of  exercise.  A plunge  (head  first)  into  cold 
water,  even  when  hot  and  perspiring  alter  exercise,  and  a good 
swim  for  a few  minutes,  is  more  surely  followed  by  healthful 
reaction  than  the  waiting  until  the  body  is  dry  and  cool,  or  per- 
haps chilled  by  evaporation  of  perspiration.  A cold  bath  with- 
out the  active  exercise  of  swimming  should  not  be  prolonged 
beyond  three  or  four  minutes;  even  the  good  swimmer  must  be 
warned  that  prolonged  action  of  cold  incurs  the  risk  of  cramp. 

Persons  in  impaired  state  of  health  should  take  little  more 
than  a single  immersion,  and  this  should  be  followed  by  friction 
of  the  surface  with  towels  or  dry  flannels.  Such  persons  should 
avoid  bathing  on  an  empty  stomach;  it  is  better  not  to  take  a 
cold  bath  immediately  after  a meal. 

The  answer  to  questions  on  the  advisability  of  cold  bathing, 
whether  in  the  sea  or  otherwise,  is  to  be  found  in  the  state  of 
the  pulse  and  of  the  skin.  With  a feeble  pulse  and  a disposi- 
tion to  palpitation  of  the  heart,  the  flow  of  blood  through  the 
skin  is  sure  to  be  tardy,  as  compared  with  that  of  health,  and 
reaction  will  consequently  be  slowly  established  at  the  risk  of 
congestion  of  internal  organs.  Hence,  in  persons  disposed 


MEDICINAL. 


539 


towards  head,  or  heart,  or  lung  affections,  great  caution  should 
be  exercised.  Persons  who  are  subject  to  palpitation  of  the 
heart,  giddiness,  etc.,  had  better  avoid  the  cold  bath. 

Generally,  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a rule  that  if  cold  bathing 
be  not  followed  by  a glow  of  warmth  on  the  skin,  it  should  not 
be  repeated. 

About  two  or  three  hours  after  a meal  is  the  best  time  for 
cold  bathing. 

The  Tepid  Bath  (temperature  70  ° to  80 0 ) is  suitable 
for  those  whose  health,  or  sensitiveness  to  cold,  forbid  the  use 
of  the  cold  bath.  The  same  rules,  however,  apply  especially 
as  regards  the  delicate  in  health. 

The  Hot  Bath  (temperature  98°  to  no°  ) differs  from 
the  cold  or  tepid  bath,  inasmuch  as  they  are  preservative  of 
health,  while  this  is  curative  of  disease. 

Jt  opens  the  pores  of  the  skin,  relaxes  the  muscles,  soothes 
the  nervous  system,  and  (after  its  first  stimulation  of  the  heart’s 
action  is  past)  is  a valuable  agent  in  reducing  fever  and  inflam- 
matory action  by  the  profuse  perspiration  that  it  induces — so 
much  so,  that  it  is  often  an  efficacious  remedy  in  the  treatment 
of  inflammation. 

In  the  convulsions  of  infancy,  the  hot  bath,  continued  from 
five  to  ten  minutes,  is  an  important  part  of  the  treatment. 

In  order  to  avoid  any  possible  risk  of  the  sudden  immer- 
sion in  hot  water,  it  is  a safe  plan  to  have  the  bath  at  about 
95  0 to  begin  with,  and  gradually  raise  the  temperature  to 
ioo°  , or  even  105  0 , if  profuse  perspiration  afterwards  be  de- 
sired; in  this  case,  the  bath  may  be  continued  by  an  adult 
twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour.  On  coming  out  of  the  bath, 
after  rapidly  wiping  the  surface  of  the  body,  a warm  blanket 
should  be  wrapped  round  before  getting  into  a warm  bed. 

When  it  is  desirable  to  give  a hot  bath  to  a child  for  any 
febrile  malady,  or  in  any  case  where  the  child  would  be  fright- 
ened at  being  put  into  the  water,  its  fears  may  be  disarmed  by 
covering  the  bath  with  a blanket,  and  letting  the  little- patient 
down  gently  into  the  bath. 

Vapor  Bath  (temperature  100  0 to  120  °)  is  of  great  use 
in  exciting  perspiration  in  catarrh,  in  simple  fever,  and  in  rheu- 
matism. It  may  be  extemporized  by  sitting  on  a chair  en- 
closed in  a blanket,  and  having  a pail  of  hot  water  placed 
under  the  chair,  adding  to  the  water  some  red-hot  stones,  or 
brick,  or  iron  chain.  If  a long  pipe  can  be  connected  with  the 
spout  of  a large  kettle,  and  made  to  pass  within  the  blanket, 
it  affords  a ready  means  of  making  a vapor  bath. 

Hot-air  Bath. — (Temperature  100  0 to  1200  .) — This  acts 
in  the  same  way  as  a vapor  bath.  It  is  readily  made  by  burn- 


540 


MEDICINAL. 


ing  some  spirits  of  wine  under  the  canopy  of  blanket.  A con- 
venient mode  is,  after  the  patient  is  seated  and  covered  up  to 
the  throat  with  blankets,  to  place  an  ounce  of  spirits  of  wine  in 
a cup,  the  cup  standing  in  a basin  with  some  water,  then  light 
the  spirit  and  let  it  burn  out. 

The  Turkish  Bath,  a combination  of  these,  is  useful  in 
rheumatic  and  other  chronic  diseases,  but  requires  to  be  used 
for  medical  purposes  only  under  medical  advice. 

Hydropathy  professes  the  cure  of  disease  by  baths  of 
various  kinds.  It  can  only  be  properly  practiced  in  establish- 
ments especially  devoted  thereto.  It  is  expensive  and,  there- 
fore, only  within  the  reach  of  comparatively  few. 

SLEEP. 

No  rule  can  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  proportion  pf 
time  that  should  be  given  to  sleep.  Much  depends  upon  indi- 
vidual habit  and  disposition.  The  active  mind  and  cheerful 
disposition  that  is  never  more  happy  than  when  busily  em- 
ployed, and  finds  its  recreation  in  change  of  work,  will  gener- 
ally sleep  soundly  and  be  refreshed,  by  six  or  seven  hours’ 
sleep.  Less  than  this  cannot  be  safely  devoted  to  sleep  by  any 
one  who  does  a good  day’s  work,  either  bodily  or  mentally. 
There  have  been  those  who  could  abridge  their  hours  of  sleep 
to  four,  three,  or  even  two,  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four,  but 
they  paid  the  penalty  of  such  an  infringement  of  nature’s  laws 
by  shortening  the  number  of  their  days,  and  embittering  them 
by  the  impairment  of  health. 

The  daily  wear  and  tear  of  life  needs  the  restoration  of 
sleep  to  ensure  healthy  balance  of  nervous  power,  and  that 
equanimity  of  mind  so  desirable  in  this  world’ s strife  and  tur- 
moil. 

Infants  and  children  require  more  sleep  than  grown-up 
persons.  In  fact  the  early  days  of  infancy  are  passed  in 
sleeping,  to  the  infant’s  great  gain.  If  otherwise  its  health 
soon  suffers,  and  shows  the  want  of  “balmy  sleep.”  Warmth, 
sleep,  and  food  are  all  that  are  wanted  in  early  infancy.  For 
the  first  three  or  four  years  the  mid-day  “nap”  contributes  to 
the  vigor  and  activity  of  the  young  child. 

Throughout  childhood  up  to  puberty  from  twelve  to  four- 
teen hours’  sleep  is  not  an  undue  allowance.  At  all  events,  if 
less  time  be  accorded  for  sleep,  “early  to  bed”  is  a golden 
maxim.  The  practice  of  allowing  infants  and  young  children 
to  be  awake  and  up  until  ten  or  eleven  o’clock  at  night,  amid 
the  glare  of  lights,  and  perhaps  the  noise  and  excitement  of 
festivity,  is  the  most  injudicious  sort  of  kindness  to  which  they 
can  be  exposed. 


MEDICINAL. 


541 


CLIMATE. 

This  word  embraces  the  consideration  of  many  topics 
which  our  limits  forbid  our  touching  upon;  but,  as  the  present 
work  will  doubtless  be  read  in  all  parts  of  the  country  (at  least 
such  is  our  hope),  it  would  be  incomplete  without  a few  re- 
marks thereon  in  relation  to  the  causation  and  treatment  of 
disease. 

“The  climate  of  a country  or  district,”  Dr.  Copland  re- 
marks, “depends,  ist,  upon  its  position  in  respect  of  distance 
from  the  equator,  and  upon  its  elevation  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  its  proximity  to  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  or  the 
beds  of  large  rivers,  etc.;  2nd,  upon  the  geological  and  miner- 
alogical  formations  constituting  the  basis  of  its  soil;  3rd.  upon 
the  nature  of  the  soil  itself,  its  cultivation,  and  the  evgetable 
productions  by  which  it  is  covered;  and,  4th,  upon  the  prevail- 
ing winds  or  currents  of  the  air.” 

The  Effect  of  Change  of  Climate. — An  inhabitant  of 
a temperate  climate  going  to  a tropical  country  will  suffer  from 
excitement  of  the  nervous  and  vascular  systems,  by  the  heat 
and  moisture  of  the  air.  The  respiratory  functions  become 
less  active;  while  there  is  a decrease  of  the  ordinary  action  of 
the  kidneys  in  carrying  off  the  refuse  matters  of  the  circulation. 
The  consequence  is  that  the  skin  and  the  liver  have  an  excess 
of  work  thrown  upon  them  (to  speak  metaphorically,  and  also 
exactly),  in  order  to  rid  the  system  of  certain  effete  elements 
which  the  lungs  cannot  throw  off. 

Hence  the  “ seasoning  fevers,”  as  they  are  called,  and  the 
disorders  of  the  liver  to  which  Europeans  are  specially  liable 
on  arrival  in  a hot  climate,  and  to  which  full  often  they  render 
themselves  the  more  obnoxious  by  injudicious  diet.  An  eminent 
English  authority  says  that: 

Europeans  visiting  hot  climates  should  live  abstemiously, 
taking  every  means  to  promote  the  functions  of  the  skin  by 
moderate  exercise,  and  by  daily  free  ablutions.  Exposure  of 
the  head  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  should  be  carefully  avoided,  as 
well  as  the  risk  of  contracting  fever  by  exposure  to  dews,  the 
cold,  and  the  malaria  of  the  night  air.  Warm  clothing  should 
be  worn  at  night  by  new-comers,  as  the  extremes  of  day  and 
night  temperature  in  tropical  regions  often  pass  through  a very 
wide  range. 

The  effects  of  a warm  and  moist  climate  upon  the  inhabit- 
ants of  colder  regions,  in  decreasing  the  functional  activity  of 
the  lungs,  and  increasing  that  of  the  liver  and  skin,  has  formed 
the  basis  of  the  recommendation  of  a change  from  a cold  to  a 
warm  climate  in  pulmonary  affections.  It  is,  however,  very 
doubtful  whether  the  relaxing  and  enervating  influence  of  the 
heat  on  the  nervous  system  does  not  more  than  counterbalance 


542 


MEDICINAL. 


this  functional  compensation.  Certainly,  when  disease  m tha 
lungs  has  advanced  much,  more  harm  than  good  generally 
comes  of  the  migration.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tonic  and 
bracing  effect  of  a cold  climate  more  frequently  checks  the 
advance  of  consumption,  if  care  is  taken  to  protect  the  surface 
from  sudden  chills,  and  so  to  protect  it  as  to  ensure  a free  cir- 
culation of  the  blood  in  the  skin  by  out-door  exercise.  The 
British  Hippocrates,  Sydenham,  was  wont  to  call  horse  exercise 
the  “ palmarium  remedy  ” for  consumption,  so  strongly  was  he 
convinced  of  the  importance  of  out-door  exercise.  A confir- 
mation of  this  opinion  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  coachmen 
(if  temperate  men)  are  among  the  healthiest  classes.  In  the 
days  when  locomotion  was  performed  more  on  horseback  than 
is  now  the  case,  it  was  said  that  “ bagmen,”  or  commercial 
travelers,  enjoyed  a singular  freedom  from  consumption. 
Unfortunately,  however,  these  men,  then  as  now,  too  often 
threw  away  their  better  health  by  their  irregularities  in  other 
directions. 

While  the  stress  of  the  effects  of  removal  to  warm  climates 
upon  the  inhabitants  of  temperate  regions  is  thus  seen  to  fall 
upon  the  liver  and  skin,  the  reverse  is  seen  to  occur  when  the 
natives  of  hot  climates  migrate  to  colder  countries.  The 
negro,  brought  direct  from  Africa  to  England,  will  almost  surely 
be  the  victim  of  consumption. 

The  change  of  climate  must  therefore  be  guided  by  these 
several  conditions,  both  of  place  and  person,  and  may  further 
have  to  be  altered  according  to  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  and 
according  to  the  special  character  of  the  season  itself.  Thus, 
it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  south  coast  of  England  is 
not  suitable  for  invalids,  even  so  late  as  June,  if  easterly  winds 
prevail.  The  air  is  then  almost  as  keen  as  that  of  the  directly 
eastern  coast,  and  a return  inland  becomes  inevitable. 

Consumption. — In  this  disease,  change  of  climate,  to  be 
productive  of  real  benefit,  must  be  tried  at  a much  earlier 
period  than  is  generally  done,  as  it  is  often  delayed  a year  or 
two  after  the  period  that  any  good  can  be  expected,  and  the 
result  is  that  more  harm  than  good  is  done  thereby.  Hence 
I the  trial  is  often  not  made  through  the  discredit  that  arises  out 
of  its  misapplication.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
consumption  is  not  merely  a disease  of  the  lungs,  but  a general 
morbid  constitutional  condition,  of  which  the  disease  in  the 
lungs  is  but  a manifestation.  The  early  treatment  must,  there- 
fore, be  directed  to  invigorating  the  system  and  improving 
the  quality  of  the  blood.  With  these  objects,  the  climate  most 
suitable  for  winter  residence  are  those  of  our  southern  coast, 
Madeira,  Nice,  Pisa,  and  Rome,  with  removal  during  summer 
months  to  the  drier  situations  of  our  own  islands. 


MEDICINAL. 


543 


Chronic  Bronchitis. — This  is  an  affection  that  is  often 
mistaken  for  consumption,  and  one  which,  through  its  persis- 
tence and  its  debilitating  and  emaciating  effects,  constitutes  a 
veritable  decline.  The  change  from  a cold  and  moist  to  a 
mild  and  dry  air  relieves  the  morbid  conditions  of  the  mucous 
surfaces.  The  same  climates  that  are  of  service  in  consumption 
are  beneficial  in  chronic  bronchitis.  When  asthma  is  combined 
with  chronic  bronchitis,  it  is  also  relieved  by  the  same  climate 
as  is  found  useful  in  chronic  consumption.  Torquay  and  Un- 
dercliff, for  example,  are  most  adapted  to  irritable  states  of  the 
mucous  membrane  without  much  secretion;  Clifton  or  Brighton 
for  those  in  which  expectoration  is  profuse  and  the  system 
debilithted;  Rome,  Pisa,  Madeira,  are  suited  for  the  latter  class 
of  cases; 'Nice  to  the  former. 

Chronic  Rheumatism. — This  is  benefited  by  residence  in 
a warm  climate,  such  as  the  southwestern  coast  of  England, 
the  south  of  France,  Rome,  and  Pisa. 

Gout. — This  also  derives  benefit  by  a warm  climate.  The 
West  India  Islands  are  especially  marked  in  this  respect. 

Dyspepsia  and  nervous  affections  connected  therewith  are 
aggravated  by  a cold  and  damp  atmosphere,  and  are  greatly 
relieved  by  change  to  a drier  and  warmer  climate;  but  great 
care  in  dieting  is  needful  in  order  to  ensure  the  full  benefit  of 
the  change.  The  use  of  stimulants  must  be  very  carefully 
watched.  The  nervous  symptoms  associated  with  dyspepsia 
are  prone  to  take  on  the  form  of  hypochondriasis;  the  change 
of  climate  should  therefore  be  accompanied  with  change  of 
occupation  and  of  amusement.  This  class  of  cases  rapidly 
improve  under  change  of  scene,  and  the  relinquishment  of  the 
cares  of  business,  to  say  nothing  of  “ throwing  physic  to  the 
dogs.” 

DIET  IN  RELATION  TO  DISEASE. 

In  acute  diseases,  the  diet  should  generally  be  of  the 
simplest  and  lightest  kind,  such  as  beef-tea  or  mutton-broth, 
sago,  tapioca,  arrowroot,  or  gruel,  with,  at  the  same  time,  some 
little  respect  paid  to  the  palate.  Due  regard,  however,  must  be 
paid  to  the  general  character  and  condition  of  the  constitution. 
For  instance,  acute  diseases  may  occur  in  a very  debilitated 
state  of  the  health,  and  then  may  require  the  addition  to  the 
above  of  some  alcoholic  stimulant.  The  stomach  in  such 
cases  would  not  be  able  to  digest  solid  food.  The  absence  of 
this  must  be  supplied  by  soups,  broths,  eggs,  etc. 

In  the  feeding  of  invalids,  even  children,  some  attention 
may  be  paid  to  their  cravings  after  different  articles.  It  will 
often  be  found  that  the  thing  longed  for  is  not  injurious,  and 


544 


MEDICINAL. 


may  be  often  called  for  in  obedience  to  some  indication  by 
nature.  The  following  incident  may  serve  to  illustrate  this 
observation:  A child  of  about  four  or  five  years  old  was  suffer- 
ing under  diphtheria,  and  had  got  to  refuse  the  port  wine  and 
beef-tea  that  had  been  ordered  it.  It  seemed  that  there  was 
nothing  for  it  but  that  the  child  must  die  from  starvation  and 
diphtheria  together.  One  day  she  woke  up  from  a nap  and  saw 
a glass  of  ale,  which  was  being  drunk  by  its  mother  with  her 
luncheon.  This  ale  the  child  cried  for,  but  the  mother  feared 
to  allow  her  to  drink.  When  appealed  to,  the  medical  attend- 
ant said,  “By  all  means  let  the  child  have  it;  and  even  put  it 
in  her  way  that  she  may  take  it  herself  without  let  or  hind- 
rance.” The  next  time  the  child  woke  up  she  eagerly  clutched 
at  the  malt  liquor  and  drank  off  a tumblerful.  From  that 
moment  she  began  to  mend,  and  for  the  next  forty-eight  hours 
persistently  refused  everything  else,  either  as  food  or  medicine, 
and  eventually  made  a good  recovery.  When  the  disease, 
though  acute,  is  of  a less  severe  character,  and  is  not  stamped 
with  extreme  debility,  the  stomach  will  tolerate  light  solids, 
such  as  white  fish,  fowls,  bread,  rice,  light  puddings,  and  ripe, 
pulpy  fruit  and  vegetables  may  be  taken  with  advantage,  as  the 
acids  allay  thirst.  In  chronic  disease  a fuller  diet  is  required, 
comprising  meat  with  some  stimulant. 

Milk. — Milk  is  the  most  important  article  of  diet  in  infancy, 
and  is  also  both  nutritious  and  digestible  in  diseases  of  adult 
life.  A prejudice  exists  in  the  minds  of  many  persons  to  the 
effect  that  milk  is  not  easily  digested.  The  opinion  is,  how- 
ever, refuted  by  the  fact  that  it  forms  the  nourishment  of 
infants  and  of  young  animals  of  all  kinds.  Cow’s  milk,  how- 
ever, is  sometimes  unsuited  to  the  stomachs  of  infants  brought 
up  by  hand;  or,  from  its  richness  in  oil  and  curd,  to  the  stom- 
achs of  persons  enfeebled  by  disease.  The  best  substitute 
that  can  be  used  is  asses’  or  goat’s  milk.  The  latter,  however, 
is  richer  than  the  former. 

For  the  first  three  or  four  months  of  an  infant’s  life  the 
best  food  is  breast-milk  alone.  If  for  any  reason  this  cannot 
be  given,  asses’  milk  is  the  best  substitute.  Next  to  this  cow’s 
milk,  diluted  with  an  equal  proportion  of  water  in  which 
half  a teaspoonful  of  powdered  sugar  of  milk  has  been 
dissolved.  Cow’s  milk  differs  from  human  milk  in  its  excess 
of  cream  and  curd.  The  cream  consists  almost  wholly  of  oil 
globules.  The  addition  of  a solution  of  sugar-of-milk  reduces 
it  in  one  direction,  and  raises  it  in  another,  to  the  level  of 
human  milk;  thus,  sugar-of-milk  contains  all  the  saline  mat- 
ters of  the  milk  from  which  it  was  made;  therefore,  by  its  ad- 
dition (with  water)  to  cow’s  milk,  while  the  curd  and  oil  are 
diluted,  the  deficiency  of  the  salts  is  supplied,  and  thereby  its 


MEDICINAL. 


545 


composition  is  as  nearly  as  possible  equalized  or  assimilated 
one  to  the  other. 

Most  infants  will  thrive  well  on  this  hand-feeding,  but  there 
are  two  points  of  essential  importance  to  its  success.  One  is 
the  giving  the  food  with  regularity.  For  the  first  two  or  three 
weeks  the  child  should  be  fed  every  two  hours  during  the  day 
and  once  or  twice  in  the  course  of  the  night.  The  interval 
should  gradually  be  lengthened  after  the  month. 

The  same  rule  as  to  time  should  be  observed,  whatever  be 
the  food,  whether  breast-milk  or  any  substitute. 

Feeding-bottles  Objectionable. — The  next  point,  and 
one  (if  possible)  more  important,  is  that  the  feeding-bottle 
should  be  most  scrupulously  cleaned  each  time  immediately 
after  feeding,  or  small  quantities  of  milk  remaining  in  the  tube 
or  teat  will  become  sour.  The  minutest  particle  of  sour  milk 
taken  into  the  stomach  with  the  other  will  act  after  the  manner 
of  a ferment,  and  favor  the  turning  sour  of  the  whole  quantity. 

It  should,  however,  here  be  noted,  that  it  does  not  follow 
that,  because  when  a child  vomits  its  milk  it  is  found  curdled, 
therefore  the  whole  has  been  sour  at  the  time  of  taking  it. 
The  first  step  in  the  digestion  of  the  milk  is  that  it  is  curdled 
by  the  gastric  juice  of  the  stomach,  and  afterwards  dissolved 
by  it.  This  process,  however,  is  very  different  from  the  curd- 
ling of  milk  by  its  having  turned  sour  out  of  the  stomach,  and 
it  has  a very  different  result  in  the  process  of  digestion. 

There  is  another  grave  objection  to  these  tubes — they  en- 
gender and  foster  idleness  on  the  part  of  the  nurse.  It  is  a 
common  practice  to  put  an  infant  into  its  bed  or  cradle,  with 
the  teat  in  its  mouth  and  the  bottle  in  bed,  and  there  to  leave 
it  to  suckle  itself  to  sleep;  which  it  generally  does,  sucking  the 
while  even  after  it  has  fallen  asleep  and  its  bottle  is  emptied. 
The  child  goes  on  sucking  at  the  tube,  but  getting  no  food;  the 
infant,  in  popular  phrase,  “sucks  in  wind."  If  it  does  not  ex- 
actly suck  the  wind,  its  fruitless  sucking  at  a piece  of  india- 
rubber  keeps  up  secretion  of  gastric  juice  in  the  stomach. 
This,  having  no  food  to  act  upon,  acts  abnormally  upon  the 
stomach  itself,  and  sets  up  various  disorders  of  that  organ 
and  of  the  intestines.  Such  a mode  of  nursing  is  little  better 
than  the  “ Gampish  ” trick  of  sticking  into  the  child’s  mouth  a 
raisin  in  a piece  of  muslin  to  “keep  it  quiet."  They  are  alike 
occasions  to  evade  the  duty  of  really  hand-nursing  and  carry- 
ing the  child  in  arms. 

Beef  Tea  is  the  staple  of  existence  in  many  cases  of  illness; 
it  is  food  and  physic  both  in  some  fevers.  It  must  be  most 
carefully  made,  on  Liebig’s  principles.  The  heat  employed 
should  not  exceed  1500.  A thermometer,  however,  is  not 
commonly  at  hand,  but  the  meat  should  be  cut  up  small  and 
33 


546 


MEDICINAL. 


merely  covered  with  water,  in  a bottle  jar,  in  a sauce  pan  with 
cold  water,  near  a fire,  so  as  not  to  allow  it  to  boil,  but  merely 
to  stew  for  three  or  four  hours.  The  fat  may  be  separated  by 
allowing  it  to  get  cold  and  then  skimming  it  off.  Mutton-broth 
might  be  made  on  the  same  plan,  and  would  be  more  nourish- 
ing than  that  commonly  made. 

In  the  ordinary  way  of  making  beef  tea,  by  boiling  lumps 
of  meat,  a strong  jelly  may  be  formed,  and  is  supposed  to  show 
its  strength;  but  each  lump  is  really  case-hardened,  and  the 
most  nourishing  part  locked  up  in  each  piece.  The  explana- 
tion is  that  flesh  consists  largely  of  albumen,  which  coagulates 
at  150  ° F.;  therefore  the  boiling  temperature,  212 0 F., 
hardens  the  outer  part  at  once,  and  slowly  the  interior.  To 
give  a culinary  illustration,  the  best  way  to  cook  a boiled  joint 
of  meat  is  to  put  it  into  water  already  boiling,  and  continue 
boiling  the  requisite  time;  the  outside  is  at  once  hardened,  and 
the  gravy  is  locked  up  inside. 

Eggs. — For  the  same  reason  the  white  of  eggs,  which  con- 
sists wholly  of  albumen,  is  a most  excellent  medium  of  nutri- 
ment, where,  for  any  reason,  beef  tea  cannot  be  given.  The 
white  of  egg  stirred  into  cold  or  lukewarm  milk  can  often  be 
given  to  children  or  other  patients  who  refuse  beef  tea.  It  is 
tasteless  and  colorless,  therefore  its  presence  can  be  disguised; 
whereas  the  yolk  of  egg  contains  fatty  matters  with  albumen, 
and  is  easily  recognized  by  the  child  both  from  its  color  and 
its  flavor. 

Water,  either  as  an  ordinary  article  of  diet  or  a means  of 
allaying  the  thirst  in  febrile  states,  requires  that  great  care 
shall  be  taken  to  ensure  that  it  shall  be  free  from  impurities. 
The  most  dangerous  impurities  to  which  water  is  obnoxious 
are  gaseous  matters,  and  insoluble  animal  and  vegetable  mat- 
ters. Gaseous  matters  and  vapors  afe  readily  absorbed  by 
water,  as  seen  in  the  ordinary  experience  of  placing  a basin  or 
tub  of  water  in  a newly  painted  room,  whereby  the  smell  of  the 
paint  is  quickly  removed.  W ater,  by  reason  of  the  same  prop- 
erty, should  never  be  drank  from  a cistern  into  which  there  is 
a waste  pipe  having  a direct  communication  with  a drain  or 
reservoir.  The  poisonous  gases  arising  from  the  decomposing 
sewage  are  absorbed  by  the  water,  which  thus  becomes  the 
vehicle  for  the  conveyance  of  the  poison  of  malignant  fevers. 

The  decomposing  animal  and  saline  matters  of  sewage  also 
readily  percolate  a porous  soil;  so  that  if  a well  and  cesspool 
be  near  one  another,  as  is  often  the  case  both  in  town  and 
country,  the  water  becomes  the  channel  through  which  deadly 
poison  is  carried. 

Rain  water  received  into  leaden  cisterns,  or  water  in  tanks 
having  leaden  pipes  leading  from  them,  is  often  contaminated 


MEDICINAL. 


547 


by  a portion  of  that  metal  becoming  oxidized  and  dissolved, 
producing  colic  and  other  signs  of  lead  poisoning. 

For  ordinary  domestic  purposes,  water  is  classed  as  hard  or 
soft.  The  tatter  is  rain  water;  the  former  spring  or  river  water. 
These  vary  much  in  their  degree  of  hardness,  as  may  readily 
be  noticed  by  their  behavior  with  soap.  With  hard  water  the 
soap  does  not  readily  make  a lather,  but  curdles  on  the  hand. 
The  source  of  hardness  of  water  is  in  the  lime  and  other  salts 
that  are  dissolved  out  of  the  strata  of  the  earth  through  which 
it  has  passed.  These  may  be  separated  to  a considerable  ex- 
tent by  boiling,  or  by  the  addition  of  small  quantities  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda.  This  is  the  object  of  some  persons  who  put  a 
small  portion  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  into  the  teapot  when 
making  tea. 

Insoluble  impurities  can  be  separated  by  filters,  or  by  any 
arrangement  by  which  it  is  made  to  pass  through  fine  sand  or 
broken  charcoal.  The  charcoal  has  the  property  of  absorbing 
gases  from  water  and  rendering  it  sweet  and  pure. 

In  the  treatment  of  disease,  water  is  of  primary  importance, 
as  it  allays  thirst  and  fever  by  diluting  the  blood  and  giving 
the  medium  by  which  a poison  may  be  eliminated  from  the 
system.  In  fever  and  in  cholera  thirst  is  often  the  one  great 
complaint,  and  the  cry  is  for  water  ! water  ! This  indication  of 
nature  may  safely  be  followed,  and  the  patient  allowed  to 
drink  as  freely  as  he  will. 

Water  is  the  chief  of  diuretics;  it  increases  the  secretion  of 
urine,  and  promotes  thereby  the  evacuation  of  effete  or  irri- 
tant matters  from  the  blood. 

Farinaceous  Foods. — Farinaceous  foods  should  be  cau- 
tiously given  to  young  infants.  Neither  the  secretion  of  the 
saliva  in  the  mouth,  nor  of  the  gastric  juice  in  the  stomach, 
is  adapted  for  their  digestion.  Among  the  farinaceous  foods, 
suitable  for  young  children,  are  baked  flour,  corn  flour,  biscuit 
powder,  arrowroot,  ground  root,  etc.  It  is  not  possible  to  say 
in  which  case  each  of  these  may  be  most  suitable;  what  may 
be  easily  digested  by  one  child  may  not  agree  with  another, 
or  with  the  same  child  for  long  together.  After  five  or  six 
months  a crust  may  be  given,  but  should  be  carefully  watched. 
When  some  teeth  are  cut,  the  admixture  of  solids  may  occa- 
sionally be  permitted;  but,  even  when  all  the  teeth  are  cut,  it 
is  advisable  only  to  give  meat  every  other  or  every  third  day. 
Soups,  beef  tea,  etc.,  may  be  given  at  other  times. 

General  Diet. — It  is  scarcely  necessary  here  to  enter 
upon  the  diet  for  adults  in  health,  as  this  will  depend  very 
much  upon  the  pursuits  and  inclinations  of  each.  It  is  well 
known  that  those  who  work  hura  tan  generally  eat  well  with- 


548 


MEDICINAL. 


out  much  regard  to  what  is  put  before  them — “Hunger  is  their 
best  sauce.” 

It  may  suffice  to  offer  a few  remarks  on  the  digestibility  of 
some  article  of  food  as  a guide  to  invalids,  and  with  reference 
to  the  diet  recommended  under  the  several  headings  of  disease 
in  the  following  pages. 

It  may  be  stated  generally  that  beef  is  less  digestible  than 
mutton,  especially  for  persons  subject  to  dyspepsia.  Beef  is 
more  easily  digested  cold  than  hot  by  delicate  stomachs.  Both 
these  meats  will  require  upwards  of  three  hours  for  digestion. 
Salt  beef  will  demand  twice  the  time.  Veal,  lamb,  and  young 
meat  generally,  is  not  so  easy  of  digestion  as  the  meat  of  ani- 
mals killed  at  maturer  age.  Pork  in  any  form  is  less  readily 
digested  than  other  meats. 

Fowls,  Poultry,  Game,  though  generally  regarded  as 
light  and  digestible,  are  not  always  so  in  the  cases  of  the  invalid 
or  convalescent;  they  are  not  wholly  digested  much  under 
four  or  five  hours. 

Fish,  especially  the  white  sorts,  are  easy  of  digestion,  ac- 
cording as  they  are  plainly  cooked.  Salted  fish  are  more  slowly 
digested  fish,  as  also  are  those  that  are  fat,  such  as  salmon 
Much  depends,  however,  upon  the  cooking,  and  of  the  adjuncts, 
the  sauces,  etc. 

Melted  butter  is  usually  taken  with  fish,  but  is  better  omit- 
ted when  they  are  food  of  the  invalid.  Butter,  when  melted, 
or  prepared  in  any  way  over  fire,  readily  becomes  altered  in  its 
composition,  and  yields  various  fatty  acids,  which  are  the 
sources  of  indigestion.  This  is  more  especially  the  case  with 
pastry,  such  as  short  pie-crust,  etc.  For  the  delicate  stomach, 
fish  cannot  be  too  plainly  and  simply  cooked;  under  these 
circumstances  they  form  a light  and  nutritious  diet. 

Shell  Fish,  including  under  the  term  oysters,  mussels, 
whelks,  lobsters,  crabs,  are  more  or  less  difficult  of  digestion, 
and  unsuitable  for  invalids.  Oysters  are,  perhaps,  the  least 
open  to  the  objection,  but  they  require  three  or  four  hours’ 
digestion,  and  are  not  the  light  nourishment  usually  supposed, 
unless  very  carefully  cooked.  Sweetbread  and  tripe  are  easy 
of  digestion,  as  also  are  the  brains  of  animals.  Liver  and 
kidneys  are  the  reverse  of  digestible. 

Ripe  Fruits  and  Vegetables  are  more  easily  digested 
than  any  of  the  preceding  articles;  but  then,  as  they  consist  ot 
a large  proportion  of  water,  they  are  not  so  nourishing  as  ani- 
mal substances.  Vegetarians  supplement  the  deficient  nutrr 
tive  qualities  of  vegetables  by  a liberal  allowance  of  animal 
matter  in  the  shape  of  eggs  and  milk. 


MEDICINAL. 


549 


Cheese,  being  almost  entirely  an  albuminous  substance, 
contains  a very  large  amount  of  nutriment;  but,  from  this  ele- 
'ment  being  combined  with  the  fatty  acids  and  some  of  the  oily 
constituents  of  milk,  it  is  not  easily  digested  by  weak  stomachs 
when  taken  alone.  It  nevertheless  is  often  useful  in  prompt- 
ing the  digestion  of  other  food,  to  which  it  sometimes  acts 
after  the  manner  of  a ferment  when  taken  in  small  quantities; 
for  instance,  after  dinner. 

Sausage,  when  fresh,  are  not  unwholesome,  and  they  con- 
tain a large  quantity  of  nourishment  in  a compact  form. 

Alcoholic  Stimulants. — The  treatment  of  disease,  and 
more  particularly  of  convalescence,  can  scarcely  be  conducted 
without  the  adminstration  of  stimulants;  but  it  is  obvious  that 
it  should  be  accompanied  with  emphatic  caution  lest  the  use 
grow  into  the  abuse  thereof.  An  occasional  dose  may  soon 
become  the  habitual  dram,  unless  self-denial  and  self-control 
be  exercised. 

We  are  not  here  called  upon  to  follow  in  the  wake  of  those 
who  feel  it  their  duty  to  expose  the  errors  and  weaknesses  of 
their  neighbors;  suffice  it  that  we  admit  that  in  all  directions 
we  see  too  free  indulgence  in  alcoholic  stimulation.  There 
can  be  no  two  opinions  upon  that  point.  There  is  no  amount 
of  health  or  wealth  that  cannot  or  will  not  surely  be  destroyed 
by  any  one  who  determinedly  gives  himself  up  to  drink. 

The  medicinal  uses  of  stimulants  are  most  found  in  chronic 
disease,  or  in  acute  disease  occuring  in  extremely  debilitated 
states.  It  is  greviously  to  be  lamented  that  the  medical  recom- 
mendation of  stimulants  is  not  always  sufficiently  guarded  and 
watched.  There  has  been  of  late  a fashion  to  regard  and  to 
teach  that  all  disease  proceeds  from  debility,  and  therefore  that 
it  must  be  treated  with  alcoholic  stimulants.  Allowing  (which 
we  do  not)  that  such  might  be  the  case,  yet  the  inference  that 
alcohol  is  the  remedy  is  by  no  means  conclusive.  A supply 
of  wholesome  nourishment  with  avoidance  of  the  causes  of 
disease,  and  bodily  and  mental  rest,  will  be  surer  in  their  pres- 
ent effects  and  safer  in  future  results.  Few  medical  practi- 
tioners can  pass  many  years,  or  even  months,  without  meeting 
with  the  melancholy  results  of  intemperance  that  began  with 
the  medicinal  use  of  brandy  and  water,  champagne,  etc.  The 
possibility  is  here  referred  to  simply  as  a warning  to  those  who, 
consulting  these  pages,  may  feel  justified  in  advising  the  use  of 
alcoholic  stimulants  as  a means  of  combating  disease,  lest  they 
forget  to  look  also  to  the  discontinuance  of  their  use.  As 
regards  the  dietic  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants,  we  have  only  a 
few  words  to  add  to  the  caution  already  given. 

Malt  Liquors  are,  as  a general  rule,  the  most  wholesome 
of  alcoholic  beverages.  The  alcohol  is  in  them  so  combined 


550 


MEDICINAL. 


with  saccharine  matter  and  tonic  vegetable  principles  that  it 
can  only  be  separated  by  a distillation  destructive  of  all  other 
qualities.  A small  quantity  of  mild  ale  or  porter,  taken  with 
dinner  and  supper,  or  luncheon  and  dinner,  supports  the 
strength,  and  supplies  wear  and  tear. 

Wines  resemble  malt  liquors  in  that,  when  pure,  the  alcohol 
is  in  a state  of  chemical  combination  that  can  only  be  super- 
ceded  by  destructive  distillation.  They  have  not,  however,  so 
much  solid  matter  suspended  in  them  as  malt  liquors.  They 
are,  for  this  reason,  better  suited  to  persons  of  weak  digestive 
powers.  The  dietic  and  the  therapeutic  uses  of  wines  must 
depend  upon  their  percentage  of  alcohol,  and  upon  the^devel- 
opment  in  them  of  certain  acids  and  spirituous  combinations 
termed  ethers,  which  constitute  what  judges  of  wine  call  the 
“bouquet.”  The  proportion  of  unfermented  sugar  also  is  a 
point  to  be  considered  in  selecting  wine  for  invalids.  Thus, 
there  are  sweet  and  astringent  wines,  as  there  are  red  and  white 
wines,  and  there  are  wines  in  which  the  fermentations  of  the 
sugar  is  checked,  and  the  sparkling  of  effervescing  wine  is  pro- 
duced. 

Effervescing  wines,  champagne  and  Moselle,  are  among 
the  most  valuable  wines  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  free 
carbonic  acid  they  contain  renders  them  very  serviceable  in 
sickness  and  vomiting,  while  the  alcohol,  being  in  some  pecu- 
liar state  of  combination,  is  more  volatile,  acts  as  a more  rapid 
stimulant,  effects  passing  off  more  rapidly  than  those  of  other 
and  stronger  wines. 

Astringent  wines,  such  as  Burgundy,  Hungarian,  Bordeaux, 
etc.,  are  less  liable  to  ferment  in  the  stomach.  Port,  Madeira, 
sherry,  Marsala,  are  all  stronger  wines,  and  are  said  to  be 
highly  brandied,  and  therefore  less  wholesome  for  ordinary 
consumption;  but  they  are  (if  moderately  good)  more  useful 
for  medicinal  purposes  than  the  lighter  wines,  which  may  be 
safer  for  daily  use  dietically.  In  this  matter,  however,  as  in 
many  others  where  eating  and  drinking  are  concerned,  quantity 
is  often  a more  important  element  in  the  question  than  quality. 
There  is,  moreover,  so  much  in  fashion  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  say  which  wines  are  best.  Moderation  is  the  golden 
rule. 

Spirits,  the  type  of  which  may  be  taken  to  be  brandy,  are 
only  of  value  as  medicinal  agents,  and  for  these  purposes  they 
are  sometimes  invaluable — e.  g.,  in  low  fevers,  in  some  inflam- 
mations, and  in  state  of  debility,  in  sickness,  and  generally  as 
indicated  under  the  several  headings  of  diseases  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages.  We  have  no  hesitation  in  affirming  that  raw  or 
diluted  raw  spirits  can  never  be  advantageously  used  merely  as 


MEDICINAL.  551 

ordinary  beverages  by  those  who  can  obtain  wholesome  malt 
liquor  or  wines. 

The  habit  of  spirit-drinking  (as  grog  every  night)  as  prac- 
ticed by  many  “very  respectable  people”  in  the  middle  classes, 
is  not  one  whit  morally  or  physically  better  than  the  habits  of 
the  poor  besotted  creatures  who  swarm  in  and  out  of  the  Lon- 
don gin  palaces.  With  the  moral  aspects  of  the  habit  it  may 
be  said  that  we  are  not  concerned,  but  of  the  physical  aspects 
we  feel  morally  bound  by  a solemn  responsibility  to  speak. 
From  our  own  personal  observations  we  would  warn  all  whom  it 
may  concern,  that  the  “night-cap,”  as  it  is  miscalled,  gradually 
generates  disease  of  the  brain,  liver,  kidneys,  with  all  the  horri- 
ble train  of  diseases — delirium,  paralysis,  dropsy,  cum  multis 
a/us. 


MEDICINAL. 


MEDICINES  AND  THEIR  DOSES. 

Over  and  above  the  physical  and  psychological  agencies 
which  have  been  referred  to  in  various  parts  of  these  remarks, 
we  have  now  to  advise  with  our  readers  on  the  pharmaceutical 
means  of  combating  disease — means  which  are  commonly 
regarded  as  the  most  direct  and  indispensible  for  the  pur- 
pose of  modifying  or  arresting  morbid  processes.  That  the 
swallowing  of  drugs,  however,  is  not  the  whole  therapeutics 
will  have  been  seen  throughout  these  pages;  as,  nevertheless, 
their  judicious  use  allays  suffering,  shortens  the  course  of 
disease,  and  promotes  restoration  to  health,  we  have  selected 
for  notice  some  which  we  deem  most  useful,  pointing  out  their 
most  prominent  properties,  or  most  common  uses. 

The  appropriate  doses  are  stated  under  three  periods  of 
life — viz.:  infancy,  childhood,  adult  age.  The  doses  that  are 
herein  advised  are  quite  within  the  limits  of  heroic  treatment, 
and  may  be  given  with  confidence  as  not  unduly  large.  Where 
a blank  is  left,  under  the  head  of  doses,  it  is  implied  that  the 
medicine  is  not  suited  for  young  children.  The  frequency 
with  which  the  dose  is  to  be  repeated  mus  be  learnt  from  the 
instructions  given  under  each  disease. 


LIST  OP  MEDICINES  * 


Name. 

Property. 

Doses. 

Uses  and  Mode  of  Use. 

Infancy. 

Child- 

hood. 

Adult 

Age. 

Acetate  of  am- 
monia, sole  i- 
on  of,  or  Min 
dererus  spiri' 

t Diuretic, 
fDiaphore- 
tic 

2 drms 

l/2  ounce 

In  febrile  complaints,  ca- 
tarrh, etc. 

Aloes 

Purgative 

2 to  5 
grains 

5 to  10 
grains. 

As  a purge  for  worms, 
or  for  immon  costive- 
ness. 

Aloes,  decocti- 
( n of 

Ditto 

— 

l/2  ounce 

1 ounce 

Ditto. 

* Tn  preparing  or  dispensing  medicines,  weights  and  measnres  shonld  be  used 
whenever  practicable.  They  can  be  purchased  of  chemists.  A graduated  wineglass 
is  a safe  guide,  as  it  is  more  definite  than  the  use  of  spoons  in  administering  medi- 
cines. At  the  same  time  it  is  advisable  to  procure  a small  glass  measure  for  minims, 
or  drops.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  “ minim  ,'1  as  measured  is  equal  to  two  drops 
from  the  mouths  of  many  bottles. 

t Diuretic,  acting  on  the  kidney;  Diaphoretic,  promoting  respiration. 


MEDICINAL 


Name. 

Property. 

Doses. 

Uses  and  Mode  of  Use. 

Infancy. 

Child- 

Adult 

hood. 

Age. 

Alum 

Tonic  and 

1 to  3 

3 to  5 

5 to  10 

In  haemorrhage, diarrhoea 

astringent 

grains 

grains 

grains 

whooping-cough.  Dis- 
solved in  water. 

As  a gargle.  Ten  grains 
to  the  ounce  of  water. 
As  a lotion  for  the  eyes. 

Two  grains  to  the  ounce 
of  water. 

Ammonia,  car- 

Stimulant 

1 grain 

2 grains 

5 grains 

In  scarlet  fever,  dyspep- 

bonate of 

sia,  in  chronic  cough. 
Dissolved  in  water. 

Ammonia,  com- 
pound spirit 

Stimulant 

5 drops 

10  to  20 

20  to  60 

In  debility,  spasms,  hys- 
teria, fainting.  Taken 

drops 

drops 

of 

with  cold  water. 

Arsenical  solu- 

Tonic 

— 

5 drops 

Skin  diseases  and  neural- 

tion 

gia.  To  be  taken  in 
water  with  or  after  a 

meal. 

Bark,  comp- 

Tonic 

10  to  15 

15  to  20 

20  to  60 

Debility,  fevers,  ague. 

ound  tincture 
of 

Belladonna,  ex- 

drops 

drops 

drops 

Taken  in  water. 

Sedative 







As  an  external  applica- 

tract of 

tion.  To  be  smeared 
on  the  painful  part. 

Bicarbonate  of 

Antacid 

2 to  5 

5 to  10 

10  to  30 

In  dyspepsia.  Die  solved 

soda 

grains 

grains 

grains 

in  water. 

Mixed  with  citric  or  tar- 

taric acid,  forms  effer- 

Bicarbonate of 

Ditto 

2 grains 

20  grains 

vescing  draught. 

5 to  10 

Ditto. 

potash 

grains 

Bismuth,  nitr- 

Tonic and 

1 to  2 • 

3 to  5 

5 to  8 

Diarrhoea,  dyspepsia. 

ate  of 

astringent 

grains 

grains 

grains 

Bitter  sweet 

Tonic 

— 

— 

2 ounces 

Skin  diseases.  The  stalks 

(< dulcamara ) 

boiled  in  water,  viz.:  1 
ounce  to  a pint  and  a 
half  boiled  to  1 pint. 

Borax,  powder- 

— 

— 



— » 

Used  for  thrush;  mixed 

ed 

with  honey, and  applied 
to  the  tongue,  etc. 

Bromide  of  pot- 

Tonic and 

— 

5 grains 

15  to  30 

Epilepsy  and  other  nerv- 

ass 

sedative 

grains 

ous  affections. 

The  dose  requires  to  be 

gradually  increased. 
Taken  dissolved  in  water 

Calomel 

Purgative 

1 grain 

2 grains 

3 to  5 

Inflammations,  biliary 

and  absorb- 

grains. 

disorders, constipation. 

ent 

May  be  givt  n as  a powder 

or  made  up  into  pill. 

Camphor  spirit 

Stimulant 



— 

— 

This  medicine  is  used  for 

or  liniment 

external  application. 

C ant  har ides  or 

Stimulant 



— 

— 

For  external  application 

blistering  li- 
quid or  plas- 

only. 

ter 

Capsicum,  tinc- 

_ 

_ 

_ 

Useful  as  an  addition  to 

ture 

gargles,  in  proportion 
of  naif  a drachm  to  a 

six  • nee  gargle. 

Carbolic  acid 

Stimulant 

— 

— 

— 

For  external  application 

disinfect- 

as lotions;  and  in  car- 

ant 

bolic  acid  soap  for  skin 
diseases. 

Castor  oil 

Purgative 

1 drachm 

2 drachm 

4 dr  ms  to 

1 ounce 

Catechu  tinc- 

Astringent 

— 

20  min- 

30 to  60 

Diarrhoea  — with  chalk 

ture 

ims 

minims 

mixture. 

MEDICINAL. 


Name. 

Property. 

Chalk 

Chloral  hy- 
drate 

Astringent 
and  ant- 
acid 

Narcotic 

Chlorate  of  po- 
tass 

Sedative 

Chloric  ether 

Citric  acid 

Stimulant, 

antispas- 

modic 

Citrate  of  iron 

Tonic 

Cod  liver  oil 

Tonic  and 
nutritive 

Colchicum 

wine 

Confection  of 
senna  ( leni- 
tive electu- 
ary) 

Creosote 

Purgative 
and  diu- 
retic 
Aperient 

Astringent 

Stimulant 

Dandelion  {tar- 
axacum), ex- 
tract of 

Aperient 

Dover’s  pow- 
der 

Narcotic, 

sedative, 

diapho- 

retic 

Epsom  salts 

Aperient 

Ether 

Friar’s  balsam 

Stimulant 

antispas- 

modic 

Stimulant 

Stypic 

Gallic  and  tan- 
ic  acids 

Astringent 

Gentian,  tinc- 
ture OI 

Tonic 

Doses. 

Infancy. 

Child- 

Adult 

hood. 

Age. 

5 grains 

5 grains 

10  to  30  1 
grains 

2 to  5 
grains 

10  to  30  1 
grains 

1 to  3 

3 to  5 

5 to  10  1 

grains 

grains 

grains 

— 

5 drops 

10  to  30  ] 
drops 

— 

— 

20  grains  r 

2 grains 

3 grains 

5 grains  ] 

y2  dram 

>4  dram 

yz  to  i : 
drachm 

- 

- 

15  to  30  : 
drops 

— 

— 

- 

1 drop 

2 to  5 
drops 

— 

— Si 

- 

- 

1 drachm 

- 

2 grains 

5 to  10 
grains 

% dram 

2 drms 

2 to  8 
drachms 
or  1 oz 

— 

10  drops 

30  to  40 
drops 

— 

- 

10  to  30 
drops 

— 

— 

— 

- 

3 grains 

5 grains 

- 

- 

1 drachm 

Uses  and  Mode  of  Use. 


Made  into 
with  sugar 


mixture 

water. 


lessness,  spasmodic 
disease.  This  medi- 
cine has  more  effect  in 
producing  sleep  than 
in  relieving  pain.  Dis- 
solve in  water.  This 
medicine  should  be 
given  with  great  cau- 
tion. 

u ulceration  of  the 
mouth.  Dissolved  in 
water. 

n painful  and  spasmod- 
ic diseases.  Taken  with 
water. 

'o  form  effervescing 
draughts  with  20  grains 
of  bicarbonate  of  soda 
or  potash,  each  dissol- 
ved in  a separate  wine 
glass  of  water. 

Ability.  Dissolved  in 
water. 

n debility  and  wasting 
diseases. 

'aken  in  orange  wine  or 
some  other  simple  fluid 
directly  after  meals. 


A teaspoonful  for  a 
dose. 

Vomiting  or  diarrhoea. 
In  water. 

s a stimulant  lotion 
mixed  with  water. 

In  bilious  disorders. 
Mixed  with  water,  or 
the  roots  boiled  in 
water. 

In  catarrh,  diarrhoea, 
rheumatism. 

As  this  medicine  con- 
tains opium,  it  should 
not  be  given  to  infants. 
In  cold  water. 


In  hysteria, 
fainting.  Taken 
water. 

For  chronic  coughs.  Ta- 
ken in  gum  water. 

Useful  for  cuts,  applied 
on  lint  or  rag. 

In  haemorrhages.  Maife 
into  pills,  or  mixed 
with  gum  water. 

Debility  and  dyspepsia. 
In  water. 


in 


MEDICINAL. 


Doses. 


Name. 

Property. 

Infancy. 

Child- 

Adult 

hood. 

Age. 

Goulard’s  ex- 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

tract  and  lo- 
tion, {extract 
of  lead) 

Grey  powder 

Aperient 

1 grain 

2 grains 

5 grains 

{mercui'y  and 
chalk ] 

Guaiacum,tinc- 

Stimulant 

— 

— 

1 drachm 

ture  of 

and  tonic 

Hemlock  ex- 

Sedative 

— 

2 grains 

5 grains 

tract  of 

Henbane,  ex- 
tract of 

Sedative 

- 

— 

3 to  5 
grains 

Iodide  of  po- 

Absorbent 

1 grain 

2 grains 

5 to  10 

tass 

and  tonic 

grains 

Iodine,  tine- 

Absorbent 







ture  of 

and 

stimulant 

Iodide  of  iron, 

Tonic 

, 

y2  dram 

1 drachm 

syrup  of 
Ipecacuanha 

Emetic 

1 drachm 

1 drachm 

1 drachm 

wine 

Expecto- 

2  drops 

3 to  5 

5 to  15 

rant 

drops 

drops 

Ipecacuanha 

Emetic 

— 

— 

20  to  30 

powder 

grains 

Iron,  muriated 

Tonic 

2 drops 

5 drops 

- to  30 

tincture  of 

drops 

Iron  or  steel 

Tonic 

y2  dram 

1 drachm 



wine 

Jalap  powder 

Purgative 

— 

5 grains 

10  to  30 

James’s  pow- 

Diaphore- 

1  grain 

2 grains 

grains 

3 to  5 

der 

tic 

grains 

Laudanum 

Narcotic 

— 

— 

10  to  40 

{tincture  of 
opium) 

drops 

Lead,  acetate 

Astringent 

— 

1 grain 

2 grains 

Magnesia,  car- 

Aperient 

2 to  5 

5 grains 

14  dram 

bonate  of 

and 

antacid 

grains 

Manna 

Aperient 

V2  dram 

1 drachm 

— 

Matico 

Astringent 
and  styptic 

— 

— 

— 

Mercurial  pill 

Aperient 

_ 

3 to  5 

{“blue  pill") 
Mercury  and 

grains 

chalk  [see 

Grey  powder] 
Morphia,  mu- 

Narcotic 

_ 

__ 

Mto^ 

riate  or  ace- 
tate 

grain 

Uses  and  Mode  of  Use. 


One  drachm  added  to  a 
pint  of  rain  water,  or 
distilled  water,  form- 
ing a good  cooling  lo- 
tion. 

In  sugar  or  treacle. 


In  chronic  rheumatism. 
Taken  in  milk, or  water. 

In  spasmodic  and  neu- 
ralgiac  or  other  painful 
complaints ; as  pills. 

As  a pill. 

In  chronic  rheumatism 
and  glandular  disease. 
Dissolved  in  water. 

For  external  application 
in  glandular  or  other 
chronic  enlargments. 
Apply  with  a feather  or 
brush. 

In  strumous  disorders 
or  debility. 

When  given  as  emetic, 
the  dose  should  be  re- 
peated every  five  or 
ten  minutes  until  the 
vomiting  begins. 

For  coughs  and  colds. 

In  warm  water,  followed 
by  copious  draughts  of 
water  to  promote  vomit 

In  water,  to  which  sugar 
is  added  in  the  case  of 
children. 


In  catarrh  and  simple 
fever. 

For  pains,  spasms,  or 
cramps ; in  water. 

In  haemorrhages.  As  a 
pill,  made  up  with 
moist  bread  crumbs. 

Dyspepsia  and  costive- 
ness. 

Mixed  with  food  of  an 
infant 

Applied  on  lint  or  wool, 
if  in  form  of  tincture, 
or  the  dry  leaf  applied 
on  a cut. 


Only  for  severe  pain.  Not 
to  be  given  to  infants 
or  young  children. 


MEDICINAL. 


Name. 

Property. 

Doses. 

Uses  and  Mode  of  Use. 

Infancy. 

Child- 

Adult 

hood. 

Age. 

Muriatic  acid 

Tonic 

_ 

15  drops 

20  drops 

In  debility,  indigestion, 

(diluted,  1 

diarrhoea.  In  two  or 

part  to  10  of 
water.) 

three  tablespoonfuls  of 
water. 

Astringent 

— 

— 

— 

As  a gargle  for  sore 

throat.  One  part  to 
twenty  of  water. 

Nitre  powder 

Diuretic 

1 grain 

2 grains 

5 to  10 

In  febrile  disorders  and 

grains 

dropsies. 

Stimulant 

— 

— 

1 drachm 

As  a gargle,  dissolved  in 

six  ounces  of  water. 

Nitre  (sweet 

Diuretic 

— 

10  to  20 

30  to  60 

Catarrh  and  febrile  com- 

spirit of  nit- 
rous ether) 

drops 

drops 

plaints. 

Nitric  acid  (di- 

Tonic 

— 

5 drops 

15  drops 

Debility,  sore  throat,  etc. 

luted  with  10 
parts  of 

water) 

Same  as  muriatic  acid. 

Opodeldoc 

— 

— 

— 



For  external  application. 

(soap  lini- 
ment) 

Opium 

Narcotic 

— 

— 

H to  1 gr 

In  painful  disorders;  for 

sickness  and  diarrhoea. 

Oxide  of  zinc 

Tonic  and 



— 



Most  commonly  used  in 

stimulant 

ointment,  or  dusted  on 
the  surface. 

Oxymel  of 

Diuretic, 

— 

i4  dram 

1 drachm 

For  coughs.  Mixed  with 

squills. 

expecto- 

paregoric or  ipecacu- 

rant 

anha  wine. 

Paregoric 

Sedative 

— 

10  drops 

20  to  60 

Catarrhs  and  coughs 

diapho- 

drops 

alone,  or  as  above  in 

retic 

water. 

Potash,  solu- 

Absorbent 

5 drops 

10  drops 

10  to  20 

Dyspepsia  and  chronic 

tion  of 

and  ant- 

drops 

glandular  enlargements 

acid 

Taken  in  water. 

Quinine 

Tonic 

Vz  grain 

1 grain 

2 to  5 
grains 

Debility,  ague— in  water, 
or  made  into  pills. 

Rhubarb  pow- 

Aperient 

1 grain 

2 to  5 

5 to  20 

der 

Ditto,  tincture 



_ 

grains 

2 drms 

grains 

2 drs  to 

1 oz. 

Salvolatile, 

spirits  of  (see 
Ammonia) 

Santonin 

Purgative 

3 grains 

3 to  5 

— 

Three  doses  should  be 

for  worms 

grains 

given  on  alternate 
mornings,  in  milk  or 

water. 

Senna,  infusion 

Aperient 

2 drms 

y2  ounce 

1 ounce 

Infusion  made  by  pour- 

of 

ing  hot  water  on  the 
leaves,  and  let  stand 

until  cold. 

Sulphuric  acid 

Tonic 

— 

5 drops 

15  drops 

In  debility  and  dyspep- 

(diluted rvith 
10  parts  of 

sia. 

water) 

Astringent 



5 drops 

15  drops 

Haemorrhage,  diarrhoea. 

cholera,  night  sweats. 
Taken  with  a wineglass 

of  water. 

Tartar  emetic 

Diaphore- 

— 



Vs  to  M 

In  febrile  and  inflamma- 

tic, depress- 
ing 

grain 

tory  disorders.  Dissol- 
ved in  water.  Used  also 
in  form  of  ointment. 

Turpentine, 

Purgative 

— 

— 

1 to  2 

For  tape-worm.  Taken 

spirits  cf 

stimulant 

drachms 

fasting  in  the  morning 
in  milk  or  water. 

MEDICINAL 


Name. 

Property. 

Doses. 

Uses  and  Mode  of  Use. 

Infancy. 

Child- 

hood. 

Adult 

Age. 

Zinc,  sulphate 
of 

Astringent 

Stimulant 

Tonic,  as- 
tringent 
Emetic 

- 

M grain 

5 to  20 
drops 

to  1/2 
grain 

20  grains 

Haemorrhage.  Taken  in 
water. 

For  external  use  as  lini- 
ment or  6tupes. 

In  chorea  and  other  ner- 
vous affections. 

In  cases  of  poisoning. 
Dissolved  in  water. 

ARTICLES  SUITABLE  FOR  A MEDICINE  CHEST 


Acetate  of  ammonia,  or 
Mindererus  spirit. 
Acetate  of  lead. 

Adhesive  plaster. 

Aloes. 

Alum. 

Bark.compound  tincture  of 
Basilicon  ointment. 
Bicarbonate  of  soda. 
Blistering  plaster, or  liquid. 
Borax. 

Calomel. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia. 
Carded  wool. 

Carded  oakum.  “Stypium.” 
Castor  oil. 

Catechu,  tincture  of 
Chalk,  prepared. 

Cod  liver  oil. 

Compound  colocynth  pills. 
Compound  rhubarb  pills. 


Creasote. 

Diluted  sulphuric  acid. 
Dover’s  powder. 

Epsom  salts. 

Ether. 

Forceps  of  different  sizes. 
Glass  measures. 

Grey  powder,  or  mercury 
with  chalk. 

Iodide  of  potassium. 
Iodine,  tincture  of. 
Ipecacuanha  powder. 

I pecacuanha  wine. 

Iron,  muriated  tincture  of 
Jalap. 

James’s  powder. 
Laudanum. 

Linseed  meal. 

Lint. 

Lunar  caustic. 

Magnesia. 


Mortars  and  pestles. 

Nitre,  powdered. 

Nitre?  spirits  of. 

Oil  silk,  or  gutta  percha 
tissue. 

Opodeldoc. 

Oxide  of  zinc. 

Paregoric. 

Peppermint,  essence  of. 
Quinine. 

Rubarb  powder. 

Scales  and  weights. 
Scissors. 

Senna  leaves. 

Spatulas. 

Tartaric  acid. 

Tincture  of  benzoin,  or 
Friar’s  balsam. 
Turpentine,  spirits  of. 
Zinc,  sulphate  of. 

Zinc,  oxide  of. 


HOUSEHOLD 


The  Kitchen. — One  of  the  finest  house-keepers  in  the  United 
States  says:  “If  scrimping  must  be  done,  scrimp  parlor  and 
sitting-room,  but  have  the  kitchen  and  bedrooms  as  comfort- 
able as  possible.’*  Another  writer  observes:  “The  kitchen  is 
to  the  house  what  the  stomach  is  to  the  body,  and  should  be 
the  most  spacious,  best  lighted,  and  best  ventilated  apartment 
in  the  house.”  This  remark,  however,  is  aimed  mainly  at  city 
homes,  where  the  kitchen  is  too  often  a mere  little  basement 
cellar,  badly  lighted  and  illy  supplied  with  pure  air,  from  which 
it  is  no  wonder  that  the  servants  are  continually  rising  to  the 
upper  regions  to  “give  warning.”  In  the  country  the  average 
kitchen  is  far  more  decent,  but  still  the  erring  house-keeper, 
anxious  to  “ have  things  like  other  people,”  is  prone  to  pinch 
the  poor  kitchen  in  order  to  furnish  the  parlor  in  gim-cracks. 

This  is  all  wrong.  If  one’s  house  were  intended  for  enter- 
tainment and  continual  festivity,  then  it  would  be  well  to  place 
its  parlor  and  dining-room  first  and  foremost;  but  in  a farm 
house,  where  the  house-mother’s  work  lies  mainly  in  the  kitchen 
and  dairy,  and  where  are  needed  all  the  aids  and  conveniences 
for  making  this  work  pleasant  as  well  as  profitable,  it  is  simply 
silly  to  deny  one’s  self  valuable  and  useful  every-day  things  for 
the  sake  of  what-nots,  upholstered  chairs  and  Nottingham-lace 
curtains,  that  must  necessarily  be  shut  up,  and  of  no  benefit  to 
anybody  nine-tenths  of  the  year. 

The  room  should  be  of  good  size,  with  windows  on  oppo- 
site sides,  as  they  thus  give  a peculiarly  cheerful  light.  The 
ceiling  and  walls  should  be  whitened  or  calcimined  in  some 


554 


HOUSEHOLD. 


cheerful  tint,  and  the  woodwork  oiled  and  varnished.  For  the 
floor — if  it  is  even  and  of  decent  quality  of  lumber — nothing  is 
better  than  two  or  three  coats  of  oil,  put  on  one  after  the  other 
•as  fast  as  absorbed.  Such  a floor  needs  no  scrubbing,  a weekly 
mopping  with  plenty  of  warmish  water,  being  sufficient  to  keep 
it  clean.  Comfortable  little  rugs  should  be  placed  before  the 
sink  and  the  ironing  table,  and,  if  this  room  must  do  duty  as  a 
dining-room,  there  should  be,  in  winter,  a large  square  of  car- 
peting under  the  dining-table.  A neat  screen,  made  by  tacking 
chintz  or  furniture  calico  upon  a light  wooden  frame,  about  five 
feet  high  and  six  feet  wide,  might  be  placed  between  the  table 
and  the  cook- stove,  not  only  to  temper  the  heat,  but  to  shut  off 
the  not  always  attractive  view  of  saucepans,  spiders,  and  ket- 
tles used  in  the  dinner-getting. 

The  sink  should  be  capacious,  lined  with  zinc,  provided 
with  drain-pipes,  and  flanked  by  pumps  connected  with  cistern 
and  well.  Underneath  maybe  a cupboard  for  pots  and  kettles, 
and  above  it  a row  of  pegs  on  which  to  hang  a dishcloth  holder, 
a stiff  brush  for  cleaning  vegetables,  a little  mop  for  wash- 
ing bottles  and  narrow-necked  pitchers  and  jars,  the  lamp 
scissors,  and  such  small  articles  as  are  in  daily  use  in  this 
department  of  the  kitchen.  Two  small  shelves  should  be 
placed  at  either  end  for  soap  dishes.  A large,  conveniently 
arranged  sink  goes  a great  way  in  making  kitchen  work  easy. 

A good-sized,  substantial  table  of  white-wood  or  pine  is 
needed  for  ironing  and  baking  days.  It  should  have  three 
drawers — a large  one  for  ironing  sheets,  shirt-board  and  holders, 
and  two  smaller  ones  for  baking-tins,  spoons  and  knives  used 
in  cooking,  and  boxes  of  spices,  salt,  etc.  Having  once  used 
such  a table,  no  housekeeper  will  like  to  be  without  it.  Above 
this  table  can  be  fastened  a hanging  rack  for  ironed  clothes. 
These  are  much  more  convenient  than  the  sort  which  stand  on 
the  floor,  and  when  not  in  use  can  be  folded  back  against  the 
wall,  entirely  out  of  the  way. 

For  washing  days  are  needed  a long  bench  two  and  a half 
feet  wide,  and  of  the  right  height,  two  or  three  tubs,  a wringer, 
and,  for  heavy  clothes,  a washer.  The  latter,  which  costs  $5 
or  $6,  can  be  fitted  to  any  tub,  and  ought  to  be  an  indispen- 
sable article.  It  is  to  washing-day  what  a reaping-machine  is 


HOUSEHOLD. 


555 


to  an  eighty-acre  wheat  field;  and  no  farmer  should  neglect  to 
provide  one  for  his  kitchen,  unless  he  is  willing  to  settle  down 
to  his  harvesting  with  merely  the  sickle  and  the  “ cradle  ” of  his 
forefathers!  These  items  come  under  the  head  of  kitchen 
furniture,  but  are,  of  course,  kept  in  the  cellar,  or  in  a closet 
opening  from  the  kitchen. 

Along  with  a first-class  cooking-stove,  for  it  is  not  economy 
to  have  a poor  one,  should  be  selected  the  following  quite  nec- 
essary articles:  Wash-boiler,  tea-kettle,  soup-pot,  frying-kettle, 
spider,  two  or  three  granitized  saucepans  of  different  sizes,  four 
bread-tins,  two  gem  irons,  coffee  and  tea-pots,  large  and  small 
iron  spoons,  wire  steak-broiler,  wire  toaster,  steamer,  pudding 
mold,  patty  pans,  potato  masher,  skimmer,  cream  whipper,  gravy 
strainer,  egg-beater,  half  a dozen  cake  and  pie  tins,  large  and 
small  graters,  a dozen  muffin  rings,  or  a muffin  pan,  which  is 
more  convenient  than  the  rings,  a colander,  a quart  measure, 
and  a griddle.  No  doubt  other  items  will  readily  suggest 
themselves,  but  these,  at  any  rate,  are  essential,  if  good  house- 
keeping is  the  object.  A proper  and  convenient  place  to  keep 
them  is  a large,  deep-shelved  cupboard,  with  close  doors,  in 
which  the  common  crockery  and  glass  can  also  be  kept. 

The  best  arrangement  is  to  have  cupboard  room  for  all 
table  and  cooking  ware,  and  keep  food  and  provision  stores  in 
a cool,  well  ventilated  closet,  that  can  be  effectually  closed  to 
dust  and  flies. 

Let  the  farmer  provide  a large,  pleasant  kitchen  and  interest 
himself  in  its  conveniences  for  work — being  as  enthusiastic  in 
furnishing  labor-saving  machines  for  this  department  of  farming 
as  for  his  outside  fields — and  he  will  find  that  he  makes  an 
investment  that  pays  an  hundred  fold.  Let  the  farmer’s  wife 
make  the  kitchen  a bright  and  sweet-aired  realm,  and  be  proud 
to  be  its  intelligent  and  efficient  queen.  Let  her  beautify  her 
work  as  much  as  possible,  and  lift  it  above  the  dull,  discourag- 
ing slough  of  drudgery.  With  conveniences  for  work,  and  a 
cheerful,  comfortable  place  to  work  in,  the  women  are  few  who 
will  not  make  their  homes  “ the  dearest  spot  on  earth  " to  all 
who  dwell  within  them. 

The  Dining-room. — Although  there  are  many  country 
kitchens  so  shining  and  orderly  and  clean  aired  that  it  is  a 

34 


556 


HOUSEHOLD. 


pleasure  to  break  bread  in  them,  there  are  many  others  which, 
owing  to  a large  family  and  a pressure  of  work,  cannot  always 
be  nice  and  orderly  at  meal  times;  so  it  is  well,  if  it  can  be 
afforded,  to  have  a small  cheerful  room  opening  from  the  kitchen, 
easily  warmed  in  winter,  and  from  which  heat  and  flies  can  be 
excluded  in  summer,  where  meals  can  be  eaten  in  the  healthful 
serenity  and  comfort  which  is  almost  as  essential  as  the  food 
itself.  What  can  be  more  refreshing  to  the  laborer  than  to 
enter  from  the  blistering  glare  of  a harvest  day  into  a cool,  softly 
lighted  room,  in  which  the  fragrance  of  freshly  gathered  flowers, 
or  the  aroma  of  leafy  boughs,  mingles  its  poetry  with  the  cheer- 
ful prose  of  the  beef  and  vegetables?  And  how  pleasant  and 
restful  it  is  for  his  helpmate  to  lay  aside  her  kitchen  cares  and 
kitchen  apron  together,  and  come  smiling  and  tidy  to  her  little 
throne  behind  the  tea-service. 

Such  a room  requires  very  little  furniture.  The  walls  should 
be  of  neat  and  quiet  tint,  with  two  or  three  pleasing  pictures 
and  some  brackets  for  pots  of  ferns,  or  such  vines  as  will  grow 
prettily  in  the  shade  during  the  hot  summer  weather.  In 
winter  a few  petunias  and  two  or  three  foliage  plants  will  fill  the 
sunny  windows  with  brightness  and  bloom.  There  should  be 
a long,  substantial  table,  with  plenty  of  elbow  room  for  all,  and  a 
side-board  or  cupboard  for  table-crockery.  A small  table  will 
be  found  a convenience — if  there  is  no  side-board — for  holding 
such  dishes  as  are  used  toward  the  end  of  a meal  at  dinner 
time,  when  the  varieties  of  food  have  a tendency  to  crowd  each 
other.  The  window  curtains  may  be  plain  shades  of  color 
suited  to  the  walls  of  the  room.  Nothing  can  be  better  for  the 
floor  in  summer  time  than  an  oiled  surface,  like  that  of  the 
kitchen,  which  can  be'  made  comfortable  to  the  feet  in  winter 
by  a large  “ crumb-cloth  ” of  drugget  or  home-made  carpeting. 

In  more  opulent  farm  homes,  where  the  wife  has  liberty  to 
devote  more  time  and  means  to  house  decoration  and  furnish- 
ing, very  handsome  dining-rooms  can  be  achieved  with  a 
moderate  outlay.  There  should  be  high  walls,  a fire  place,  and 
a fine  large  window  looking  to  the  south  or  east.  All  the  rest 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  mistress.  If  the  floor  has  been  laid  in 
light  and  dark  woods,  well  and  good.  It  will  be  a thing  of 
beauty  through  more  than  one  life  time  and  always  look  genu- 


HOUSEHOLD. 


557 


ine  and  substantial,  as  everything  about  a dining-room  should. 
If,  however,  the  floor  is  of  pine,  it  may  be  stained  in  blocks  or 
stripes,  in  a bordering  two  feet  in  width,  covered  with  two 
coats  of  the  best  varnish,  and  the  centre  adorned  with  three  or 
more  breadths  of  pretty  carpeting. 

Have  a carpenter  constiuct  a side-board  of  simple  but  sub- 
stantial form,  faced  with  oak  or  maple,  or  else  made  of  the  best 
pine.  Glue  artificial  wood  carvings  of  fruits  in  the  centre  of 
the  top,  and  upon  each  door  and  drawer,  and  finish  the  whole 
with  oil  and  varnish. 

The  table  may  also  be  home-made,  and  large  and  solid,  with 
rounded  corners,  and  substantial  turned  legs  with  casters.  If 
not  of  real  oak,  the  legs  should  be  nicely  stained  to  imitate  it. 
If  colored  table-linen  is  used,  it  should  be  buff  and  white,  with 
green  borders,  or  buff  and  green  in  any  neat,  small  patterns. 
These  cloths,  however,  are  generally  covered  with  plain  white 
ones  at  meal  time. 

Above  this  table  there  should  be  a handsome  hanging  lamp 
or  small  chandelier,  with  perhaps  a little  basket  of  Kennelworth 
ivy,  or  other  gracefully  growing  vine,  suspended  from  it.  Such 
a light  glorifes  the  plainest  tea  table. 

As  for  chairs,  there  are  a great  many  ways  for  achieving 
handsome  ones  without  paying  five  dollars  apiece  for  them  at 
furniture  shops.  If  a dozen  oak  chairs  without  seats  can  be 
obtained  “in  the  rough”  at  the  factory,  they  can  be  transformed 
into  something  pretty  and  substantial  at  small  cost.  They 
should  first  be  oiled  and  varnished.  Then  with  some  stout 
sacking  or  canvas,  some  rich,  dark  cretonne,  some  gimp  and 
furniture  tacks,  and  either  hair  or  wool  for  stuffing  the  seats — 
being  careful  to  fasten  the  canvas  securely  in  place  and  to  cut 
the  cretonne  to  fit  neatly — even  the  cheap  “splint-bottoms” 
which  cost  much  less  than  oak,  can  be  made  into  handsome 
chairs  by  painting  the  wood-work  black,  ornamenting  it  with 
gilt  and  scarlet  lines,  and  varnishing — the  seats  to  be  uphol- 
stered in  cretonne,  striped  linen,  or  common  chintz. 

The  Parlor. — If  means  are  small,  and  best  room  furniture 
seems  to  be  among  the  things  never  to  be  obtained,  let  not  the 
whole  house  be  made  dismal  because  of  it;  but  rejoice  that 
there  is  a kitchen,  that  there  are  comfortable  bedrooms,  and 


558 


HOUSEHOLD. 


that  there  is  a bit  of  Heaven  in  the  form  of  a flower  garden 
under  the  windows  ! 

Even  if  one  have  but  a small  room  to  devote  to  this  pur- 
pose, it  can  be  made  very  pleasing,  and  has  the  advantage  of 
requiring  less  furniture.  A fire-place,  with  a mirror  above  it 
and  a large  wide-ledged  window  opposite,  make  the  room 
already  half-fitted  up.  The  ceiling  calcimined  with  the  palest 
blue,  and  the  walls  with  a tint  two  shades  deeper,  will  have 
the  effect  to  make  the  room  appear  more  spacious.  A border 
of  dark  and  light  blue,  or  of  bluish-green  and  gold,  should  be 
used  on  such  walls.  The  wood-work  should  be  stained  walnut 
color  and  varnished.  The  most  suitable  carpet  would  be 
an  ingrain  in  small  figures  of  blue  and  gray,  with  perhaps  a 
bit  of  yellow  or  a bit  of  rose-colored  scattered  through  it. 
Plain  blue  or  gray  lambrequins  should  be  used  for  the  win- 
dows, trimmed  with  fringe  of  the  same  color.  For  the  cur- 
tains beneath  them,  sheer  Swiss  muslin  is  always  pretty  and 
graceful.  Sometimes  they  are  made  with  a knife  plaiting  or  a 
fluted  ruffle  down  the  inner  edges  and  across  the  bottom;  but 
they  look  well  when  finished  with  simple  hems,  and  are  much 
easier  laundried. 

The  fire  place  should  be  treated  after  the  manner  described 
in  a previous  chapter,  and  will  be  found  the  most  effective 
feature  in  the  room,  especially  if  furnished  with  a good  sized 
mirror,  which  will  reflect  back  all  the  light  and  beauty  of  the 
apartment,  and,  like  the  cool  color  on  the  walls  and  ceiling, 
enhance  its  size.  All  those  tasteful  but  restricted  house-keep- 
ers who  are  anxious  to  have  really  attractive  parlors,  should 
aim  for  simply  these  three  things — a large,  wide-silled  win- 
dow, a fire-place,  and  a generous-sized  mirror  to  place  above 
it — letting  curtains  and  carpet  and  chairs  come  about  as  they 
can;  or  using  for  a while  plain  shades  for  the  windows,  and  a 
neat  matting  for  the  floor.  Adding  two  or  three  pictures,  a 
few  books,  some  growing  vines,  and  an  easy  chair  to  such  a 
room,  it  is  already  cosy  and  hospitable  in  its  aspect.  In  this 
room,  as  in  all  others,  one  should  avoid  a cluttered,  crowded 
appearance.  Do  not  afflict  the  wall  with  a general  outbreak 
of  small  pictures,  brackets,  and  fancy  articles,  as  if  a notion 
store  were  being  fitted  up.  It  is  better  to  distribute  such 


HOUSEHOLD. 


559 


tilings  throughout  the  house,  that  each  room  may  have  its  two 
or  three  touches  of  graceful  fancy. 

For  a table  obtain  something  in  a round  or  oval  shape.  It 
may  be  of  pine  or  whitewood,  but  must  be  strong  and  sub- 
stantial. Paint  the  legs  black  and  varnish  them.  The  top 
can  be  covered  with  a blue  or  gray  cloth,  embroidered  about 
the  edges,  if  one  has  time,  with  silk  or  white  zephyr  wool. 
Above  the  table  suspend  a pretty  hanging  lamp  with  shade. 

Sometimes  old  chairs  can  be  purchased  at  an  auction,  or 
dragged  out  of  a garret,  and  transformed  into  beautiful  things, 
with  paint  and  varnish,  decalcomania-gildings,  and  stuffed 
seats  of  rep  or  cretonne.  These,  with  a light  willow  rocker, 
or  a camp-chair  and  a handsome  foot-stool  or  two,  will  com- 
fortably complete  the  furnishing. 

Remarks. — The  dining  or  breakfast-room  should  be  cool, 
light,  and  airy,  with  not  much  more  than  the  indispensable 
furniture. 

In  summer,  the  floor  covered  with  a staw-matting  or  an 
oil-cloth;  in  winter,  with  a dark,  warm-looking  carpet. 

A sideboard,  or  narrow  tables,  at  the  side  or  end  of  the 
room,  for  the  convenience  of  dessert  and  changes  of  dishes; 
or  else  have  dumb  waiters  (which  are  stands  supporting  large 
trays). 

Most  modern  houses  are  built  with  sliding  closets;  when 
the  dining  room  is  above  the  kitchen,  this  is  almost  indispensa- 
ble; or  the  waiters’  pantry — between  the  dining  room  and 
kitchen — has  an  open  communication  with  it,  that  the  dishes 
may  be  passed  to  and  fro  from  the  cook,  without  the  delay  and 
awkwardness  of  opening  and  shutting  the  doors:  or,  when 
there  are  no  servants  in  attendance,  it  is  convenient  to  have 
the  dessert  arranged  on  a tray,  covered  with  a white  napkin, 
and  placed  on  a stand  or  small  table  at  the  left  hand  of  the 
mistress  or  head  of  the  table,  and  one  on  the  other  hand  for 
receiving  empty  plates,  etc. 

For  Breakfast. — Have  a white  cloth,  with  the  folds  regu- 
lar and  perceptible;  let  each  dish  be  polished  with  a soft  nap- 
kin, as  it  is  placed  upon  the  table,  otherwise  there  is  apt  to  be 
a dimness  from  having  been  put  together  before  they  were 
perfectly  dried;  and,  further,  to  remove  the  traces  of  the  neces- 


560 


HOUSEHOLD. 


sary  handling,  in  putting  them  to  their  places  and  returning 
them  to  the  table. 

The  plates  may  be  put  in  a pile  at  the  left  hand  of  the 
carver  or  at  regular  intervals  around  the  table.  A vast  differ- 
ance  may  be  made  in  the  appearance  and  neatness  of  the 
table,  by  the  manner  in  which  the  knives  and  forks,  and 
spoons,  and  other  paraphernalia,  are  placed. 

The  coffee-urn  or  pot  should  have  on  its  brightest  face; 
and  all  the  recommendative  warmth  of  its  nature — ready  for  a 
free  outpouring;  the  cream  or  boiled  milk  should  not  lack 
heat,  and,  not  to  “waste  its  sweetness”  on  the  unappreciating 
air,  should  be  contained  in  a covered  pitcher  of  tin  or  other 
metal;  the  sugar-basin,  whether  the  same  as  the  other  dishes, 
or  of  metal,  should  be  bright  and  covered,  with  a large-sized 
tea  or  sugar-spoon  beside  it;  the  cups  and  saucers  may  be 
placed  in  heaps  of  three,  within  the  circle  of  the  sugar,  slop, 
and  cream  vessels.  Let  the  urn  or  coffee-pot  be  set  at  the 
right  hand  side  of  the  person  who  serves  it;  and,  if  tea  is  used, 
let  it  be  placed  on  the  same  side  in  a line  with  it;  the  one  to 
be  least  called  for,  to  stand  at  the  outer  corner  of  the  tray — 
which  may  be  placed  at  the  middle  of  the  broadside  of  the 
table,  or  at  one  end. 

Before  putting  the  dishes  on  it,  the  tray  should  be  covered 
with  a white  napkin,  fringed  at  the  ends.  Small  napkins  or 
doyles,  folded  in  four  and  ironed  very  smoothly,  may  be  laid 
at  each  plate;  which  should  be  reversed,  or  turned  the  bottom 
side  up,  and  the  knife  and  fork  at  the  right  side,  or  the  knife 
at  the  side  and  a silver  fork  in  front  of  the  plate.  Since  so  it 
is,  that  many  Americans  dislike  the  use  of  a silver  fork — find- 
ing it  exceedingly  clumsy  and  awkward — it  is  best  to  place  the 
one  belonging  to  the  knife  with  it,  at  the  side  of  the  plate, 
leaving  it  optional  which  to  make  use  of. 

Let  the  cruet-stand  or  castor  occupy  the  centre  of  the 
table.  If  there  are  more  than  five  or  six  persons,  have  two 
small  plates  of  butter,  one  at  either  end  of  the  table,  and 
opposite  each  other.  Let  there  be  two  plates  of  bread  or  rolls, 
or  one  of  either  of  these,  and  the  other  place  for  hot  griddle- 
cakes,  or  corn-bread,  or  toast. 

Opposite  the  tray  or  head  of  the  table,  let  the  steak,  or  fry, 


HOUSEHOLD. 


561 


(or  whatever  principal  dish,)  be  placed,  with  the  carving-knife 
and  fork  before  it,  and  dishes  of  hominy,  or  boiled  rice,  or 
mashed  potatoes,  and  boiled  eggs,  or  hash,  opposite  each  other, 
and  the  plates  of  bread  between  the  steak  dish  and  tray, 
having  one  of  the  plates  of  butter  between  each  two,  and  the 
castor  in  the  centre;  also  one  or  two  salt  stands  filled  with  fine 
salt,  and  neatly  marked  with  a teaspoon  or  otherwise,  and  a 
salt-spoon  across  each,  and  may  be  placed  diagonally  opposite 
each  other.  These,  with  a pitcher  of  ice-water  and  several 
tumblers,  occupying  the  corners  of  the  table  on  either  side  of 
the  carver,  complete  the  breakfast-table. 

If  there  is  a servant  or  waiter  in  attendance,  let  such 
stand  at  the  left  hand  of  the  mistress,  or  head  of  the  table, 
with  a small  tray,  and  pass  the  cups  to  and  from  her,  presenting 
it  at  the  left  hand. 

The  Dinner  Table. — Without  a perfect  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  carving,  it  is  impossible  to  perform  the  honors  of  the 
table  with  propriety;  and  nothing  can  be  more  disagreeable 
to  one  of  a sensitive  disposition,  than  to  behold  a person,  at 
the  head  of  a well-furnished  board,  hacking  the  finest  joints* 
and  giving  them  the  appearance  of  having  been  gnawed  by 
dogs. 

It  also  merits  attention  in  an  economical  point  of  view;  a 
bad  carver  will  mangle  joints  so  as  not  to  be  able  to  fill  half  a 
dozen  plates  from  a sirloin  of  beef,  or  a large  tongue;  which, 
besides  creating  a great  difference  in  the  daily  consumption  of 
families,  often  occasions  disgust  in  delicate  persons,  causing 
them  to  loathe  the  provisions,  however  good,  which  are  set 
before  them.  One  cannot,  therefore,  too  strongly  urge  the 
study  of  this  useful  branch  of  domestic  economy. 


562 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Carving. — An  ox  is  divided  by  the  butcher  into  the  follow- 
ing joints,  London  style: 


1.  Sirloin. 

2.  Top,  or  aitcii-bone. 

3.  Rump. 

4.  Buttock,  or  round. 

5.  Mouse  buttock. 

6.  Veiny  piece. 


7.  Thick  flank. 

8.  Thin  flank. 

9.  Leg. 

10.  Fore-rib  (5  ribs). 

11.  Middle  rib  (4  ribs). 

12.  Chuck  rib  (3  ribs). 


13.  Shoulder,  or  leg-of 

mutton  piece. 

14.  Brisket.  15.  Clod. 

16.  Sticking. 

17.  Shin. 

18.  Cheeks,  or  Head. 


Fish  is  cut  with  a silver  fish-slice,  or  the  more  modern  large 


TURBOT. 


MIDDLE-CUT  OF  SALMON. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


563 


silver-fish  knife  and  fork.  Large  flatfish,  as  turbot,  brill,  John 
Dorey,  etc.,  must  first  be  cut  from  head  to  tail  down  the  mid- 
dle, and  then  in  portions  across  to  the  fin,  which,  being  con- 
sidered a delicacy,  is  helped  with  the  rest.  (See  cut.) 

Salmon  is  cut  in  slices  down  the  middle  of  the  upper  side, 
as  from  A to  B,  and  then  in  slices  across  D to  C,  and  a little 
of  the  “thick,”  or  upper  side,  and  “thin,”  or  under  side,  are 
put  on  each  plate. 

A mackerel  divides  between  four  people;  the  fish-knife  is 
passed  between  the  upper  and  under  side  from  head  to  tail, 
and  each  side  is  halved  to  help.  A cod  is  cut  cross-ways,  like 


COD  FISH. 


salmon,  from  C to  B,  and  in  down  slices  as  from  A to  B,  and  a 
small  piece  of  the  sound  is  sent  with  each  helping.  Small  fish, 
as  smelts,  are  sent  whole,  one  on  each  plate,  as  are  whiting. 

Fried  soles  are  cut  across  right  through  the  bone.  The 
“ shoulder  ” or  head  end,  should  be  first  helped. 

A sirloin  of  beef  is  cut  across  for  the  under-cut,  and 
lengthways  for  the  upper.  You  should  ask  your  guest  if  he  or 


• SIRLOIN  OF  BEEF. 

she  prefers  the  under-cut,  which  is  by  some  considered  the 
most  delicate  part  of  the  beef,  and  is  disliked  by  others. 
Slices  from  the  under  cut  should  be  thick. 

Rolled  ribs  and  a round  of  beef  are  easily  carved  in  hori* 


564 


HOUSEHOLD. 


zontal  slices  over  the  whole  surface.  The  slices  should  be 
very  thin. 

Boiled  beef  should  also  be  cut  in  thin  horizontal  slices  the 


AITCH-BONE. 

size  of  the  joint  itself  in  length  and  breadth.  (See  cut.) 

Mutton  appears  on  the  table  in  four  forms — the  saddle,  the 
leg,  the  shoulder,  the  loin. 

The  saddle  is  the  joint  ordered  for  a large  dinner  party.  It 
is  cut  in  very  thin  slices  close  to  the  backbone;  B to  A and 


then  downwards  from  A to  D and  C;  but  a lady  is  scarcely 
ever  required  in  the  present  day  to  carve  a saddle  of  mutton. 

A shoulder  must  lie  with  the  knuckle  towards  your  right, 
and  the  blade-bone  towards  your  left  hand. 


In  the  middle  of  the  edge  of  the  part  farthest  from  you 


HOUSEHOLD, 


565 


place  the  fork,  and  then  give  one  sharp  cut  from  the  edge  to 
the  bone.  The  meat  flies  apart,  and  you  cut  rather  thick  slices 
on  each  side  of  the  opening  A to  B till  you  can  cut  no  more. 

You  will  then  find  two  or  three  slices  from  the  centre  bone 
to  the  end  B to  C.  Afterwards  the  joint  must  be  turned  over, 
and  slices  cut  from  the  under  side. 

Some  people,  instead  of  cutting  the  joint  in  this  manner, 
begin  with  slices  cut  lengthways  near  the  middle  of  the  joint 
from  the  end  to  the  knuckle,  and  it  is  the  better  way. 

A leg  of  mutton  must  be  placed  with  the  knuckle  towards 
your  left  hand;  you  then  cut  into  the  side  farthest  from  you 


LEG  OP  MUTTON. 


towards  the  bone  B to  C,  helping  thin  slices  from  the  right  and 
thick  slices  towards  the  knuckle.  The  little  tuft  of  fat  near 
the  thick  is  a delicacy,  and  must  be  divided  among  your  guests. 

A loin  of  mutton  is  carved  either  through  the  joints,  which 
brings  it  into  the  form  of  “ chops,”  or  it  is  cut  lengthways,  in  a 
parallel  line  with  the  joints.  The  latter  is  the  best  mode  for  a 
lady,  but  a loin  is  rather  for  family  consumption  than  for  guests. 

A fore-quarter  of  lamb  consists  of  a shoulder,  the  breast, 
and  the  ribs,  and,  alas!  when  the  carver  has  to  dissect  it!  If  a 
lady  is  obliged  to  carve  this  joint,  she  must  first  place  her  knife 
upon  the  shoulder,  draw  it  through  horizontally,  ^and  then 


PORE-QUARTER  OP  LAMB. 


remove  the  joint  whole,  placing  it  on  a separate  dish,  which  is 
held  for  its  reception.  She  must  then  cut  off  the  breast  and 


566 


HOUSEHOLD. 


separate  the  ribs  (see  cut);  but  the  cook  should  always  cut  off 
the  shoulder,  and  leave  it  on  the  joint. 

The  hind-quarter  consists  of  a leg  and  loin. 

A fillet  of  veal  is  cut  in  horizontal  slices  like  a round  of 


FILLET  OF  VEAL. 


beef;  they  must  not  be  too  thin.  The  stuffing  in  the  centre  is 
taken  out  and  helped  with  a spoon. 


BREAST  OF  VEAL. 


In  a breast  of  veal  the  ribs  should  be  first  separated  from 
the  brisket,  after  which  either  or  both  may  be  sent  round. 

A calf’s  head  must  be  cut  down  the  centre  in  rather  thin 
slices  on  each  side.  The  meat  round  the  eye  is  scooped  out; 


it  is  considered  a delicacy.  A small  piece  of  the  palate  and 
accompanying  sweetbread  must  be  sent  on  each  plate. 

Roast  pork  is  never  seen  at  dinner  parties,  but  is  occasion* 
ally  served  at  a family  dinner. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


567 


The  leg  is  carved  like  a leg  of  mutton,  but  the  slices  should 
be  thicker  and  not  so  large. 

A ham  may  be  cut  in  three  ways — ist.  By  beginning  at  the 
knuckle,  which  must  be  turned  towards  your  left  hand  and  cut 


HAM. 


in  a slanting  direction;  or  at  the  thick  end,  which  is  then 
turned  towards  your  left;  or  in  the  ordinary  manner,  like  a leg 
of  mutton,  beginning  in  the  centre. 

The  slices  must  be  as  thin  and  delicate  as  you  can  possibly 
cut  them.  One  slice  is  given  as  accompaniment  to  fowl  or  veal. 

A rabbit  has  the  legs  and  shoulders  removed  with  a sharp- 


BOELED  RABBIT. 


pointed  knife,  then  the  back  is  broken  into  three  or  four  pieces 
at  the  joints. 

Hare  is  thus  carved:  First,  takeoff  the  legs.  Cut  two  long 
thin  slices  off  each  side  of  the  back  B to  A;  then  take  off  the 
shoulders,  and  break  the  back  into  four  pieces  with  the  fork. 
Cut  off  the  ears,  insert  the  point  of  the  knife  exactly  in  the 


HARE. 


centre  of  the  palate,  and  drawing  it  to  the  nose,  split  the  head 


568 


HOUSEHOLD. 


in  two.  But  when  only  a small  portion  of  the  hare  is  eaten, 
and  it  is  only  served  at  second  course,  it  is  more  elegant  for  a 
lady  to  help  a portion  of  the  side  with  a spoon,  as  we  have 
often  seen  done. 

The  best  parts  of  a hare  are  the  slices  from  the  back,  the 
head,  and  ears.  But  ladies  never  eat  the  two  latter.  They 
should  be  sent  to  any  gentleman  guest  who  is  known  to  be  an 
epicure. 

A chicken  is  carved  thus:  Take  off  the  wings,  cut  slices 
from  the  breast,  take  off  the  merrythought  and  side  bones. 
The  liver  wing  is  the  best  part  of  the  chicken  after  the  breast; 


BOAST  FOWI,.  BOILED  TURKEY. 


but  you  should  help  the  breast  first,  then  both  wings.  If  you 
have  many  to  help,  manage  to  reserve  a slice  of  white  meat  to 
send  with  the  legs  and  sides. 

A partridge  is  carved  like  a fowl;  so  is  a pheasant. 

A pigeon  is  cut  in  halves  right  down  the  middle,  and  half  is 
sent  at  once  to  the  guest. 

A snipe  is  treated  in  the  same  way. 

Very  small  birds  are  sent  whole. 

A turkey  and  goose  are  helped  by  cutting  slices  off  the 
breast,  and  then  the  wings  and  legs  are  taken  off.  Wild  duck 
is  helped  in  the  same  manner. 


HAUNCH  OF  YENISON. 


A haunch  of  venison  should  be  cut  from  A to  B close  to 
the  knuckle.  (See  cut  first.)  Then  from  C to  A. 

Coffee  is  sent  to  the  gentlemen  in  the  dining-room.  Tea 


HOUSEHOLD. 


569 


only  is  handed  after  dinner,  when  the  gentlemen  have  left  the 
dinner-table. 

A few  hints  are  prefixed  on  the  etiquette  of  the  dinner-table, 
which  will  be  found  useful.  In  that,  however,  much  must  be 
left  to  a quick  and  observant  eye,  and  a determination  to  ren- 
der yourself  as  agreeable  as  possible. 

As  Host. — The  important  day  on  which  you  feast  your 
friends  being  arrived,  you  will  be  duly  prepared  to  receive  the 
first  detachment.  It  were  almost  needless  to  observe  that  the 
brief  interval  before  dinner  is  announced  may  be  easily  filled 
up  by  the  common-place  inquiries  after  health,  and  observa- 
tions on  the  weather;  as  the  company  increases,  provided  they 
were  previously  acquainted,  you  will  find  your  labors  in  keep- 
ing up  the  conversation  very  agreeably  diminished. 

While  your  guests  are  awaiting  the  announcement  of  din- 
ner, it  will  be  expedient  that  you  should  intimate  to  the 
gentlemen  of  the  party,  as  unobtrusively  as  possible,  which 
lady  you  wish  each  to  take  in  charge,  that,  when  the  moment 
arrives  for  your  adjournment  to  the  dining-room,  there  may  not 
be  half  a dozen  claimants  for  the  honor  of  escorting  la  plus 
belle  of  the  party,  while  some  plain  demoiselle  is  under  the 
painful  necessity  of  escorting  herself.  Such  a scene  as  this 
should  be  carefully  provided  against  by  the  mode  above 
suggested. 

When  dinner  is  announced,  you  will  rise  and  request  your 
friends  to  proceed  to  the  dining-room,  yourself  leading  the 
way,  in  company  with  your  most  distinguished  female  visitor, 
followed  immediately  by  the  hostess,  accompanied  by  the 
gentleman  who  has  the  best  claim  to  such  an  honor.  The 
remainder  of  the  guests  then  follow,  each  gentleman  accom- 
panied by  the  lady  previously  pointed  out  to  him. 

Arrived  at  the  dining-room,  you  will  request  the  lady  whom 
you  conducted,  to  take  her  seat  on  your  right  hand;  then, 
standing  behind  your  chair,  you  will  direct  your  visitors  to 
their  respective  seats. 

Having  taken  your  seat,  you  will  now  dispatch  soup  to  each 
of  your  guests,  from  the  pile  of  plates  placed  on  your  right 
hand,  without  questioning  any  whether  you  shall  help  them  or 
not;  but,  dealing  it  out  silently,  you  will  first  help  the  person 


670 


HOUSEHOLD. 


at  your  right  hand,  then  at  your  left,  and  so  throughout  the 
table.  You  will  not  ask  to  be  allowed  to  help  your  guests,  but 
supply  a plate  in  silence,  and  hand  it  to  your  servants,  who  will 
offer  it  to  such  of  the  company  as  are  unprovided.  Never 
offer  soup  or  fish  a second  time. 

If  a dish  be  on  the  table,  some  parts  of  which  are  preferred 
to  others,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  individuals,  all  should 
have  the  opportunity  of  choice.  You  will  simply  ask  each 
one  if  he  has  any  preference  for  a particular  part;  if  he  replies 
in  the  negative,  you  are  not  to  repeat  the  question,  nor  insist 
that  he  must  have  a preference.  Do  not  attempt  to  eulogize 
your  dishes,  or  apologize  that  you  cannot  recommend  them, — 
this  is  extremely  bad  taste;  as  is  also  the  vaunting  of  the  excel- 
lence of  your  wines,  etc.,  etc.  Do  not  insist  upon  your  guests 
partaking  of  particular  dishes.  Do  not  ask  persons  more  than 
once,  and  never  force  a supply  upon  their  plates.  It  is  ill-bred, 
though  common,  to  press  any  one  to  eat;  and,  moreover,  it  is 
a great  annoyance  to  be  crammed  like  turkeys  Neither  send 
away  your  plate,  nor  relinquish  your  knife  and  fork,  till  your 
guests  have  finished. 

Soup  being  removed,  the  gentleman  who  supports  the  lady 
of  the  house  on  the  right,  should  request  the  honor  of  taking 
wine  with  her.  This  movement  will  be  the  signal  for  the  rest. 
Should  he  neglect  to  do  this,  you  must  challenge  some  lady. 
Until  the  cloth  be  removed,  you  must  not  drink  wine 
except  with  another.  If  you  are  asked  to  take  wine,  it  is  a 
breach  of  etiquette  to  refuse.  In  performing  this  ceremony, 
(which  is  very  agreeable  if  the  wine  be  good,)  you  catch  the 
person’s  eye  and  bow  politely.  It  is  not  necessary  to  say  any- 
thing. 

If  you  have  children,  never  introduce  them  after  dinner, 
unless  particularly  asked  for,  and  then  avoid  it  if  possible. 

Never  make  any  observations  to  your  servants  at  dinner, 
other  than  to  request  them  to  provide  you  with  what  you  require, 
or  take  away  that  which  may  be  removed. 

With  the  dessert,  you  will  have  a small  plate,  two  wine- 
glasses, and  doyles , placed  before  each  guest.  If  fresh  fruit 
be  on  the  table,  as  pears,  apples,  nectarines,  etc.,  a knife  with  a 
silver  or  silver-plated  blade  should  be  placed  by  the  side  of 


HOUSEHOLD. 


571 


each  plate;  a steel  blade,  in  addition  to  being  discolored  by 
the  juice,  imparts  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  fruit. 

As  Guest. — To  dine  out,  it  is  usually  understood  that  you 
must  be  invited.  There  are,  however,  some  gentlemen  who 
have  attained  to  that  high  degree  of  refinement  which  enables 
them  to  dispense  with  such  a stupid  ceremony.  They  drop  in 
as  dinner  is  being  served  up,  when  it  is  impossible  that  the 
party  on  whom  they  intrude  can  do  other  than  to  request  them 
to  stay  and  dine,  though  we  suspect  he  has  a much  stronger 
inclination  to  kick  the  unwelcome  guest  into  the  street.  We 
would  recommend  you  to  eschew  such  practices;  but  when 
invited,  return  an  answer  in  plain  terms,  accepting  or  declining. 
If  you  accept,  be  there  at  the  appointed  time.  It  is  inconven- 
ient, on  many  accounts,  to  yourself  and  your  friends,  to  be 
either  too  late  or  too  early.  You  will  probably  have  to  wait  a 
little  time  before  dinner  is  announced.  During  this  short 
period,  render  yourself  as  agreeable  as  possible  to  the  assembled 
company. 

Your  host  will  doubtless  point  out  to  you  the  lady  he  wishes 
you  to  escort  to  the  dining  room.  You  will  be  in  readiness  to 
attend  upon  her  the  moment  you  are  summoned  to  adjourn. 
Offer  her  your  right  arm,  and  follow  in  order.  Should  you 
have  to  pass  down  stairs,  you  will  give  the  lady  the  wall.  You 
will  take  your  seat  at  the  table  on  the  right  hand  of  the  lady 
you  conducted.  Being  seated,  soup  will  be  handed  round. 
When  offered,  take  it;  but  if  you  prefer  fish,  pass  it  on  to  your 
neighbor.  You  must  not  ask  for  soup  or  fish  a second  time;  it 
will  not  be  offered — you  would  not  be  so  rude  or  selfish  as  to 
keep  the  company  waiting  for  the  second  course,  that  you  may 
have  the  pleasure  of  demolishing  a double  portion  of  fish. 

Fish  must  be  eaten  with  a silver  fork,  as  the  acid  in  the 
sauce,  acting  on  the  steel  of  an  ordinary  fork,  gives  an  unpleas- 
ant flavor  to  the  dish.  For  this  reason,  also,  a knife  should 
not  be  used  in  eating  fish. 

If  asked  whether  you  have  a preference  for  any  dish,  or  any 
particular  part  of  a dish,  answer  plainly  and  distinctly  as  you 
wish. 

Pay  as  much  attention  to  your  companion  on  your  left,  as 
politeness  requires,  but  do  not  be  unnecessarily  officious. 

as 


572 


HOUSEHOLD. 


People  do  not  like  to  be  stared  at  when  eating.  When  you  are 
helped  to  anything,  do  not  wait  until  the  rest  of  the  company 
are  provided.  This  is  very  common  in  the  country,  but  shows 
a want  of  good  breeding. 

Do  not  allow  your  plate  to  be  overloaded  with  a multifar- 
ious assortment  of  Vegetables,  but  rather  confine  yourself  to 
one  kind.  When  you  take  another  sort  of  meat,  or  a dish  not 
properly  a vegetable,  you  must  change  your  plate. 

If  you  have  the  honor  of  sitting  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
hostess,  you  will,  immediately  on  the  removal  of  soup,  request 
the  honor  of  taking  wine  with  her. 

Finally,  to  do  all  these  things  well,  and  to  be  au  fait  at  a 
dinner  party,  be  perfectly  at  your  ease.  To  be  at  ease  is  a 
great  step  towards  enjoying  your  own  dinner,  and  making  your- 
self agreeable  to  the  company.  Fancy  yourself  at  home;  per- 
forming all  the  ceremonies  without  any  apparent  effort.  For 
the  rest,  observation  and  your  own  judgment  will  be  the  best 
guide,  and  render  you  perfect  in  the  etiquette  of  the  dinner 
table. 

Condiments  and  Beverages.-Condiments  are  simply  season- 
ing or  flavoring  agents,  and,  though  hardly  coming  under  the 
head  of  food,  yet  have  an  important  part  to  play.  As  food  by 
their  use  is  rendered  more  tempting,  a larger  amount  is  con- 
sumed, and  thus  a delicate  or  uncertain  appetite  is  often  aided. 
In  some  cases  they  have  the  power  of  correcting  the  injurious 
character  of  some  foods. 

Salt  stands  foremost.  Vinegar,  lemon  juice,  and  pickles  owe 
their  value  to  acidity;  while  mustard,  pepper,  black  and  red, 
ginger,  curry-powder,  and  horseradish,  all  depend  chiefly  upon 
pungency.  Under  the  head  of  aromatic  condiments  are  ranged 
cinnamon,  nutmegs,  cloves,  allspice,  mint,  thyme,  fennel,  sage, 
parsley,  vanilla,  leeks,  onions,  shallots,  garlic,  and  others,  all  of 
them  entering  into  the  composition  of  various  sauces  in  general 
use. 

Salt  is  the  one  thing  indispensable.  The  old  Dutch  law 
condemned  criminals  to  a diet  of  unsalted  food,  the  effects  be- 
ing said  to  be  those  of  the  severest  physical  torture.  Years  ago 
an  experiment  tried  near  Paris  demonstrated  the  necessity  of 
its  use.  A number  of  cattle  were  fed  without  the  ration  of 


HOUSEHOLD. 


573 


salt;  an  equal  number  received  it  regularly.  At  the  end  of  a 
specified  time,  the  unsalted  animals  were  found  rough  of  coat, 
the  hair  falling  off  in  spots,  the  eyes  wild  and  the  flesh  hardly 
half  the  amount  of  those  naturally  fed. 

A class  of  extreme  Grahamities  in  this  country  decry  the 
use  of  salt,  as  well  as  any  form  of  animal  food;  and  I may  add 
that  the  expression  of  their  thought,  in  both  written  and  spoken 
speech,  is  as  savorless  as  their  diet. 

Salt  exists,  as  we  have  already  found,  in  the  blood;  the 
craving  for  it  is  a universal  instinct,  even  buffaloes  making 
long  journeys  across  the  plains  to  the  salt-licks,  and  its  use 
not  only  gives  character  to  insipid  food,  but  increases  the  flow 
of  the  gastric  juice. 

Black  pepper,  if  used  profusely,  as  is  often  done  in  Ameri- 
can cooking,  becomes  an  irritant,  and  produces  indigestion. 
Red  pepper,  or  cayenne,  on  the  contrary,  is  a useful  stimulant 
at  times;  but,  as  with  mustard,  any  overuse  irritates  the  lining 
of  the  stomach. 

So  with  spices  and  sweet  herbs.  There  should  be  only 
such  use  of  them  as  will  flavor  well,  delicately,  and  almost  im- 
perceptibly. No  one  flavor  should  predominate,  and  only  a 
sense  of  general  savoriness  rule.  Extracts,  as  of  vanilla,  lemon, 
bitter  almond,  etc.,  should  be  used  with  the  greatest  care,  and 
if  possible  always  be  added  to  an  article  after  it  cools,  as  the 
heat  wastes  the  strength.  Tea  is  valuable  chiefly  for  its  warm- 
ing and  comforting  qualities.  Taken  in  moderation,  it  acts 
partly  as  a sedative,  partly  as  a stimulant,  arresting  the  de- 
struction of  tissue,  and  seeming  to  invigorate  the  whole  nervous 
system.  The  water  in  it,  even  if  impure,  is  made  wholesome 
by  boiling,  and  the  milk  and  sugar  give  a certain  amount  of 
real  nourishment.  Nervous  headaches  are  often  cured  by  it, 
and  it  has,  like  coffee,  been  used  as  an  antidote  in  opium-pois- 
oning. 

Pass  beyond  the  point  of  moderation,  and  it  becomes  an 
irritant,  precisely  in  the  same  way  that  an  overdose  of  mor- 
phine will,  instead  of  putting  to  sleep,  for  just  so  much  longer 
time  prevent  any  sleep  at  all.  The  woman  who  cannot  eat, 
and  who  braces  her  nerves  with  a cup  of  green-tea, — the  most 
powerful  form  of  the  herb, — is  doing  a deeper  wrong  than  she 


574 


HOUSEHOLD. 


may  be  able  to  believe.  The  immediate  effect  is  delightful. 
Lightness,  exhilaration,  and  sense  of  energy  are  all  there;  but 
the  reaction  comes  surely,  and  only  a stronger  dose  next  time 
accomplishes  the  end  desired.  Nervous  headaches,  hysteria 
in  its  thousand  forms,  palpitations,  and  the  long  train  of  ner- 
vous symptoms,  own  inordinate  tea  and  coffee  drinking  as 
their  parent.  Taken  in  reasonable  amounts,  tea  can  not  be 
said  to  be  hurtful;  and  the  medium  qualities,  carefully  pre- 
pared, often  make  a more  wholesome  tea  than  that  of  the  high- 
est price,  the  harmful  properties  being  strongest  in  the  best. 
If  the  water  is  soft,  it  should  be  used  as  soon  as  boiled,  boiling 
causing  all  the  gases  which  give  flavor  to  water  to  escape.  In 
hard  water,  boiling  softens  it.  In  all  cases  the  water  must  be 
fresh,  and  poured  boiling  upon  the  proper  portion  of  tea,  the 
teapot  having  first  been  well  scalded  with  boiling  water.  Never 
boil  any  tea  but  English  breakfast  tea;  for  all  others,  simple 
steeping  gives  the  drink  in  perfection. 

The  most  valuable  property  of  coffee  is  its  power  of  reliev- 
ing the  sensation  of  hunger  and  fatigue.  To  the  soldier  on 
active  service,  nothing  can  take  its  place;  and  in  our  own 
army  it  became  the  custom  often,  not  only  to  drink  the 
infusion,  but,  if  on  a hard  march,  to  eat  the  grounds  also.  In 
all  cases  it  diminishes  the  waste  of  tissue.  In  hot  weather  it  is 
too  heating  and  stimulating,  acting  powerfully  upon  the  liver, 
and,  by  producing  over-activity  of  that  organ,  bringing  about 
a general  disturbance. 

So  many  adulterations  are  found  in  ground  coffee  that  it 
is  safest  for  the  real  coffee-lover  to  buy  the  bean  whole. 
Roasting  is  usually  more  perfectly  done  at  the  grocers',  in 
their  rotary  roasters,  which  give  every  grain  its  turn;  but,  by 
care  and  constant  stirring,  it  can  be  accomplished  at  home. 
Too  much  boiling  dissipates  the  delicious  aroma  we  all  know; 
and  the  best  methods  are  considered  to  be  those  which  allow 
no  boiling,  after  boiling  water  has  been  poured  upon  it,  but 
merely  a standing  to  infuse  and  settle.  The  old  fashion,  how- 
ever, of  mixing  with  an  egg,  and  boiling  a few  minutes,  makes 
a coffee  hardly  inferior  in  flavor.  In  fact, the  methods  are 
many,  but  results,  under  given  conditions,  much  the  same; 
and  we  may  choose  urn  or  old-fashioned  tin  pot,  or  a French 


HOUSEHOLD. 


575 


biggin,  with  the  certainty  that  good  coffee,  well  roasted,  boiling 
water,  and  good  judgment  as  to  time,  will  give  always  a 
delicious  drink.  Make  a note  of  the  fact  that  long  boiling 
sets  free  tannic  acid,  powerful  enough  to  literally  tan  the 
coats  of  the  stomach,  and  bring  on  incurable  dyspepsia. 
Often  coffee  without  milk  can  be  taken,  where,  with  milk,  it 
proves  harmful;  but,  in  all  cases,  moderation  must  rule.  Taken 
too  strong,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  vertigo,  and  fainting  are  the 
usual  consequences. 

In  chocolate — a preparation  of  cocoa — the  cocoa  is  carefully 
dried  and  roasted,  and  then  ground  to  a smooth  paste,  the  nuts 
being  placed  on  a hot  iron  plate,  and  so  keeping  the  oily 
matter  to  aid  in  forming  a paste.  Sugar  and  flavorings,  as 
vanilla,  are  often  added,  and  the  whole  'pressed  into  cakes. 
The  whole  substance  of  the  nut  being  used,  it  is  exceedingly 
nutritious,  and  made  more  so  by  the  milk  and  sugar  added. 
Eaten  with  bread,  it  forms  not  only  a nourishing  but  a hearty 
meal;  and  so  condensed  is  its  form,  that  a small  cake  carried 
in  traveling,  and  eaten  with  a cracker  or  two,  will  give  tempor- 
arily the  effect  of  a full  meal. 

Alcohol  is  last  upon  our  list,  and  scientific  men  are  still 
uncertain  whether  or  not  it  can  in  any  degree  be  considered  as 
a food;  but  we  have  not  room  for  the  various  arguments  for 
and  against.  You  all  know,  in  part,  at  least,  the  effects  of 
intemperance;  and  even  the  moderate  daily  drinker  suffers 
from  clouded  mind,  irritable  nerves,  and  ruined  digestion. 

This  is  not  meant  as  an  argument  for  total  abstinence;  but 
there  are  cases  where  such  abstinence  is  the  only  rule.  In  an 
inherited  tendency  to  drink,  there  is  no  other  safe  road;  but 
to  the  man  or  woman  who  lives  by  law,  and  whose  body  is  in 
the  best  condition,  wine  in  its  many  forms  is  a permissible 
occasional  luxury,  and  so  with  beer  and  cider  and  the  wider 
range  of  domestic  drinks.  In  old  age  its  use  is  almost  essen- 
tial, but  always  in  moderation,  individual  temperament  modi- 
fying every  rule,  and  making  the  best  knowledge  an  imperative 
need.  A little  alcoholic  drink  increases  a delicate  appetite;  a 
great  deal  diminishes  or  takes  it  away  entirely,  and  also  hin- 
ders, and,  in  many  cases,  stops,  digestion  altogether.  In  its 
constant  over-use  the  membranes  of  the  stomach  are  gradually 


576 


HOUSEHOLD. 


destroyed,  and  every  organ  in  the  body  suffers.  In  ales  and 
beers  there  is  not  only  alcohol,  but  much  nitrogeneous  and 
sugary  matter,  very  fattening  in  its  nature.  A light  beer,  well 
flavored  with  hops,  is  an  aid  to  digestion,  but  taken  in  excess 
produces  biliousness.  The  long  list  of  alcoholic  products  it  is 
not  necessary  to  give,  nor  is  it  possible  to  enter  into  much 
detail  regarding  alcohol  itself. 

Soyer’s  Cafe  au  Lait. — One  cup  of  best  coffee,  freshly 
roasted,  but  unground,  two  cups  of  boiling  water,  one  quart  of 
boiling  milk.  Put  the  coffee  in  a clean,  dry  kettle,  or  tin  pail; 
fit  on  a close  top,  and  set  in  a sauce-pan  of  boiling  water. 
Shake  it  every  few  minutes,  without  opening  it,  until  you  judge 
that  the  coffee  grains  must  be  heated  through.  If,  on  lifting 
the  cover,  you  find  that  the  contents  of  the  inner  vessel  are 
very  hot  and  smoking,  pour  over  them  the  boiling  water 
directly  from  the  tea-kettle.  Cover  the  inner  vessel  closely, 
and  set  on  the  side  of  the  range,  where  it  will  keep  very  hot, 
without  boiling,  for  twenty  minutes.  Then  add  the  boiling 
milk;  let  all  stand  together  for  five  minutes  more,,  and  strain 
through  thin  muslin  into  the  coffee  urn.  Use  loaf  sugars  for 
sweetening. 

Vienna  Coffee. — With  very  little  extra  trouble  morning  cof- 
fee can  be  greatly  improved.  Beat  the  white  of  an  egg  to  a 
stiff  froth,  mix  with  an  equal  quantity  of  whipped  cream,  and 
use  in  coffee  instead  of  cream*  put  in  cream  first,  then  coffee, 
and  lastly  this  mixture. 

Good  New  England  Coffee. — For  a family  of  six,  take  six 
large  tablespoonfuls  of  best  Java  coffee,  well  browned  and 
ground  (not  too  fine),  beat  into  it  half  an  egg  and  one  cup  of 
cold  water.  After  it  is  thoroughly  beaten,  let  it  stand  half  an 
hour  well  covered.  Then  put  into  coffee-pot,  pour  on  two  and 
a half  quarts  of  boiling  water  and  put  on  the  stove;  stir  once 
or  twice  at  first,  to  prevent  burning.  Let  it  scald  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes.  If  desired  to  be  very  nice,  beat  up  eight 
instead  of  six  tablespoonfuls  of  coffee;  put  six  in  the  pot  to 
boil  for  twenty  minutes,  and  about  five  minutes  before  it  is 
done,  throw  in  the  rest  and  cover  quickly. 

Cream  and  Milk  for  Coffee. — Sweet,  rich  cream,  well  beaten 
to  free  from  lumps,  is  best  for  coffee,  but  boiling  fresh  milk  is 


HOUSEHOLD. 


577 


a good  substitute.  The  white  of  an  egg,  thoroughly  beaten 
and  added  (California  coffee)  to  thin  cream  or  rich  milk,  is  also 
very  fine. 

Tea. — Tea  is  made  variously  as  the  taste  of  people  require. 
Black,  green,  Japan,  and  English  breakfast,  all  require  differ- 
ent methods.  For  green  or  Japan  tea,  scald  the  tea-pot  and 
allow  from  one-half  to  one  teaspoonful  for  each  person,  as  the 
strength  of  the  herb  may  indicate.  Pour  over  this  one-half  a 
cup  of  boiling  water,  steep  in  a hot  place  (but  do  not  let  it  boil) 
ten  minutes,  then  turn  in  water  at  a keen  boil,  in  proportion 
one  quart  to  every  three  persons. 

English  Breakfast,  or  Oolong. — Take  two  teaspoonfuls  for 
three  persons,  and  proceed  as  above,  only  letting  the  tea  boil 
for  ten  minutes. 

An  English  gentleman,  whose  tea  was  quite  famous,  put  it 
to  steep  in  cold  water,  as  soon  as  the  one  o’clock  dinner  was 
over,  and  left  it  steeping  until  supper  time,  when  it  was  brought 
to  a boil.  Others  put  it  on  to  steep  when  the  fire  is  made  for 
supper,  and  let  it  stand  until  the  meal  is  announced;  served 
boiling  hot. 

Iced  Tea. — To  each  glass  of  tea  add  the  juice  of  half  a 
lemon;  fill  up  the  glass  with  pounded  ice,  and  sweeten. 

Chocolate. — Four  heaping  tablespoonfuls  grated  chocolate, 
one  of  sugar,  and  wet  with  one  of  boiling  water;  rub  this 
smooth.  Then  stir  into  one  pint  of  boiling  water;  then  add 
one  pint  of  boiling  milk.  Let  this  boil  three  minutes.  It  is 
greatly  improved  by  milling,  while  boiling,  with  a Dover  egg- 
beater.  If  desired  sweet,  add  to  the  boiling  milk  one  heaping 
teaspoonful  of  sugar. 

A dainty  addition  is  two  tablespoonfuls  of  whipped  cream, 
that  has  been  sweetened  and  flavored  with  vanilla,  laid  on  the 
top  of  each  cup. 

Stock  and  Seasoning.— The  preparation  called  stock  is,  for 
some  inscrutable  reason,  a stumbling-block  to  average  cooks, 
and  even  by  experienced  housekeepers  is  often  looked  upon  as 
troublesome  and  expensive.  Where  large  amounts  of  fresh 
meat  are  used  in  its  preparation,  the  latter  adjective  might  be 
appropriate;  but  stock  in  reality  is  the  only  mode  by  which 


578 


HOUSEHOLD. 


every  scrap  of  bone  or  meal,  whether  cooked  or  uncooked,  can 
be  made  to  yield  the  last  particle  of  nourishment  contained  in 
it.  Properly  prepared  and  strained  into  a stone  jar,  it  will 
keep  a week,  and  is  useful  in  the  making  of  hashes  and  gravies 
as  in  soup  itself. 

The  first  essential  is  a tightly-covered  kettle,  either  tinned 
iron  or  porcelain  lined,  holding  not  less  than  two  gallons  ; three 
being  a preferable  size.  Whether  cooked  or  uncooked  meat  is 
used,  it  should  be  cut  into  small  bits,  and  all  bones  broken  or 
sawn  into  short  pieces,  that  the  marrow  may  be  easily  ex- 
tracted. 

To  every  pound  of  meat  and  bone  allow  one  quart  of  cold 
water,  one  even  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  half  a saltspoonful  of 
pepper.  Let  the  meat  stand  till  the  water  is  slightly  colored 
with  its  juice;  then  put  upon  the  fire,  and  let  it  come  slowly  to 
a boil,  skimming  off  every  particle  of  -scum  as  it  rises.  The 
least  neglect  of  this  point  will  give  a broth  in  which  bits  of 
dark  slime  float  about,  unpleasant  to  sight  and  taste.  A cup 
of  cold  water,  thrown  in  as  the  kettle  boils,  will  make  the  scum 
rise  more  freely.  Let  it  boil  steadily,  but  very  slowly,  allow- 
ing an  hour  to  each  pound  of  meat.  The  water  will  boil  away, 
leaving,  at  the  end  of  the  time  specified,  not  more  than  half  or 
one-third  the  original  amount.  In  winter  this  will  become  a 
firm  jelly,  which  can  be  used  by  simply  melting  it,  thus  obtain- 
ing a strong,  clear  broth;  or  can  be  diluted  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  water,  and  vegetables  added  for  a vegetable  soup 

The  meat  used  in  stock,  if  boiled  the  full  length  of  time 
given,  has  parted  with  all  its  juices,  and  is  therefore  useless  as 
food.  If  wanted  for  hashes  or  croquettes,  the  portion  needed 
should  be  taken  out  as  soon  as  tender,  and  a pint  of  the  stock 
with  it,  to  use  as  gravy.  Strain,  when  done,  into  a stone  pot 
or  crock  kept  for  that  purpose,  and,  when  cold,  remove  the 
cake  of  fat  which  will  rise  to  the  top.  This  fat,  melted  and 
strained,  serves  for  many  purposes  better  than  lard.  If  the 
stock  is  to  be  kept  for  several  days,  leave  the  fat  on  till  ready 
to  use  it. 

Fresh  and  cooked  meat  may  be  used  together,  and  all  re- 
mains of  poultry  or  game,  and  trimmings  of  chops  and  steaks, 
may  be  added,  mutton  being  the  only  meat  which  can  not  at 


HOUSEHOLD. 


579 


well  be  used  in  combination;  though  even  this,  by  trimming  off 
all  the  fat,  may  also  be  added.  If  it  is  intended  to  keep  the 
stock  for  some  days,  no  vegetables  should  be  added,  as  vegeta- 
ble juices  ferment  very  easily.  For  clear  soups  they  must  be 
cooked  with  the  meat;  and  directions  will  be  given  under  that 
head  for  amounts  and  seasonings. 

The  secret  of  a savory  soup  lies  in  many  flavors,  none  of 
which  are  allowed  to  predominate;  and,  minutely  as  rules  for 
such  flavoring  may  be  given,  only  careful  and  frequent  tasting 
will  insure  success.  Every  vegetable,  spice,  and  sweet  herb, 
curry-powders,  catchups,  sauces,  dried  or  fresh  lemon  peel,  can 
be  used;  and  the  simple  stock,  by  the  addition  of  these  various 
ingredients,  becomes  the  myriad  number  of  soups  to  be  found 
in  the  pages  of  great  cooking  manuals  like  Gouffee’s  or  Fran- 
catelli’s. 

Brown  Soups  are  made  by  frying  the  meat  or  game  used  in 
them  till  thoroughly  brown  on  all  sides,  and  using  dark  spices 
or  sauces  in  their  seasoning. 

White  Soups  are  made  with  light  meats,  and  often  with  the 
addition  of  milk  or  cream. 

Purees  are  merely  thick  soups  strained  carefully  before 
serving,  and  made  usually  of  some  vegetable  which  thickens  in 
boiling,  as  beans,  peas,  &c.,  though  there  are  several  forms  of 
fish  purees  in  which  the  foundation  is  thickened  milk,  to  which 
the  fish  is  added,  and  the  whole  then  rubbed  through  a com- 
mon sieve,  if  a regular  puree  sieve  is  not  to  be  had. 

Browned  flour  is  often  used  for  coloring,  but  does  not 
thicken  a soup,  as,  in  browning,  the  starchy  portion  has  been 
destroyed;  and  it  will  not  therefore  mix,  but  settles  at  the  bot- 
tom. Burned  sugar  or  caramel  makes  a better  coloring,  and 
also  adds  flavor.  With  clear  soups  grated  cheese  is  often  served, 
either  Parmesan  or  any  rich  cheese  being  used.  Onions  give  a 
better  flavor  if  they  are  fried  in  a little  butter  or  dripping  be- 
fore using,  and  many  professional  cooks  fry  all  soup  vegetables 
lightly.  Cabbage  and  potatoes  should  be  parboiled  in  a sepa- 
rate water  before  adding  to  a soup.  In  using  wine  or  catchup, 
add  only  at  the  last  moment,  as  boiling  dissipates  the  flavor. 
Unless  a thick  vegetable  soup  is  desired,  always  strain  into  the 
tureen.  Rice,  sago,  macaroni,  or  any  cereal  maf  be  used  a$ 


580 


HOUSEHOLD. 


thickening;  the  amounts  required  being  found  under  the  dif- 
ferent headings.  Careful  skimming,  long  boiling,  and  as  care- 
ful removing  of  fat,  will  secure  a broth  especially  desirable  as 
a food  for  children  and  the  old,  but  almost  equally  so  for  any 
age;  while  many  fragments,  otherwise  entirely  useless,  discover 
themselves  as  savory  and  nutritious  parts  of  the  day's  supply 
of  food. 

RECIPES. 

Soups. — Beef  Soup  with  Vegetables. — For  this  very  ex- 
cellent soup  take  two  quarts  of  stock  prepared  before  hand,  as 
already  directed.  If  the  stock  is  a jelly,  as  will  usually  be  the 
case  in  winter,  an  amount  sufficient  to  fill  a quart  measure  can 
be  diluted  with  a pint  of  water,  and  will  then  be  rich  enough. 
Add  to  this  one  small  carrot,  a turnip,  a small  parsnip,  and  two 
onions;  all  chopped  fine;  a cupful  of  chopped  cabbage;  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  barley  or  rice;  and  either  six  fresh  tomatoes 
sliced,  or  a small  can  of  sealed  ones.  Boil  gently  at  least  one 
hour:  then  add  one  saltspoonful  each  of  pepper,  curry  powder 
and  clove.  If  the  stock  has  been  salted  properly,  no  more  will 
be  needed;  but  tasting  is  essential  to  secure  just  the  right  fla- 
vors. Boil  a few  minutes  longer,  and  serve  without  straining. 

This  is  an  especially  savory  and  hearty  soup,  and  the  com- 
binations of  vegetables  may  be  varied  indefinitely.  A cup  of 
chopped  celery  is  an  exceedingly  nice  addition,  or,  if  this  is  not 
to  be  had,  a teaspoonful  of  celery  salt,  or  a saltspoonful  of  cel- 
ery seed.  A lemon  may  also  be  sliced  thin,  and  added  at  the 
last.  When  tomatoes  are  used,  a little  sugar  is  always  an  im- 
provement; in  this  case  an  even  tablespoonful  being  sufficient. 
If  a thicker  broth  is  desired,  one  heaped  tablespoonful  of  corn- 
starch or  flour  may  be  first  dissolved  in  a little  cold  water;  then 
a cup  of  the  hot  broth  gradually  mixed  with  it,  and  the  whole 
added  to  the  soup  and  boiled  for  five  minutes. 

Perfect  Mock  Turtle  Soup. — Endeavor  to  have  the 
head  and  the  broth  ready  for  the  soup,  the  day  before  it  is  to 
be  eaten.  It  will  take  eight  hours  to  prepare  it  properly. 

Hours 

Cleaning  and  soaking  the  head. — l 

To  parboil  it  to  cut  iip * \ 

Cooling,  nearly ....  1 

Making-the  broth  and  finishing  the  soup  , r ,,,,,,,,,  M , f , ....  .j| 

i 


HOUSEHOLD. 


581 


Get  a calf’s  head  with  the  skin  on  (the  fresher  the  better) ; 
take  out  the  brains,  wash  the  head  several  times  in  cold  water, 
let  it  soak  for  about  an  hour  in  spring  water,  then  lay  it  in  a 
stewpan,  and  cover  it  wich  cold  water,  and  half  a gallon  over; 
as  it  becomes  warm,  a great  deal  of  scum  will  rise,  which  must 
be  immediately  removed;  let  it  boil  gently  for  one  hour,  take  it 
up,  and,  when  almost  cold,  cut  the  head  into  pieces  about  an 
inch  and  a half  by  an  inch  and  a quarter,  and  the  tongue  into 
mouthfuls;  or  rather  make  a side  dish  of  the  tongue  and  brains. 

When  the  head  is  taken  out,  put  in  the  stock  meat  (about 
five  pounds  of  knuckle  of  veal),  and  as  much  beef;  add  to  the 
stock  all  the  trimmings  and  bones  of  the  head;  skim  it  well, 
and  then  cover  it  close  and  let  it  boil  five  hours  (reserve  a 
couple  of  quarts  of  this  to  make  gravy  sauces);  then  strain  it 
off  and  let  it  stand  till  the  next  morning;  then  take  off  the  fat, 
set  a large  stewpan  on  the  fire  with  half  a pound  of  good  fresh 
butter,  twelve  ounces  of  onions  sliced,  and  four  ounces  of  green 
sage;  chop  it  a little;  let  these  fry  an  hour;  then  rub  in  half 
a pound  of  flour,  and  by  degrees  add]  your  broth 'till  it  is  the 
thickness  of  cream;  season  it  with  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
ground  allspice,  and  half  an  ounce  of  black  pepper  ground  very 
fine,  salt  to  your  taste,  and  the  rind  of  one  lemon  peeled  very 
thin;  let  it  simmer  very  gently  for  an  hour  and  a half,  then 
strain  it  through  a hair  sieve;  do  not  rub  your  soup  to  get  it 
through  the  sieve,  or  it  will  make  it  grouty;  if  it  does  not  run 
through  easily,  knock  your  wooden  spoon  against  the  side  of 
your  sieve;  put  it  in  a clean  stewpan  with  the  head,  and  season 
it  by  adding  to  each  gallon  of  soup  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
Tarragon  vinegar,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  lemon  juice;  let 
it  simmer  gently  till  the  meat  is  tender;  this  may  take  from  half 
an  hour  to  an  hour;  take  care  it  is  not  overdone;  stir  it 
frequently  to  prevent  the  meat  sticking  to  the  bottom  of  the 
stewpan,  and  when  the  meat  is  quite  tender  the  soup  is  ready. 

A head  weighing  twenty  pounds,  and  ten  pounds  of  stock 
meat,  will  make  ten  quarts  of  excellent  soup,  besides  the  two 
quarts  of  stock  you  have  put  by  for  made  dishes. 

Observations. — If  there  is  more  meat  on  the  head  than 
you  wish  to  put  in  the  soup,  prepare  it  for  a pie,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a calf’s  foot  boiled  tender*  it  will  make  an  excellent 


m 


HOUSEHOLD. 


ragout  pie;  season  it  with  zest  and  a little  minced  onion,  put 
in  half  a teacupful  of  stock,  cover  it  with  puff  paste,  and  bake 
it  one  hour;  when  the  soup  comes  from  table,  if  there  is  a deal 
of  meat  and  no  soup,  put  it  into  a pie  dish,  season  it  a little, 
and  add  some  little  stock  to  it;  then  cover  it  with  paste,  bake 
it  one  hour,  and  you  have  a good  mock-turtle  pie. 

To  Season  the  Soup. — To  each  gallon  put  four  table- 
spoonfuls of  lemon  juice,  two  of  mushroom  catsup,  and  one 
teaspoonful  of  mace,  a teaspoonful  of  curry  powder,  or  a quar- 
ter of  a drachm  of  cayenne,  and  the  peel  of  a lemon  pared  as 
thin  as  possible;  let  it  simmer  for  five  minutes  more,  take  out 
the  lemon  peel,  add  the  yolks  of  four  hard  boiled  eggs,  and 
the  soup  is  ready  for  the  tureen. 

While  the  soup  is  doing,  prepare  for  each  tureen  a dozen 
and  a half  of  mock-turtle  forcemeat  balls,  and  put  them  into 
the  tureen.  Brain  balls,  or  cakes,  are  a very  elegant  addition, 
and  are  made  by  boiling  the  brains  for  ten  minutes,  then  put- 
ting them  in  cold  water  and  cutting  them  into  pieces  about  as 
big  as  a large  nutmeg;  take  savory  or  lemon  thyme  dried  and 
finely  powdered  nutmeg  grated,  and  pepper  and  salt,  and 
pound  them  all  together;  beat  up  an  egg,  dip  the  brains  in  it, 
and  then  roll  them  in  this  mixture,  and  make  as  much  of  it 
as  possible  stick  to  them;  dip  them  in  the  egg  again,  and  then 
in  finely  grated  and  sifted  bread  crumbs;  fry  them  in  hot  fat, 
and  send  them  up  as  a side-dish. 

A veal  sweet-bread,  not  too  much  done  or  it  will  break,  cut 
into  pieces  the  same  size  as  you  cut  the  calf’s  head,  and  put  in 
the  soup  just  to  get  warm  before  it  goes  to  the  table,  is  a superb 
“ bonne  bouche and  pickled  tongue,  stewed  till  very  tender, 
and  cut  into  mouthfuls,  is  a favorite  addition.  We  order  the 
meat  to  be  cut  into  mouthfuls  that  it  may  be  eaten  with  a spoon; 
the  knife  and  fork  have  no  business  in  a soup  plate. 

N.  B. — In  helping  this  soup,  the  distributer  of  it  should 
serve  out  the  meat,  forcemeat  and  gravy  in  equal  parts;  how- 
ever trifling  and  needless  this  remark  may  appear,  the  writer 
has  often  suffered  from  the  want  of  such  a hint  being  given  to 
the  soup-server,  who  has  sometimes  sent  a plate  of  more  gravy 
without  meat,  at  others,  of  meac  without  gravy,  and  sometimes 
scarcely  anything  but  forcemeat  balls. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


583 


Observations. — This  is  a delicious  soup  within  the  reach 
of  those  who  “ eat  to  live;”  but  if  it  had  been  composed 
expressly  for  those  who  only  “ live  to  eat,”  I do  not  know  how 
it  could  have  been  more  agreeable;  as  it  is,  the  lover  of  good 
eating  will  “wish  his  throat  a mile  long,  and  every  inch  of 
it  a palate.” 

Summer  or  Winter  Corn  Soup. — Boil  a leg  of  mutton 
or  shank  of  beef  in  six  quarts  of  water  for  four  hours. 
After  the  meat  and  fat  have  been  removed  (it  is  better  to  stand 
over  one  day  to  cool,  so  that  the  grease  may  all  be  taken  off), 
add  a quart  or  more  of  sweet  corn  nicely  cut  from  the  cob,  and 
boil  twenty  or  thirty  minutes.  In  cutting  the  corn  (with  a sharp 
knife)  take  off  only  the  point  of  the  kernels,  and  scrape  the 
milk  or  pulp,  thus  avoiding  the  hull  or  skin,  which  is  indigesti- 
ble and  unpalatable.  Just  before  serving,  add  to  the  soup  a 
coffee-cup  of  cream,  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  stirred 
smoothly  in  and  boil  for  a minute.  This  can  be  made  in  win- 
ter by  using  the  Yarmouth  canned  corn  or  the  dried  corn  soaked 
over  night,  and  boiled  till  tender. 

Corn  Soup. — Cut  the  grains  from  twelve  ears  of  sweet 
corn  and  scrape  the  milk;  add  one  pint  of  water.  Let  it  boil 
until  quite  done — thirty  to  forty  minutes — then  add  two  quarts 
of  new  milk,  and  when  it  boils  stir  in  one-quarter  pound  of 
butter  rubbed  into  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  pepper  and  salt. 
Beat  the  yolks  of  two  eggs  in  the  tureen  and  pour  the  soup  in 
boiling,  stirring  all  the  time. 

Turkey  Soup. — Place  the  rack  of  a cold  turkey  and  what 
remains  of  dressing  or  gravy  in  a pot,  and  cover  with  cold 
water.  Simmer  gently  three  or  four  hours,  and  let  it  stand 
until  the  next  day.  Take  off  what  fat  may  have  risen,  and 
take  out  with  a skimmer  all  the  bits  of  bones.  Put  the  soup  on 
to  heat  till  boiling,  then  thicken  slightly  with  flour  wet  up  in 
water,  and  season  to  the  taste.  Pick  off  all  the  turkey  from 
the  bones,  put  them  in  the  soup,  boil  up  and  serve. 

Calf’s  Head  Soup. — Take  the  head,  pluck  and  feet.  Put 
them  into  a pot  with  cold  water.  Be  careful  to  skim  well  when 
it  boils.  Chop  a dozen  small  onions  and  let  them  all  boil 
together  until  the  meat  cleaves  from  the  bones.  Then  strain 


584 


HOUSEHOLD. 


it.  After  putting  the  liquor  into  che  pot  again,  add  thyme, 
cloves,  salt,  pepper  and  cayenne  to  your  taste.  But  all  the 
meat  from  the  head  and  feet,  half  the  liver  and  lights,  the 
whole  of  the  heart  and  tongue;  put  all  into  the  pot  and  boil 
about  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  Before  it  is  done  take  half  a 
pound  of  butter  with  as  much  flour  as  will  make  into  balls; 
stir  until  dissolved.  Then  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  tar- 
ragon vinegar,  four  hard  boiled  eggs  cut  in  slices,  and  a 
lemon  to  improve  the  flavor.  This  will  make  two  gallons, 
and  may  be  kept  several  weeks,  to  be  used  as  occasion 
requires. 

Tomato  Soup. — One  quart  ot  water,  eight  good-sized  ripe 
tomatoes  cut  up;  boil  twenty  minutes  and  add  one  half  tea- 
spoonful of  soda;  then  boil  and  add  one  pint  or  more  of  milk, 
and  season  as  you  do  oysters. 

Black  Bean  Soup. — One  quart  of  black  beans,  soaked 
over  night  in  four  quarts  of  water,  one  pound  of  beef,  half 
pound  of  salt  pork.  Grate  one  large  or  two  small  carrots,  and 
slice  one  large  onion,  and  add  to  the  beans  and  the  water  in 
which  they  were  soaked.  Boil  all  together  for  three  or  four 
hours,  then  strain  through  a colander.  When  in  the  tureen  add 
one  tablespoonful  of  mushroom  sauce,  one  sliced  lemon  and 
one  sliced  or  chopped  boiled  egg. 

Pea  Soup. — Soak  one  quart  of  peas  (split,  if  you  can  get 
them)  over  night;  next  morning  early  put  them  over  the  fire 
with  one  pound  of  corned  beef  or  pork  (beef  is  the  best  to  my 
taste,  however),  and  let  them  boil  hard  for  three  hours.  Then 
add  a chopped  carrot  and  turnip,  and  an  onion,  if  liked,  a tea- 
spoonful of  celery  seed  or  a handful  of  celery  tops,  and  boil 
another  hour  or  more;  then  strain  through  a sieve,  season  with 
pepper,  and  cut  up  two  thin  slices  of  toasted  bread  in  the  shape 
of  small  dice;  put  in  the  tureen,  turn  on  your  soup  and  serve. 
A cup  of  milk  boiled  in  it  for  twenty  minutes  is  an  improve- 
ment. Small,  white  beans  can  be  substituted  for  peas  and  made 
in  the  same  manner. 

Oyster  Soup. — For  four  cans  of  oysters,  have  twelve  crack- 
ers rolled  fine,  two  quarts  of  boiling  water,  one  pint  of  good 
rich  milk.  Let  the  milk  and  water  come  to  a boil,  add  the 
crackers,  salt  and  pepper,  boil  one  minute  briskly;  pour  in"the 


HOUSEHOLD. 


585 


Oysters  and  let  all  come  to  a scald;  add  about  a quarter  of  a 
pound  of  butter  as  they  are  poured  into  a tureen. 

Oyster  Soup,  No.  2. — To  one  quart  of  oysters  add  one 
quart  of  water;  pour  the  water  on  the  oysters  and  stir  them; 
take  them  out  one  at  a time,  so  that  no  small  particle  of  shell 
may  adhere  to  them;  strain  the  liquor  through  a sieve  and  put 
it  in  a stew-pan  over  the  fire,  with  two  or  three  blades  of  mace, 
and  season  with  red  pepper  and  salt  to  taste;  when  this  boils 
put  in  your  oysters,  add  a teaspoonful  of  flour  rubbed  to  a 
paste  with  one  ounce  of  butter;  let  them  scald  again,  then  add 
one  half  pint  of  cream  and  serve  hot. 

Fish. — The  most  essential  point  in  choosing  fish  is  their 
freshness,  and  this  is  determined  as  follows:  If  the  gills  are 
red,  the  eyes  prominent  and  full,  and  the  whole  fish  stiff,  they 
are  good;  but  if  the  eyes  are  sunken,  the  gills  pale  and  the  flesh 
flabby,  they  are  stale  and  unwholesome,  and,  though  often 
eaten  in  this  condition,  lack  all  the  fine  flavor  of  a freshly- 
caught  fish. 

The  fish  being  chosen,  the  greatest  care  is  necessary  in 
cleaning.  If  this  is  properly  done,  one  washing  will  be  suffici- 
ent; the  custom  of  allowing  fresh  fish  to  lie  in  water  after 
cleaning  destroys  much  of  their  flavor. 

Fresh- water  fish,  especially  the  cat-fish,  have  often  a muddy 
taste  and  smell.  To  get  rid  of  this,  soak  in  water  strongly 
salted;  say  a cupful  of  salt  to  a gallon  of  water,  letting  it  heat 
gradually  in  this,  and  boiling  it  for  one  minute ; then  drying  it 
thoroughly  before  cooking. 

All  fish  for  boiling  should  be  put  into  cold  water,  with  the 
exception  of  salmon,  which  loses  its  color  unless  put  into  boil- 
ing water.  A tablespoonful  each  of  salt  and  vinegar  to  every 
two  quarts  of  water  improves  the  flavor  of  all  boiled  fish,  and 
also  makes  the  flesh  firmer.  Allow  ten  minutes  to  the  pound 
after  the  fish  begins  to  boil,  and  test  with  a knitting  needle  or 
sharp  skewer.  If  it  runs  in  easily,  the  flesh  can  be  taken  off. 
If  a fish-kettle  with  strainer  is  used,  the  fish  can  be  lifted  out 
without  danger  of  breaking.  If  not,  it  should  be  thoroughly 
dredged  with  flour,  and  served  in  a cloth  kept  for  the  purpose. 
In  all  cases  drain  it  perfectly,  and  send  to  table  on  a folded 
napkin  laid  upon  the  platter. 


586 


HOUSEHOLD. 


In  frying,  fish  should,  like  all  fried  articles,  be  immersed  in 
the  hot  lard  or  drippings.  Small  fish  can  be  fried  whole; 
larger  ones  boned,  and  cut  in  small  pieces.  If  they  are  egged 
and  crumbed,  the  egg  will  form  a covering,  hardening  at  once, 
and  absolutely  impervious  to  fat. 

Pan-fisli,  as  they  are  called — flounders  and  small  fish  gen- 
erally— can  also  be  fried  by  rolling  in  Indian  meal  or  flour,  and 
browning  in  the  fat  of  salt  pork. 

Baking  and  broiling  preserve  the  flavor  most  thoroughly. 

Cold  boiled  fish  can  always  be  used,  either  by  spicing  as  in 
the  rule  to  be  given,  or  by  warming  again  in  a little  butter  and 
water.  Cold  fried  or  boiled  fish  can  be  put  in  a pan,  and  set 
in  the  oven  till  hot;  this  requiring  not  over  ten  minutes;  a 
longer  time  giving  a strong  oily  taste,  which  spoils  it.  Plain 
boiled  or  mashed  potatoes  are  always  served  with  fish  where 
used  as  a dinner  course.  If  fish  is  boiled  whole,  do  not  cut  off 
either  tail  or  head.  The  tail  can  be  skewered  in  the  mouth  if 
liked;  or  a large  fish  may  be  boiled  in  the  shape  of  a letter  S 
by  threading  a trussing-needle,  fastening  a string  around  the 
head,  then  passing  the  needle  through  the  middle  of  the  body, 
drawing  the  string  tight,  and  fastening  it  around  the  tail. 

To  Fry  or  Broil  Fish  Properly. — After  the  fish  is  well 
cleansed,  lay  it  on  a folded  towel  and  dry  out  all  the  water. 
When  well  wiped  and  dry,  roll  it  in  wheat  flour,  rolled  crackers, 
grated  stale  bread,  or  Indian  meal,  whichever  may  be  preferred; 
wheat  flour  will  generally  be  liked. 

Have  a thick-bottomed  frying-pan  or  spider  with  plenty  of 
sweet  lard  salted  (a  tablespoonful  of  salt  to  each  pound  of 
lard),  for  fresh  fish  which  have  not  been  previously  salted;  let 
it  become  boiling  hot,  then  lay  the  fish  in  and  let  it  fry  gently, 
until  one  side  is  a delicate  brown,  then  turn  the  other;  when 
both  are  done  take  it  up  carefully  and  serve  quickly,  and  keep 
it  covered  with  a tin  cover,  and  set  the  dish  where  it  will 
keep  hot. 

To  Broil. — Have  a clean  gridiron,  and  a clear  but  not 
fierce  fire  of  coals;  rub  the  bars  with  a bit  of  beef  suet,  that 
the  fish  may  not  stick;  fish  must  be  broiled  gently  and 
thoroughly.  There  are  few  things  more  offensive  than  undone 
fish. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


587 


For  the  broil,  have  ready  a dish  with  a good  bit  of  butter 
in  which  is  worked  a little  salt  and  pepper,  enough  for  the 
fish.  Lay  the  fish  upon  it,  when  both  sides  are  nicely  done, 
and  with  a knife-blade  put  the  butter  over  every  part;  fish 
should  be  turned  with  a broad-bladed  knife  or  a pancake 
turner. 

All  salt  fish  require  to  be  soaked  in  cold  water  before  cook- 
ing, according  to  the  time  it  has  been  in  salt.  When  it  is  hard 
and  dry  it  will  require  thirty-six  hours  soaking  before  dressing; 
the  water  must  be  changed  three  or  four  times.  When  fish  is 
not  very  salt  or  hard,  twenty-four  hours  will  be  sufficient. 

For  frying  fish,  beef  suet  or  dripping  or  sweet  oil  may  be 
used  in  place  of  lard.  Butter  is  not  good:  it  spoils  the  color 
and  tastes  strong* 

Fish  have  a fine  appearance  prepared  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Clean  and  wash  them,  and  wipe  them  dry  with  a nice 
soft  towel;  then  wet  them  over  with  beaten  egg,  and  dip  them 
in  bread  crumbs  or  rolled  crackers.  If  done  twice  over  with 
egg  and  cracker  or  crumbs,  it  will  have  a finer  appearance. 

The  largest  sized  pan  fish,  weighing  nearly  or  quite  a 
pound  each,  should  be  scored  or  cut  across  each  side  from  the 
head  to  the  tail,  nearly  to  the  bone,  and  about  an  inch  apart, 
that  it  may  be  well  done.  Garnish  with  sprigs  of  parsley. 
Have  ready  a thick-bottomed  frying  pan,  with  plenty  of  lard 
salted;  let  it  become  boiling  hot;  lay  the  fish  carefully  in  and 
let  them  fry  gently,  until  one  side  is  a rich  yellow  brown,  then 
turn  the  other  and  do  likewise;  when  both  are  done,  take  them 
carefully  up  on  a hot  dish  and  serve.  Garnish  with  fried  parsley. 

Dried  Codfish. — This  should  always  be  laid  in  soak,  at 
least  one  night  before  it  is  wanted;  then  take  off  the  skin  and 
put  it  in  plenty  of  cold  water;  boil  it  gently  (skimming  it 
meanwhile)  for  one  hour,  or  tie  it  in  a cloth  and  boil  it.  Serve 
it  with  egg  sauce;  garnish  with  hard  boiled  eggs  cut  in  slices, 
and  sprigs  of  parsley.  Serve  plain  boiled  or  mashed  potatoes 
with  it. 

Stewed  Salt  Cod. — Scald  some  soaked  cod  by  putting  it 
over  the  fire  in  boiling  water  for  ten  minutes;  then  scrape  it 
white,  pick  it  in  flakes,  and  put  it  in  a stewpan,  with  a table- 
spoonful of  butter  worked  into  the  same  of  flour,  and  as 


588 


HOUSEHOLD. 


much  milk  as  will  moisten  it;  let  it  stew  gently  for  ten  minutes; 
add  pepper  to  taste,  and  serve  hot;  put  it  in  a deep  dish,  slice 
hard  boiled  eggs  over  it,  and  sprigs  of  parsley  around  the  edge. 

This  is  a nice  relish  for  breakfast,  with  coffee  and  tea,  and 
rolls  or  toast. 

Codfish  Cakes. — First  boil  soaked  cod,  then  chop  it  fine, 
put  to  it  an  equal  quantity  of  potatoes  boiled  and  mashed; 
moisten  it  with  beaten  eggs  or  milk,  and  a bit  of  butter  and  a 
little  pepper;  form  it  in  round  small  cakes,  rather  more  than 
half  an  inch  thick,  flour  the  outside,  and  fry  in  hot  butter  or 
beef  drippings  until  a delicate  brown.  Like  fish,  these  must  be 
fried  gently,  the  lard  being  boiling  hot  when  they  are  put  in; 
when  one  side  is  done  turn  the  other.  Serve  for  breakfast. 

To  Bake  a Dish  of  Cold  Boiled  Cod. — Chop  fine  some 
cold  boiled  cod,  put  to  it  an  equal  quantity  or  more  of  boiled 
potatoes  chopped  and  mashed;  add  a good  bit  of  butter  and 
milk  to  make  it  moist,  and  put  it  in  a stewpan  over  a gentle 
fire;  cover  it,  and  stir  it  frequently  until  it  is  thoroughly 
heated,  taking  care  that  it  does  not  burn;  then  take  it  up, 
make  it  in  a roll  or  any  other  form,  mark  the  surface,  take  a 
pinch  of  ground  pepper  between  your  finger  and  thumb,  and 
put  spots  at  equal  distances  over  it;  or  wet  it  over  with  melted 
butter,  and  brown  it  in  an  oven  before  the  fire. 

Fresh  Cod. — Fresh  cod,  when  good,  are  firm,  and  the 
gills  red,  and  the  eyes  are  full;  if  at  all  soft  and  flabby  it  is 
not  good.  A fine  fish  is  thick  at  the  back;  the  shoulder  or 
piece  near  the  head  of  a large  cod  is  better  for  boiling  than 
a small  fish. 

To  Boil  Fresh  Cod. — If  you  have  not  a fish  kettle, 
after  cleaning  the  fish  properly,  lay  it  on  a plate  in  a circle, 
and  tie  a clean  towel  about  it;  to  a gallon  of  hot  water  put 
a tablespoonful  of  salt  and  a gill  of  vinegar;  put  in  the  fish 
and  boil  according  to  its  weight.  Serve  with  plain  boiled 
potatoes  and  drawn  butter,  parsley,  or  egg  sauce.  Garnish 
with  sprigs  of  parsley.  Lay  a folded  napkin  on  the  dish  under 
the  fish. 

Fried  Codfish  Steaks. — Cut  the  fish  in  steaks  of  about 


Household. 


m 


One  inch  thickness;  or  it  may  be  split  as  for  broiling;  dip  each 
piece  in  wheat  flour  or  rolled  cracker,  or  Indian  meal;  have 
some  lard,  (which  is  salted  in  proportion,  a tablespoonful  of 
salt  to  a pound,)  let  it  become  boiling  hot  in  a frying  pan;  lay 
in  the  steaks;  let  them  fry  gently,  without  stirring  them,  until 
one  side  is  a fine  brown,  then  turn  each  steak  carefully  with  a 
broad  knife;  when  both  sides  are  done,  serve  hot,  with  sprigs 
of  parsley  over  it. 

Baked  Cod. — Clean  a good  sized  fish,  weighing  four  or  five 
pounds;  wash  it  and  dry  it  well  in  a cloth;  rub  it  inside  and 
out  with  a mixture  of  pepper  and  salt;  cut  a slice  from  a loaf 
of  bread,  spread  it  thickly  with  butter;  moisten  it  with  hot 
water,  and  fill  the  body  of  the  fish;  tie  a thread  around  it  to 
keep  the  dressing  in,  then  put  bits  of  butter,  the  size  of  a 
hickory  nut,  all  over  the  surface;  dredge  flour  over  it  until 
it  looks  white;  then  lay  a trivet  on  some  muffin  rings  in  a 
dripping-pan,  and  lay  the  fish  on;  put  in  a pint  of  water  to 
baste  with,  then  put  it  in  a hot  oven,  and  baste  frequently;  in 
one  hour  it  will  be  done.  Take  it  up  on  a hot  dish,  add  a gill 
of  vinegar  to  the  gravy,  or  a lemon  cut  in  very  thin  slices; 
dredge  in  a little  flour;  let  it  boil  up  once;  stir  it  well;  add  a 
very  little  hot  water  if  necessary,  then  strain  into  a gravy-boat, 
lay  the  slice  over  the  fish,  and  serve. 

Haddock. — These  are  chosen  and  dressed  the  same  as  cod. 

Shad. — These  are  in  season  from  the  last  of  March  until 
May;  they  are  chosen  by  the  same  rules  as  other  fish. 

These  fish  may  be  fried,  baked,  boiled  or  salted. 

Fried  Shad. — Scale  the  fish,  and  cut  off  the  head,  then 
split  it  open  down  the  back,  at  the  side  of  the  backbone;  take 
out  the  entrails;  keep  the  roe  or  eggs  to  be  fried  with  the  fish; 
then  cut  it  in  two  from  head  to  tail,  and  cut  each  side  in  pieces 
two  or  three  inches  wide;  rinse  them  in  cold  water,  wipe  them 
dry,  and  dip  each  in  wheat  flour,  and  fry  in  salted  lard;  when 
the  inside,  which  must  always  be  cooked  first  (of  any  fish),  is 
done  a fine  brown,  turn  the  other;  the  fat  must  be  boiling  hot 
when  the  fish  is  put  in,  and  then  fried  gently,  that  it  may  not 
be  too  dark  colored. 

Broiled  Shad. — Cut  the  fish  the  same  as  for  frying,  or 


590 


HOUSEHOLD. 


merely  split  it  in  two;  lay  it  on  a gridiron  over  a bright  steady 
fire  of  coals;  let  it  broil  gently;  put  the  inside  to  the  fire  first 
that  it  may  be  done  through;  have  ready  a steak  dish  with 
nearly  a quarter  of  a pound  of  sweet  butter,  and  a teaspoonful 
of  salt  and  pepper  each,  worked  into  it;  when  both  sides  of  the 
fish  are  done,  lay  it  on  the  dish,  turn  it  several  times  in  the  but- 
ter, cover  it  with  a tin  cover,  and  set  the  dish  where  it  will  keep 
hot,  until  ready  to  serve. 

Baked  Shad, — Scale  the  shad  clean,  cut  off  the  head,  and 
split  the  fish  half  way  down  the  back;  scrape  the  inside  per- 
fectly clean;  make  a stuffing  thus:  Cut  two  slices  of  a baker’s 
loaf  of  wheat  bread,  spread  each  thickly  with  butter;  sprinkle 
with  pepper  and  salt,  and  a little  pounded  sage  if  liked;  mois- 
ten it  with  hot  water;  fill  the  belly  with  this;  wind  a cord 
around  it  to  keep  in  the  stuffing,  dredge  the  outside  well  with 
flour;  stick  bits  of  butter,  the  size  of  a hickory  nut,  all  over 
outside;  mix  a teaspoonful  each  of  salt  and  pepper  together, 
and  sprinkle  it  all  over  the  whole  surface;  then  lay  the  fish  on 
a trivet  or  muffin  rings  in  a dripping  pan;  put  in  a pint  of 
water  to  baste  with,  and  keep  the  gravy  from  burning;  if  this  all 
wastes  before  the  fish  is  done,  add  more  hot  water;  bake  for 
one  hour  in  a quick  oven;  baste  frequently.  When  done,  take 
the  fish  on  a steak  dish;  if  there  is  not  enough  gravy  in  the  pan 
(there  should  be  at  least  half  a pint),  add  more  hot  water;  dredge 
in  a heaping  teaspoonful  of  flour,  then  put  to  it  a bit 
of  butter,  and,  if  liked,  a lemon  sliced  thin,  and  the  seeds  taken 
out.  Stir  it  smooth  with  a spoon,  and  pour  it  through  a gravy- 
strainer  into  a gravy-boat;  lay  the  slices  of  lemon  over  the  fish, 
and  serve  with  mashed  potatoes. 

To  Fry  Black  Fish. — Scale  the  fish,  and  scrape  the  in- 
side clean  to  the  backbone;  wash  in  water,  with  a little  vine- 
gar; wipe  it  dry  with  a clean  towel;  then  dip  it  in  wheat  flour, 
or  rolled  crackers.  Have  in  a thick-bottomed  frying  pan  plenty 
of  lard  salted  (a  large  tablespoonful  of  salt  to  a pound  of  lard), 
let  it  become  boiling  hot;  then  lay  in  the  fish  and  fry  it  gently, 
until  one  side  is  a fine  brown;  then  turn  it  carefully.  When 
both  sides  are  done,  take  it  up  and  serve. 

Fried  fish  may  be  garnished  or  ornamented  with  sprigs  of 
green  or  fried  parsley,  or  thin  slices  of  lemon,  sliced. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


591 


Stewed  Black  Fish. — Put  a fish  weighing  about  five 
pounds  on  a fish-drainer;  after  having  properly  cleansed  it,  put 
it  into  the  fish-kettle  with  hot  water  to  cover  it;  add  to  it  a few 
blades  of  mace,  a large  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a wineglass  of 
port  wine;  let  it  simmer  or  boil  gently  for  half  an  hour;  then 
skim  it  clear;  work  into  a smooth  mass  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
sweet  butter,  and  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  wheat  flour; 
take  from  the  fish  part  of  the  water  in  which  it  was  boiled, 
leaving  it  scarcely  covered;  then  add  the  flour  and  butter,  with 
a teaspoonful  of  pepper;  dip  a bunch  of  parsley  into  boiling 
water,  cut  it  small  and  add  it  to  the  stew;  cover  it  close  for 
twenty  minutes,  and  let  it  simmer  gently;  then  take  the  fish  up 
on  a dish,  and  serve  with  the  gravy  or  sauce  over.  A sliced 
lemon  without  the  pits  may  be  added  with  the  parsley  by  those 
who  like  it.  Served  with  plain  boiled  or  mashed  potatoes. 
Black  fish  dressed  in  this  manner  is  very  delicious. 

Perch. — Clean  these  fish  well,  wash  and  wipe  them  dry, 
then  fry  them  as  directed. 

Striped  Bass. — These  fish  are  best  fried  or  boiled.  See 
directions  for  boiling  or  frying  fish. 

Halibut. — This  fish  is  fine,  whether  cut  in  steaks  and 
broiled  or  fried;  or  the  thick  part  boiled.  Fry  or  broil  as 
directed  for  codfish.  Steaks  or  fillets  cut  from  the  tail  part  are 
very  fine,  and  may  be  fried  or  broiled  more  nicely  than  any 
other. 

To  Boil  Halibut. — Take  a piece  weighing  four  or  five 
pounds,  scrape  the  skin  clean,  dredge  flour  over  it,  and  boil 
according  to  its  weight — ten  minutes  to  a pound.  Serve  with 
plain  boiled  potatoes,  and  drawn  butter,  or  egg,  or  parsley 
sauce.  Cold  boiled  halibut  may  be  served  the  same  as  codfish; 
any  of  the  sauce  which  may  remain  may  be  put  with  the  cold 
fish. 

Salmon. — When  salmon  is  fresh  and  good,  the  gills  and 
flesh  are  of  a bright  red,  the  scales  clear,  and  the  fish  stiff. 
When  first  caught,  there  is  a whiteness  between  the  flakes, 
which,  by  keeping,  melts  down,  and  the  fish  becomes  richer. 
Salmon  requires  to  be  well  broiled.  When  undergone  it  is 
unwholesome. 


592 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Broiled  Salmon. — Cut  some  slices  about  an  inch  thick, 
and  broil  them  over  a gentle,  bright  fire  of  coals  for  ten  or 
twelve  minutes.  When  both  sides  are  done,  take  them  on  to  a 
hot  dish;  butter  each  slice  well  with  sweet  butter;  strew  over 
each  a little  salt  and  pepper  to  taste,  and  serve. 

Spiced  Salmon  (Pickled). — Boil  a salmon,  and,  after 
wiping  it  dry,  set  it  to  cool;  take  of  the  water  in  which  it  was 
boiled,  and  good  vinegar  each  equal  parts,  enough  to  cover  it; 
add  to  it  one  dozen  cloves,  as  many  small  blades  of  mace,  or 
sliced  nutmeg,  one  teaspoonful  of  whole  pepper,  and  the  same 
of  allspice;  make  it  boiling  hot,  skim  it  clear,  add  a small  bit  of 
butter  (the  size  of  a small  egg),  and  pour  it  over  the  fish;  set  it 
in  a cool  place.  When  cold  it  is  fit  for  use  and  will  keep  a long 
time,  covered  close,  in  a cool  place.  Serve  instead  of  pickled 
oysters  for  supper.  A fresh  cod  is  very  nice  done  in  the  same 
manner;  as  is  also  a striped  sea  bass. 

Boiled  Salmon. — Run  a long  needle  with  a packthread 
.through  the  tail,  centre  and  head  of  a fish,  to  bring  it  in  the 
form  of  a letter  S.  Put  it  in  a fish-kettle,  with  hot  water  to 
cover  it,  and  a teaspoonful  of  salt  (cut  three  or  four  slanting 
gashes  in  each  side  of  the  fish  before  making  it  into  the  form, 
otherwise  the  skin  will  break  and  disfigure  it);  allow  ten  min- 
utes gentle  boiling  for  each  pound  of  fish.  Or  a piece  of  a 
large  fish  may  be  boiled.  Serve  with  lobster,  or  anchovey,  or 
draw  butter  sauce,  and  plain  boiled  or  mashed  potatoes. 

A Dish  of  Salt  Salmon. — Salmon  is  often  put  down  in 
brine.  It  is  to  be  soaked  and  boiled,  as  directed  for  salt  cod- 
fish, or  it  may  be  boiled  for  breakfast.  Or  pull  off  the  skin, 
and  pick  in  flakes  the  thickest  side  of  a salmon;  pour  scalding 
hot  water  over  it,  let  it  stand  for  a few  minutes;  then  pour  it 
off;  add  to  it  enough  milk  or  hot  water  to  moisten  it;  put  it 
over  the  fire  and  let  it  simmer  for  five  minutes;  then  add  a 
tablespoonful  of  butter,  shake  over  it  a little  wheat  flour  and 
pepper  to  taste,  stir  it  for  a few  minutes,  and  it  is  done.  A fine 
relish  for  breakfast  or  supper. 

Eels. — Eels,  to  be  good,  must  be  as  fresh  caught  as 
possible;  skin  them,  cut  off  the  heads,  cut  them  open  and  scrape 
them  clean  to  the  back  bone. 

For  frying  or  boiling,  the  midclle-si^ed  fat  ones  are  best; 


HOUSEHOLD. 


593 


those  caught  in  fresh  water  have  a muddy  taste,  and  should 
be  put  in  salted  water  a short  time  before  cooking.  Eels  may 
be  boiled  and  served  with  drawn  butter  or  parsley  saiice,  and 
boiled  potatoes. 

Fried  Eels. — After  cleaning  the  eels  well,  cut  them  in 
pieces  two  inches  long;  wash  them  and  wipe  them  dry;  roll 
them  in  wheat  flour  or  rolled  cracker,  and  fry  as  directed  for 
other  fish,  in  hot  lard  or  beef  dripping,  salted.  They  should  be 
browned  all  over  and  thoroughly  done. 

Fresh  Mackerel. — These  fish  to  be  good  must  be  cooked 
as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  caught.  They  may  be  broiled, 
fried,  or  baked,  the  same  as  shad — also  salted. 

Dried  Mackerel. — Take  fresh  caught  mackerel,  scale 
them  and  cut  them  down  the  back  to  the  tail;  leave  the  heads 
on;  then  hang  them  by  the  tail  in  a cool  place  to  drain;  strew 
some  salt  on  the  bottom  of  the  pan;  sprinkle  the  fish  plentifully 
with  it,  and  lay  them  two  by  two,  the  insides  together,  in  a pan ; 
let  them  lie  twelve  hours,  then  rinse  off  the  salt  and  hang  them 
to  drain  for  half  an  hour,  after  which  pepper  the  insides  a little 
and  lay  them  on  stones,  aslant  towards  the  sun,  to  dry;  take 
care  never  to  put  them  out  when  the  sun  is  not  hot  on  them, 
nor  until  the  stones  are  heated  and  dry;  lay  the  insides  to  the 
sun — they  will  be  perfectly  cured  in  one  week;  stretch  them 
open  with  two  sticks.  Or,  instead  of  drying,  after  having  pre- 
pared them  in  this  manner,  smoke  them. 

Salt  Mackerel. — Split  fresh  caught  mackerel  down  the 
back,  scrape  the  inside  clean,  spread  them  open  on  a board, 
and  strew  them  plentifully  with  salt;  then  strew  salt  over  the 
bottom  of  a tub;  lay  the  fish  two  by  two,  the  insides  together, 
and  lay  them  in  the  tub;  strew  salt  between  each  layer;  half 
coarse  and  half  fine  salt;  then  cover  them  close — put  plenty  of 
salt  above  the  last  layer  of  fish. 

To  Dress  Salt  Mackerel. — Take  mackerel  from  the  salt, 
and  lay  them  inside  downward  in  a pan  of  cold  water  for  two 
or  three  days,  change  the  water  once  or  twice,  and  scrape  the 
fish  clean  without  breaking  it.  When  fresh  enough,  wipe  one 
dry  and  hang  it  in  a cool  place;  then  fry  or  broil,  or  lay  one 
in  a shallow  pan,  the  inside  of  the  fish  down;  cover  it  with  hot 
water/  and  set  it  pver  a gentle  fire  or  in  an  oven  for  twelve  o >.? 


594 


HOUSEHOLD. 


fifteen  minutes;  then  pour  off  the  water,  turn  the  fish,  put  bits 
of  butter  in  the  pan,  and  over  the  fish,  sprinkle  with  pepper, 
and  let  it  fry  for  five  minutes,  then  dish  it. 

Trout. — These  may  be  stewed,  fried,  boiled,  or  baked. 

Pike  or  Pickerel. — These  may  be  stewed,  fried  or 
broiled. 

There  are  many  more  fine  fish  not  mentioned  herein,  but  as 
the  process  of  stewing,  boiling,  broiling,  and  frying  is  very 
nearly  the  same  for  all  sorts  of  fish,  it  does  not  seem  necessary 
to  mention  more. 

Herrings. — These  are  eaten  in  three  varieties — fresh, 
salted,  smoked,  or  red  herrings.  Salted  herrings  are  to  be 
soaked  in  clean  water  before  boiling,  the  same  as  mackerel. 
Red  herrings  are  to  be  skinned,  split  in  two,  and  the  insides 
and  the  backbone  to  be  taken  out;  or  they  may  first  be  broiled, 
then  skinned.  To  cook  fresh  herrings,  scale  and  prepare  them 
the  same  as  any  other  fish. 

Chowder. — Slice  some  salt  pork  very  thin,  strew  it  over 
with  onions  chopped  small,  and  some  fine  pepper;  then  cut  a 
haddock,  fresh  cod,  or  any  other  firm  fish,  in  thin  steaks;  take 
out  the  bones;  lay  some  of  the  sliced  pork  at  the  bottom  of 
the  kettle  with  some  of  the  seasoning;  then  put  a layer  of  fish, 
then  put  over  some  soaked  crackers  or  biscuit,  then  another 
layer  of  the  seasoned  pork,  after  which  fish  and  crackers  and  a 
few  bits  of  butter,  and  so  on  alternately,  pork,  fish  and  crack- 
ers, until  the  kettle  is  two-thirds  full;  then  put  in  about  a pint 
of  water,  and  cover  the  pot  with  a thick  iron  cover  with  a rim; 
set  it  over  a gentle  fire,  put  coals  and  ashes  on  the  cover,  and 
bake  two  or  three  hours,  or  more,  if  the  pot  is  large.  When 
done,  turn  it  out  on  a dish  and  serve  with  pickles.  It  may  be 
baked  in  an  oven. 

Shell  Fish. — To  Choose  Lobsters. — These  are  chosen 
more  by  weight  than  size;  the  heaviest  are  best.  A good  small 
sized  one  will  not  unfrequently  be  found  to  weigh  as  heavily 
as  one  much  larger.  If  fresh,  a lobster  will  be  found  lively, 
and  the  claws  have  a strong  motion  when  the  eyes  are  pressed 
with  the  finger.  Hen  lobsters  are  preferred  for  sauce  or  salad, 
on  account  of  their  coral.  The  head  and  small  claws  are 
never  used. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


595 


To  Boil  Lobsters. — Put  in  a large  kettle  water  enough  to 
cover  the  lobster,  and  salt — a dessertspoonful  to  a quart  of 
water;  when  it  boils  fast  put  in  the  lobster,  head  first,  which 
kills  it  instantly;  keep  boiling  briskly  for  half  an  hour,  then 
take  it  from  the  water  with  the  tongs  and  lay  it  to  drain;  wipe 
off  the  scum  from  it  and  rub  it  over  with  a bit  of  butter  tied 
in  a cloth,  or  some  sweet  oil;  break  off  the  large  claws,  and 
crack  each  shell  without  shattering,  but  so  that  they  may  come 
easily  to  pieces;  lay  a napkin  on  a large  steak  dish;  with  a 
sharp  knife  split  the  body  from  head  to  tail,  and  lay  it  open  on 
the  napkin;  put  a large  claw  at  either  end,  and  serve  with 
melted  butter  sauce.  Or  else  take  out  all  the  meat  from  the 
shells,  and  lay  it  neatly  on  a dish,  and  serve  with  melted  butter. 

Lobster  Salad. — Break  apart  one  or  two  heads  of  white 
heart  lettuce,  lay  the  leaves  in  cold  water,  rinse  them  well,  then 
shake  the  water  from  each  leaf,  and  lay  them,  the  largest  first, 
in  a salad  bowl,  the  stalk  inwards.  Lay  the  delicate  small 
leaves  around  the  edge;  or  cut  it  all  small  before  putting  it 
in  the  bowl. 

Having  boiled  a hen  lobster,  take  the  meat  from  the  shell 
and  cut  it  small;  rub  the  coral  to  a smooth  paste,  with  the  green 
inside  if  liked,  and  a tablespoonful  of  oil  or  melted  butter; 
add  to  it  a teaspoonful  of  made  mustard,  and  a saltspoonful  of 
black  pepper;  add  a gill  of  sharp  vinegar;  stir  it  smooth,  then 
mix  it  with  the  minced  lobster  and  salad,  and  serve  with  cold 
butter  and  crackers  or  rolls.  The  lobster  and  dressing  must 
not  be  put  with  the  lettuce  until  ready  to  serve. 

To  Choose  Crabs. — If  fresh,  the  joints  of  the  claws  will 
be  stiff,  and  the  inside  have  an  agreeable  smell;  the  heaviest  for 
their  size  are  best;  the  light  ones  are  watery.  Crabs  are  stale 
when  the  eyes  look  dull. 

To  Boil  Crabs. — Have  a pot  of  boiling  water  in  which  is 
salt  (a  tablespoonful  to  the  quart),  throw  the  crabs  in  and  keep 
them  boiling  briskly  for  twelve  minutes,  if  large;  then  take 
them  out,  wipe  the  shells  clean,  and  rub  them  over  with  a bit 
of  butter;  break  off  the  small  claws,  spread  a napkin  on  a 
large  dish,  and  lay  the  crabs  on  it  in  regular  rows,  beginning  at 
the  outside.  Serve  with  cold  butter  and  rolls. 


596 


HOUSEHOLD. 


To  Boil  Soft  Shell  Clams. — Wash  the  shells  clean,  and 
put  the  clams,  edges  downwards,  in  a kettle;  then  pour  about 
a quart  of  boiling  water  over  them;  cover  the  pot  and  set  it 
over  a brisk  fire  for  three  quarters  of  an  hour.  Pouring  boil- 
ing water  over  them  causes  the  shells  to  open  quickly  and  let 
out  the  sand  which  may  be  in  them.  Take  them  up  when 
done;  take  off  the  black  skin  which  covers  the  hard  part,  trim 
them  clean,  and  put  them  in  a stewpan;  put  to  them  some  of 
the  liquor  in  which  they  were  boiled;  put  to  it  a good  bit  of 
butter,  and  pepper  and  salt  to  taste;  make  them  hot;  serve 
with  cold  butter  and  rolls. 

To  Fry  Soft  Shell  Clams. — Get  them  from  the  shell, 
as  they  are  very  troublesome  to  clean;  wash  them  in  plenty  of 
water,  and  lay  them  on  a thickly  folded  napkin  to  dry  out  the 
water;  then  roll  a few  at  a time  in  wheat  flour,  until  they  will 
take  up  no  more;  have  a thick  bottomed  frying  pan  one-third 
full  of  boiling  hot  lard,  and  salted  (in  proportion,  a tablespoon- 
ful of  salt  to  a pound  of  lard);  lay  the  clams  in  with  a fork,  one 
at  a time;  lay  them  close  together  and  fry  gently,  until  one  side 
is  a delicate  brown;  then  turn  carefully  and  brown  the  other; 
then  take  them  off  on  a hot  dish.  When  fried  properly,  these 
clams  are  very  excellent. 

Hard  Shell  Clams. — Hard  shell  clams  may  be  prepared 
for  table  in  a variety  of  ways.  The  sand  clams,  either  large 
or  small,  are  preferable  to  any  other,  being  whiter  and  more 
tender.  Those  called  Quahogs  are  least  delicate  eating  of  all. 

To  Boil  Hard  Shell  Clams. — Wash  the  shells  until  they 
are  perfectly  clean,  then  put  them  into  a kettle,  with  the  edges 
downwards;  add  a pint  of  water,  cover  the  pot  and  set  it  over 
a brisk  fire;  when  the  shells  open  wide  they  are  done.  Half 
an  hour  is  generally  enough  for  them;  if  a strong  taste  to  the 
juice  is  not  liked,  put  more  than  a pint  of  water  to  them.  When 
done,  take  the  clams  from  the  shells  into  a deep  dish;  put  to 
them  some  of  the  juice,  a good  bit  of  butter,  and  some  pepper, 
or  toast  some  thin  slices  of  bread,  butter  them  and  cut  them 
small,  and  put  them  in  the  dish  before  putting  in  the  clams  and 
juice. 

Stewed  Clams. — Take  fifty  large  sand  clams  from  their 


HOUSEHOLD. 


597 


shells,  and  put  to  them  their  own  liquor  and  water  in  equal 
parts,  nearly  to  cover  them;  put  them  in  a stewpan  over  a 
gentle  fire  for  half  an  hour;  take  off  any  scum  as  it  rises,  then 
add  to  them  a teacup  of  butter  in  which  is  worked  a table- 
spoonful of  wheat  flour,  and  pepper  to  taste;  cover  the  stew- 
pan,  and  let  them  simmer  for  fifteen  minutes  longer,  then  serve. 
Pour  it  over  toast  if  preferred.  Substituting  milk  for  water 
makes  them  more  delicate  and  white.  Any  other  than  sand 
clams,  require  one  hour  to  stew;  that  is,  three-quarters  of  an 
hour  before  putting  in  the  seasoning. 

Fried  Hard  Shell  Clams. — Get  the  large  sand  clams; 
wash  them  in  their  own  liquor;  dip  them  in  wheat  flour  or 
rolled  crackers,  as  may  be  preferred,  and  fry  in  hot  lard  or  beef 
dripping,  without  salt;  or  dip  each  one  in  batter  made  as  for 
clam  fritters. 

Clam  Chowder. — Butter  a deep  tin  basin,  strew  it  thickly 
with  grated  bread  crumbs  or  soaked  crackers;  sprinkle  some 
pepper  over,  and  bits  of  butter  the  size  of  a hickory  nut,  and, 
if  liked,  some  finely  chopped  parsley;  then  put  a double  layer 
of  clams,  season  with  pepper,  put  bits  of  butter  over,  then 
another  layer  of  soaked  cracker;  after  that  clams  and  bits  of 
butter;  sprinkle  pepper  over,  add  a cup  of  milk  or  water,  and 
lastly  a layer  of  soaked  crackers.  Turn  a plate  over  the  basin, 
and  bake  in  a hot  oven  for  three-quarters  of  an.  hour;  use  half 
a pound  of  soda  biscuit,  and  a quarter  of  a pound  of  butter 
with  fifty  clams. 

Oysters. — Oysters  must  be  fresh  and  fat  to  be  good.  They 
are  in  season  from  September  to  May. 

The  small  ones,  such  as  are  sold  by  the  quart,  are  good  for 
pies,  fritters,  or  stews;  the  largest  of  this  sort  are  nice  for  fry- 
ing or  pickling  for  family  use. 

Oyster  FRITTERS.-Take  a quart  of  oysters  from  their  own 
liquor,  strain  it  and  add  to  it  half  a pint  of  milk  and  two  well 
beaten  eggs,  stir  in  it  by  degrees  flour  enough  to  make  a smooth 
but  rather  thin  batter;  when  perfectly  free  from  lumps  put  the 
oysters  to  it,  have  some  lard  or  beef  dripping  made  hot  in  a 
frying  pan,  salt  it  a little,  and  when  it  is  boiling  hot  put  in  the 
butter  with  a large  spoon,  having  one  or  more  oysters  in  each; 


598 


HOUSEHOLD. 


hold  it  over  a gentle  fire  until  one  side  is  a delicate  brown — 
turn  each  fritter  separately.  When  both  sides  are  done,  take 
them  on  a hot  dish  and  serve  for  breakfast  or  supper. 

Fried  Oysters. — Take  large  oysters  from  their  own  liquor 
into  a thickly  folded  napkin  to  dry  them  off;  then  make  a 
tablespoonful  of  lard  or  beef  fat  hot,  in  a thick-bottomed  fry- 
ing pan,  add  to  it  a half  saltspoonful  of  salt;  dip  each  oyster 
in  wheat  flour,  or  cracker  rolled  fine,  until  it  will  take  up  no 
more,  then  lay  them  in  the  pan,  hold  it  over  a gentle  fire  until 
one  side  is  a delicate  brown;  turn  the  other  by  sliding  a fork 
under  it;  five  minutes  will  fry  them  after  they  are  in  the  pan. 
Oysters  may  be  fried  in  butter,  but  it  is  not  so  good;  lard  and 
butter  half  and  half  is  very  nice  for  frying.  Some  persons  like 
a very  little  of  the  oyster  liquor  poured  in  the  pan  after  the 
oysters  are  done;  let  it  boil  up,  then  put  it  in  the  dish  with  the 
oysters;  when  wanted  for  breakfast  this  should  be  done. 

Broiled  Oysters. — Take  the  large  oysters  from  their  own 
liquor,  lay  them  on  a folded  napkin  to  dry  off  the  moisture, 
then  dip  each  one  in  wheat  flour  or  rolled  cracker,  or  first  into 
beaten  egg  and  then  into  rolled  cracker;  have  a gridiron  made 
of  coarse  wire,  put  it  over  a bright  but  not  fierce  fire  of  coals, 
lay  the  oysters  carefully  on;  when  one  side  is  done  turn  the 
other,  put  some  sweet  butter  on  a hot  plate,  sprinkle  a little 
pepper  over,  lay  the  oysters  on  and  serve  with  crackers. 

To  Stew  Oysters. — Put  the  oysters  with  the  broth  to  boil, 
and  when  they  begin  to  curl,  skim  them  out  of  the  kettle  into 
a pan  of  cold  water;  let  them  lie  in  the  water  until  the  broth 
has  been  skimmed  and  seasoned  with  butter,  salt  and  pepper, 
add  mace  if  you  like;  then  drain  off  the  water  and  return  the 
oysters  to  the  broth.  When  they  begin  to  boil  up  again  they 
are  ready  to  serve,  and  will  be  found  to  be  more  plump  and 
hard  by  the  process. 

Griddled  Oysters. — Heat  a griddle  very  hot,  butter  it 
and  lay  oysters  all  over  it;  when  brown  on  one  side,  turn  as 
you  do  griddle  cakes.  They  should  be  washed  first  from  the 
liquor,  and  this  must  be  boiled  and  skimmed,  and  turned  over 
the  oysters  when  served,  first  seasoning  it  with  butter,  salt  and 
pepper;  serve  on  bread  or  cracker  toast. 

Panned  Oysters. — Take  the  oysters  from  their  liquor,  and 


HOUSEHOLD. 


599 


put  them  in  a saucepan  or  spider  that  is  hot.  Let  them  cook 
quickly,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  a little  butter,  and 
lay  upon  toast.  A little  juice  will  exude  from  the  oysters  while 
cooking,  which  will  keep  them  from  getting  too  dry,  and  they 
will  prove  very  palatable  to  all  who  will  try  it. 

To  Fry  Oysters  with  Batter. — Take  fine  large  oysters, 
beat  as  many  eggs  with  cream  (say  two  eggs  to  a cup  of  cream) 
as  will  moisten  all  the  oysters  required;  dip  the  oyster  thor- 
oughly into  this  r ‘xture  and  then  cover  well  with  cracker 
• crumbs  which  have  been  seasoned  with  salt,  pepper  and  a lit- 
tle mace,  if  desired.  Put  into  your  frying  pan  or  spider  equal 
quantities  of  butter  and  lard,  and  when  hot  fry  the  prepared 
oysters  to  a delicate  brown  tint  and  serve  hot.  If  preferred, 
add  three  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  to  the  eggs  and  cream,  and 
omit  the  cracker  crumbs. 

Oysters  Broiled  on  the  Shell. — The  oysters  should 
be  of  the  largest  size.  Clean  the  shells  with  a stiff  brush,  then 
open  and  save  the  juice;  turn  boiling  water  over  the  oysters 
for  only  a minute  or  two;  drain  it  off,  and  lay  the  oysters  on 
one-half  of  the  shell,  putting  it  on  a well-heated  gridiron 
over  a very  hot  fire.  Boil  the  liquor  that  came  from  the  oys- 
ters when  opened,  add  it  to  the  shell  with  a sprinkle  of  salt; 
pepper,  and  a bit  of  butter,  serve  hot  on  the  shells,  laid  on 
large  platters. 

Unsurpassed  Fricasseed  Oysters. — For  one  can  of  oysters 
use  one  pint  of  thin  cream;  clean  all  the  liquor  from  the  oys- 
ters and  put  them  over  steam  until  hot;  at  the  same  time 
thicken  the  cream  with  flour  and  season  with  salt,  pepper  and 
a small  pinch  of  mace,  and  the  same  of  cinnamon  and  a very 
little  butter;  cook  this  well,  and  when  done  thoroughly,  add  to 
it  the  liquor  of  the  oysters  which  has  been  scalded  and  well 
skimmed  until  clear;  then  add  the  oysters,  letting  them  remain 
just  long  enough  to  get  plump  (if  left  too  long  they  grow 
tough).  Have  ready  some  toast  on  a platter  and  pour  the 
whole  over  it,  or  have  leaves  and  triangles  of  rich  paste  around 
the  dish  and  partially  moistened  by  the  fricassee.  Your  plat- 
ter must  be  very  hot,  as  fricasseed  oysters  chill  like  a new- 
born baby. 

Oyster  Pie. — Two  cans  of  oysters,  or  three  pints  of  solid 


600 


HOUSEHOLD. 


oysters,  one  quart  of  cream,  one  dozen  rolled  crackers,  pepper, 
salt,  etc.  Stir  all  together  and  pour  into  a dish  lined  with 
thick  puff  paste,  cover  with  another  paste  and  bake  three-quar- 
ters of  an  hour.  This  is  a delicious  mode  of  cooking  oysters. 

Oyster  Patties. — Put  the  oysters  in  a saucepan  with 
enough  of  the  liquor  to  cover  them;  let  them  come  to  a boil, 
skim  well,  add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  butter  for  one  quart  of 
oysters,  season  with  pepper  and  a little  salt.  Two  or  three 
spoonfuls  of  cream  will  add  to  the  richness.  Have  ready 
small  tins  lined  with  puff-paste;  put  three  or  four  oyster  in 
each,  according  to  the  size  of  the  patty;  cover  with  paste  and 
bake  in  a quick  oven  twenty  minutes;  when  done  wash  over 
the  top  with  beaten  egg  and  set  in  the  oven  for  two  minutes  to 
glaze. 

Scalloped  Oysters. — Have  plenty  of  fine  crushed  cracker 
crumbs — either  soda  or  butter  crackers;  put  a layer  in  the  bot- 
tom of  a buttered  pudding  dish;  wet  slightly  with  oyster  liquor 
and  milk,  mixed;  next  a layer  of  oysters;  season  with  salt  and 
pepper  and  small  bits  of  butter;  then  more  crumbs  and  oys- 
ters, alternately,  until  the  dish  is  full.  Let  the  top  layer  be  of 
crumbs.  Beat  an  egg  and  mix  it  with  a little  milk  to  pour  over 
the  top;  place  little  lumps  of  flour  all  over  the  top,  cover  the 
dish  and  bake  half  an  hour;  remove  the  cover  a few  minutes 
before  taking  from  the  oven  to  let  it  brown. 

Chicken  and  Oyster  Croquettes. — Take  equal  quanti- 
ties of  chicken  and  oysters,  chopped  fine,  with  a cup  of  sifted 
bread  crumbs  and  a piece  of  butter;  season  with  salt  and  pep- 
per, and,  if  liked,  a little  mace.  Moisten  with  one  or  two  well 
beaten  eggs.  Form  into  long,  slender  rolls,  and  fry  in  lard  to 
a light  brown;  serve  on  a napkin,  and  garnish  with  celery  tops 
or  parsley,  and  slices  of  lemon. 

Pickled  Oysters. — Strain  the  liquor  from  the  oysters;  boil 
and  skim  until  clear;  drop  in  the  oysters  and  let  them  come  to 
a boil;  skim  them  out  and  put  them  in  a jar.  Take  about  half  the 
liquor  remaining,  add  vinegar  until  it  tastes  sharp,  a few  whole 
cloves  and  allspice;  boil  and  pour  over  the  oysters  hot;  cover 
them  and  let  them  stand  two  or  three  days  before  using.  If 
you  wish  to  use  them  any  sooner  take  a little  more  vinegar. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


601 


Sauces  and  Salads. — The  foundation  for  a large  proportion 
of  sauces  is  in  what  the  French  cook  knows  as  a roux , and  we 
as  “drawn  butter.”  As  our  drawn  butter  is  often  lumpy,  or 
with  the  taste  of  the  raw  flour,  we  give  the  French  method  as 
a security  against  such  disaster. 

To  Make  a Roux. — Melt  in  a saucepan  a piece  of  butter 
the  size  of  an  egg,  and  add  two  even  tablespoonfuls  of  sifted 
flour;  one  ounce  of  butter  to  two  of  flour  being  a safe  rule. 
Stir  till  smooth,  and  pour  in  slowly  one  pint  of  milk,  or  milk 
and  water,  or  water  alone.  With  milk  it  is  called  cream  roux , 
and  is  used  for  boiled  fish  and  poultry.  Where  the  butter  and 
flour  are  allowed  to  brown,  it  is  called  a brow?i  roux , and  is 
thinned  with  the  soup  or  stew  which  it  is  designed  to  thicken. 
Capers  added  to  a white  roux — which  is  the  butter  and  flour, 
with  water  added — give  caper  sauce  for  use  with  boiled  mutton. 
Pickled  nasturtiums  are  a good  substitute  for  capers.  Two 
hard-boiled  eggs,  cut  fine,  give  egg  sauce.  Chopped  parsley 
or  pickle,  and  the  variety  of  catsups  and  sauces,  make  an  end- 
less variety;  the  white  roux  being  the  basis  for  all  of  them. 

Bread  Sauce. — For  this  sauce  boil  one  pint  of  milk, 
with  one  onion  Cut  in  pieces.  When  it  has  boiled  five  min- 
utes, take  out  the  onion,  and  thicken  the  milk  with  half  a pint 
of  sifted  bread-crumbs.  Melt  a teaspoonful  of  butter  in  a 
frying-pan;  put  in  half  a pint  of  coarser  crumbs,,  stirring  them 
till  a light  brown.  Flavor  the  sauce  with  half  a teaspoonful 
of  salt,  a saltspoonful  of  pepper,  and  a grate  of  nutmeg;  and 
serve  with  game,  helping  a spoonful  of  the  sauce  and  one  of 
the  browned  crumbs.  The  boiled  onion  may  be  minced  fine 
and  added,  and  the  browned  crumbs  omitted. 

Celery  Sauce. — Wash  and  boil  a small  head  of  celery, 
which  has  been  cut  up  fine,  in  one  pint  of  water,  with  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  Boil  till  tender,  which  will  require  about 
half  an  hour.  Make  a cream  roux , using  half  a pint  of  milk, 
and  adding  a quarter  of  a saltspoonful  of  white  pepper.  Stir 
into  the  celery;  boil  a moment,  and  serve.  A teaspoonful  of 
celery  salt  can  be  used,  if  celery  is  out  of  season,  adding  to  i . 
the  full  rule  for  cream  roux.  Cauliflower  may  be  used  in  the 
same  way  as  celery,  cutting  it  very  fine,  and  adding  a large 
cupful  to  the  sauce.  Use  either  with  boiled  meats. 


602 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Mint  Sauce. — Look  over  and  strip  off  the  leaves  and 
cut  them  as  fine  as  possible  with  a sharp  knife.  Use  none  of 
the  stalk  but  the  tender  tips.  To  a cupful  of  chopped  mint 
allow  an  equal  quantity  of  sugar,  and  half  a cup  of  good  vine- 
gar. It  should  stand  an  hour  before  using. 

Cranberry  Sauce. — Wash  one  quart  of  cranberries  in 
warm  water,  and  pick  them  over  carefully.  Put  them  in  a 
porcelain-lined  kettle,  with  one  pint  of  cold  water  and  one 
pint  of  sugar,  and  cook  without  stirring  for  half  an  hour,  turn- 
ing then  into  molds.  This  is  the  simplest  method.  They  can 
be  strained  through  a sieve,  and  put  in  bowls,  forming  a 
marmalade,  which  can  be  cut  in  slices  when  cold;  or  the 
berries  can  be  crushed  with  a spoon  while  boiling,  but  left 
unstrained. 

Egg  Sauce. — Cut  up  three  hard  boiled  eggs  in  small  dice, 
salt,  pepper,  minced  onions  (one  teaspoonful),  parsley  and 
thyme;  add  all  these  to  the  drawn  butter  recipe.  It  is  very 
nice  for  boiled  chickens,  fish  or  leg  of  mutton. 

Oyster  Sauce. — Scald  one  pint  of  large  fresh  oysters  just 
enough  to  plump  them,  adding  a tablespoonful  of  pepper, 
vinegar,  a little  black  pepper  and  salt;  pour  this  into  a recipe 
of  well  made  drawn  butter  (as  above)  at  boiling  point;  stir 
thoroughly,  and  serve. 

Tomato  Sauce. — Scald  and  peel  six  large,  ripe  tomatoes; 
cut  them  up  and  stew  slowly;  cream  together  one  tablespoon - 
ful  of  butter,  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar,  one  tablespoonful  of 
flour;  when  the  tomatoes  are  thoroughly  done  and  reduced  to 
a fine  pulp,  add  pepper  and  salt;  stir  the  butter,  sugar  and  flour 
in;  let  boil  up,  and  serve.  In  winter  this  sauce  may  be  made 
from  nice  canned  tomatoes. 

Pepper  Vinegar. — Fill  a quart  bottle  or  jar  with  small 
peppers,  either  green  or  ripe;  put  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
sugar  and  fill  with  good  cider  vinegar.  Invaluable  in  season- 
ing sauces,  and  good  to  eat  with  fish  or  meat. 

Chili  Sauce. — Twelve  ripe  tomatoes,  four  ripe  peppers, 
two  onions,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  salt,  two  of  sugar,  three  tea- 
cups of  vinegar,  a little  cinnamon,  chopped  tomatoes,  peppers 
and  onions,  very  fine;  boil  one  hour. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


603 


White  Sauce  for  Fowls. — Take  the  neck,  gizzard  and 
liver  of  fowls,  with  a piece  of  veal  or  calf’s  foot;  boil  in  one 
quart  of  water  with  a few  whole  peppers,  and  salt,  till  reduced 
to  one  pint;  then  thicken  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour 
mixed  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter;  boil  five  or  six  min- 
utes; have  ready  the  yolks  of  two  eggs  beaten  with  one  teacup 
of  cream  from  the  morning’s  milk;  pour  into  the  saucepan  and 
shake  a moment  until  done. 

Mushroom  Sauce. — Wash  and  pick  one  pint  of  fresh 
mushrooms  (or  one  can  of  French  mushrooms),  put  in  a sauce- 
pan with  a little  salt,  nutmeg  (three  grates),  one  blade  of  mace, 
one  pint  of  very  sweet  cream,  a lump  of  butter  (size  of  a pullet’s 
egg)  rubbed  in  one  teaspoonful  of  flour;  boil  up,  stir  until 
cooked,  and  serve  with  chickens. 

Horse-radish  Sauce. — One  teacupful  of  grated  horse- 
radish, one  tablespoonful  of  ground  mustard,  one  tablespoonful 
of  sugar,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar  and  one  of  olive  oil, 
pepper  and  salt. 

Mint  Vinegar. — Take  a glass  can  and  put  loosely  into  it 
enough  nice,  clean  mint  leaves  to  fill  it;  then  pour  over  enough 
good  vinegar  to  fill  the  bottle  full.  Cork  tight  and  let  stand 
for  three  weeks;  then  pour  off  into  another  bottle  and  keep  to 
flavor  mint  sauce,  etc. 

Dutch  Sauce. — For  Fish. — One-half  teaspoonful  of  flour, 
two  ounces  of  butter,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar — tarragon 
vinegar  is  best — yolks  of  two  eggs,  juice  of  half  a lemon,  salt  to 
the  taste.  Put  all  the  ingredients  except  the  lemon  juice  into  a 
stewpan.  Set  it  over  the  fire  and  stir  constantly  until  it  heats 
(but  not  boils).  Scald  the  lemon. 

Meats. — Beef. — The  best  beef  is  of  a clear  red  color, 
slightly  marbled  with  fat,  and  the  fat  itself  of  a clear  white. 
Where  the  beef  is  dark  red  or  bluish,  and  the  fat  yellow,  it  is 
too  old,  or  too  poorly  fed,  to  be  good.  The  sirloin  and  ribs, 
especially  the  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth,  make  the  best  roast- 
ing pieces.  The  ribs  can  be  removed  and  used  for  stock,  and 
the  beef  rolled  oi  skewered  firmly,  making  a piece  very  easily 
carved,  and  almost  as  presentable  the  second  day  as  the  first. 
For  steaks  sirloin  is  nearly  as  good,  and  much  more  economi- 
37 


604 


HOUSEHOLD. 


cal,  than  porter-house,  which  gives  only  a small  eatable  por- 
tion, the  remainder  being  only  fit  for  the  stock-pot.  If  the 
beef  be  very  young  and  tender,  steaks  from  the  round  may  be 
used;  but  these  are  usually  best  stewed.  Other  pieces  and 
modes  of  cooking  are  given  under  their  respective  heads. 

Mutton. — Mutton  should  be  a light,  clear  red,  and  the  fat 
very  white  and  firm.  It  is  always  improved  by  keeping,  and 
in  cold  weather  can  be  hung  for  a month,  if  carefully  watched 
to  see  that  it  has  not  become  tainted.  Treated  in  this  way, 
well-fed  mutton  is  equal  to  venison.  If  the  fat  is  deep  yellow, 
and  the  lean  dark  red,  the  animal  is  too  old;  and  no  keeping 
will  make  it  really  good  eating.  Four  years  is  considered  the 
best  age  for  prime  mutton. 

Pork. — Pork  should  have  fine,  white  fat,  and  the  meat 
should  be  white  and  smooth.  Only  country-fed  pork  should 
ever  |be  eaten,  the  pig  even  then  being  liable  to  diseases 
unknown  to  other  animals,  and  the  meat,  even  when  carefully 
fed,  being  at  all  times  less  digestible  than  any  sort.  Bacon, 
carefully  cured  and  smoked,  is  considered  its  most  wholesome 
form. 

Poultry. — Poultry  come  last.  The  best  turkeys  have  black 
legs;  and,  if  young,  the  toes  and  bills  are  soft  and  pliable. 
The  combs  of  fowls  should  be  bright  colored,  and  the  legs 
smooth. 

Geese,  if  young  and  fine,  are  plump  in  the  breast,  have 
white,  soft  fat,  and  yellow  feet. 

Ducks  are  chosen  by  the  same  rule  as  geese,  and  are  firm 
and  thick  on  the  breast. 

Pigeons  should  be  fresh,  the  breast  plump,  and  the  feet 
elastic.  Only  experience  can  make  one  familiar  with  other 
signs;  and  a good  butcher  can  usually  be  trusted  to  tide  one 
over  the  season  of  experience,  though  the  sooner  it  ends  the 
better  for  all  parties  concerned. 

Boiled  Meats  and  Stews. — All  meats  intended  to  be  boiled 
and  served  whole  at  table  must  be  put  into  boiling  water,  thus 
following  an  entirely  opposite  rule  from  those  intended  for 
soups.  In  the  latter,  the  object  being  to  extract  all  the  juice, 


HOUSEHOLD. 


605 


cold  water  must  be  used  first,  and  then  heated  with  the  meat 
in  it,  and  half  an  hour  to  the  pound  allowed.  In  the  former, 
all  the  juice  is  to  be  kept  in;  and  by  putting  into  boiling  water, 
the  albumen  of  the  meat  hardens  on  the  surface  and  makes  a 
case  or  coating  for  the  meat,  which  accomplishes  this  end. 
Where  something  between  a soup  and  a plain  boiled  meat  is 
desired,  as  in  beef  bouilli , the  meat  is  put  on  in  cold  water, 
which  is  brought  to  a boil  very  quickly,  thus  securing  good 
gravy,  yet  not  robbing  the  meat  of  all  its  juices.  With  corned 
or  salted  meats,  tongue,  etc.,  cold  water  must  be  used.  If  to 
be  eaten  cold,  such  meats  should  always  be  allowed  to  cool  in 
the  water  in  which  they  were  boiled;  and  this  water,  if  not  too 
gait,  can  be  used  for  dried  bean  or  pea  soup. 

Boiled  Meats. — In  boiling  meat,  simply  for  the  meat’s 
sake,  or  the  use  of  it,  you  follow  an  opposite  rule,  in  the 
beginning,  from  that  in  regard  to  boiling  meat  for  soup.  You 
put  it  into  boiling,  instead  of  cold,  water. 

Cold  water  draws  the  juice  of  meat,  which  is  precisely  what 
you  want  in  broth  and  soup.  Boiling  water  contracts  and 
coagulates  the  surface,  and  keeps  in  the  juice;  which  again  is 
precisely  what  you  want. 

Certain  preparations  of  meats,  however,  which  are,  in  char- 
acter, between  a soup  and  a boiled  dish,  as  will  appear  in 
detail,  are  covered  at  first  with  cold  water,  and  then  brought 
to  a quick  boil.  This  method  steers  between  the  two  results, 
and  secures  at  once  a good  gravy  and  an  eatable,  nourishing 
piece  of  meat.  Corn  and  salted  meats  are  put  on  to  boil  in 
cold  water. 

Beef  Bouilli. — This  is  one  of  the  dishes,  just  now  referred 
to,  which  comes  between  a soup  and  a simple  boiled  meat.  It 
is,  in  fact,  merely  a whole  stew. 

Take  a nice  round  of  fresh  meat.  Trim  off  almost  all  the 
fat — all  the  gristle  and  hard,  outside,  scrappy  bits — and  take 
out  the  bone.  Wash  it,  and  lay  it  in  a deep  stew-pan,  or  soup- 
pot;  cover  it  once  and  a half  with  cold  water,  and  set  it  on  the 
fire  where  it  will  come  quickly  to  a boil.  Take  off  the  scum 
carefully,  as  it  rises.  Cut  up  in  small  bits  and  slices  two  car- 
rots, two  small  turnips,  or  one  large  one,  two  onions,  and  a 
large  head,  or  two  small  ones,  of  celery.  If  you  have 


606 


HOUSEHOLD. 


no  celery,  you  can  do  without  it  by  adding  celery 
seed  or  celery  salt  to  the  spicing.  When  the  scum  is  well 
removed,  put  in  some  vegetables  and  set  the  pot  where  it  will 
only  boil,  or  simmer,  very  gently,  yet  steadily,  like  soup.  Scat- 
ter in  a dozen  whole  cloves.  Keep  closely  covered.  Allow 
four  hours;  cook  it  till  quite  tender.  One  hour  before  it  is 
done,  put  in  a teaspoonful  of  made  mustard,  a large 
spoonful  of  any  fine  catsup  or  sauce,  and  a gill  or  more  of  wine 
if  you  choose.  Still  keep  closely  covered.  When  the  beef  is 
done,  take  it  carefully  on  a deep  dish,  hot,  and  set  it  near  the 
fire  until  you  finish  your  gravy.  Do  this  by  stirring  in  a little 
smooth  flour  thickening.  Prepare  two  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  to 
a quart,  mixed  with  a little  cold  water,  and  added  gradually, 
till  you  are  sure  you  want  it  all.  The  vegetables  will  already 
have  partly  thickened  the  soup.  Boil  up  and  turn  over  the 
meat. 

Scatter  some  bits  of  nice  mixed  pickles — cauliflower,  sliced 
gherkin,  with  bits  of  some  red  pickle  for  the  color — over  the 
meat,  before  it  goes  to  table. 

Corned  Beef. — Salted  and  corned  meats  are  put  to  boil 
in  cold  water. 

Buy  corned  beef  from  the  round  of  a large,  well-fed  crea- 
ture. Put  to  soak  over  night  in  cold  water.  Early  in  the 
morning  wash  and  wipe,  and  put  into  the  pot  to  boil.  Cover 
twice  deep  with  cold  water,  and  set  where  it  will  heat  up 
gradually  and  come  to  a very  gentle  boil.  Take  the  scum 
off  as  it  comes  up.  Boil  four  hours — a large  solid  piece  may 
take  from  four  to  five — and  be  sure  that  it  is  tender  when  you 
take  it  off.  If  it  is  to  be  served  hot  for  dinner,  cook  it  in  time 
to  allow  of  removing  it  from  the  flour  and  letting  it  stand  in  the 
liquor  it  was  boiled  in  until  cooled  down  from  the  boil  as  far 
as  will  still  be  palatable.  This  makes  it  richer  and  more  ten- 
der. Make  a smooth  drawn  butter  sauce  to  eat  v/ith  it. 

If  it  is  to  be  eaten  cold,  take  it  from  the  fire  and  from  the 
pot  as  soon  as  done.  With  a knife  and  fork,  chiefly  with  the 
fork,  divide  and  shred  it  into  small  pieces;  mix  these,  fat  and 
lean  — disregarding  all  undesirable  bits — equally  together; 
pack  all  down  into  a pan;  set  a pan,  just  a little  smaller,  inside, 
upon  the  meat,  so  as  to  press  it  down,  and  put  a heavy  weight 


HOUSEHOLD. 


607 


— flatirons  answer  the  purpose  very  well — into  the  upper  pan, 
and  set  all  away  for  some  hours,  or  over  night.  It  will  cut  in 
delicious,  tender,  marbled  slices,  and  is  excellent  for  a Sunday 
lunch  with  hot  vegetables. 

Boiled  Tongue. — Smoked  tongue  is  best. 

Wash,  and  lay  in  cold  water  over  night.  Put  on  to  boil  in 
cold  water,  and  boil,  not  furiously,  but  steadily,  for  four  hours. 
Take  out,  peel  off  the  skin,  and  put  back  into  the  hot  liquor, 
and  set  away  to  grow  cold.  It  may  remain  in  the  water 
through  the  rest  of  the  day  and  over  night,  if  not  wanted  sooner. 
Cut  tongue  in  lengthwise  slices,  beginning  at  the  outside  of  the 
bend.  This  makes  a wonderful  difference  in  tenderness  and 
flavor. 

Boiled  Veal. — Take  out  the  bone  from  a fillet  of  veal. 
Make  a stuffing,  as  for  roast  meat.  Fill  the  place  of  the  bone 
with  the  stuffing,  and  draw  the  ends  of  the  meat  as  tight  as 
possible  with  a needle  and  a coarse,  strong  thread.  Scald  and 
flour  a cloth,  as  for  boiled  mutton,  and  sew  or  tie  the  meat  in 
it  tightly.  Boil  three  hours,  or  until  tender,  trying  with  a knit- 
ting-needle. Make  an  oyster  sauce,  by  soup  recipe,  to  serve 
with  it.  Well  cooked,  it  is  much  like  boiled  turkey  similarly 
served. 

Boiled  Mutton. — A shoulder  of  mutton  will  boil  in  an 
hour,  or  a little  more.  A leg  will  take  from  an  hour  and  a 
half  to  two  hours,  according  to  size.  Try  with  a knitting- 
needle,  to  ascertain  when  it  is  tender.  Have  a cloth  to  boil  it 
in.  Wring  this  out  of  scalding  water,  dredge  it  thickly  with 
flour,  and  tie  up  the  meat  tightly  in  it.  Put  it  into  a large  ket- 
tle of  boiling  water,  and  throw  in  two  heaping  tablespoonfuls 
of  salt.  When  done,  put  it,  rag  and  all,  into  a pan,  and  turn 
cold  water  over  it  enough  to  cover.  Let  it  stand  a few  min- 
utes, but  not  long  enough  to  cool  too  much.  Then  take  off 
the  cloth,  and  send  at  once  to  table.  Serve  with  it  a smooth 
butter  sauce,  with  capers  separately. 

Boiled  Lamb. — Same  way,  allowing  about  a fourth  less 
time.  It  must  depend  upon  the  size,  however.  Eight  minutes 
to  the  pound,  then  try  it. 

To  Choose  Beef, — When  beef  is  good  it  maybe  known  by 


608 


HOUSEHOLD. 


its  texture  and  color;  the  lean  will  have  a fine,  open  grain  of  a 
deep  coral  or  bright  carnation  red;  the  fat  rather  inclining  to 
white  than  yellow;  and  the  suet  firm  and  white.  Very  yellow 
fat  is  generally  sufficient  proof  of  inferior  beef. 

The  better  roasting  pieces  of  beef  are  the  prime  ribs,  sir- 
loin, and  what  is  known  as  the  porter-house  piece;  it  may  be 
recognized  by  the  bone. 

The  best  steaks  are  cut  from  the  sirloin  and  porter-house. 
The  last  mentioned  cut  probably  took  its  name  from  having 
been  the  most  highly  esteemed  steak,  and  so  dished  for  the 
palate  of  the  epicure  at  porter-houses,  which  were  formerly 
the  only  eating-houses.  Fine  steaks  may  be  cut  from  between 
the  ribs. 

The  round  of  tender,  fat  beef,  cuts  very  good  steaks,  as  does 
also  the  cross-ribs,  but  they  are  juiceless  compared  with  the 
other  pieces.  The  lean  of  fat  beef  is  the  most  juicy  and 
tender. 

The  neck,  shin,  or  marrow  bone,  leg  or  head  make  good 
soups. 

Beef  skirts  are  good  for  sausage  meat,  stewing,  hashes,  or 
for  mince-pie  meat;  or  they  may  be  broiled  or  fried. 

To  Fry  Tripe. — Take  prepared  tripe,  lay  it  in  a little 
water  over  night;  in  the  morning  scrape  the  rough  side 
clean,  then  wipe  it  dry;  then  dip  in  wheat  flour  or  rolled 
crackers.  Have  a thick-bottomed  frying  pan,  put  into  it  a cup 
of  lard  or  beef  dripping;  let  it  become  boiling  hot;  then  lay 
the  tripe  in,  the  rough  side  down  first,  let  it  fry  gently;  when 
this  side  is  a delicate  brown  turn  the  other  and  do  likewise; 
then  take  it  from  the  pan,  add  to  it  the  fat  in  which  it  was  fried 
a wineglass  of  vinegar,  let  it  boil  up  once,  then  pour  it  in  the 
dish  with  the  tripe;  or  you  may  use  water  instead  of  vinegar. 

Beef  Liver. — Cut  the  liver  in  thin  slices;  dip  each  slice  in 
wheat  flour  or  rolled  crackers,  and  fry  in  hot  lard  or  beef  drip- 
ping; season  with  pepper  and  salt.  It  must  be  thoroughly 
cooked  and  a fine  brown. 

To  Stew  a Round  of  Beef, — Boil  the  beef  till  it  is 
rather  more  than  half  done;  gash  it  with  a sharp  knife,  then 
rub  it  over  with  salt  and  pepper  and  sweet  herbs  chopped 


HOUSEHOLD. 


609 


small;  one  [sliced  carrot,  also  a leek  or  onion  sliced  small; 
dredge  it  white  with  flour;  strew  bits  of  butter  over  it,  and  put 
it  into  a dinner  pot  with  a pint  or  more  of  the  water  in  which 
it  was  boiled;  cover  it  close,  and  let  it  bake  or  stew  slowly  for 
two  hours;  add  a little  hot  water  when  it  may  be  necessary  to 
keep  it  from  burning;  turn  it  once;  when  it  is  nicely  browned 
take  it  up,  add  a little  boiling  water  to  the  gravy,  stir  it  well 
together,  let  it  boil  up  once,  then  pour  it  over  the  meat. 

Beef  Heart  Baked  or  Roasted. — Cut  a beef  heart  in 
two;  take  out  the  strings  from  the  inside;  wash  it  with  warm 
water;  rub  the  inside  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  fill  it  with  a 
stuffing  of  bread  and  butter  moistened  with  water,  and  sea- 
soned with  pepper  and  salt,  and,  if  liked,  a sprig  of  thyme 
made  fine;  put  it  together  and  tie  a string  round  it;  rub  the 
outside  with  pepper  and  salt;  stick  bits  of  butter  on,  then 
dredge  flour  over  and  set  it  on  a trivet  or  muffin  rings,  in  a 
dripping  pan;  put  a pint  of  water  in  to  baste  with,  then  roast 
it  before  a hot  fire  or  in  a hot  oven;  turn  it  round  and  baste 
frequently.  One  hour  will  roast  or  bake  it;  when  done  take  it 
up,  cut  a lemon  in  thin  slices,  and  put  it  in  a pan  with  a bit  of 
butter;  dredge  in  a teaspoonful  of  flour;  let  it  brown,  add  a 
small  teacupful  of  boiling  water;  stir  it  smooth,  and  serve  in  a 
gravy  tureen. 

Beef  Kidneys. — These  may  be  split  jand  fried,  or  broiled, 
or  they  may  be  chopped  small  and  made  a hash  or  stew.  Cut 
them  in  half,  or  mince  them,  and  put  them  in  a stewpan  with 
enough  hot  water  to  moisten  them;  then  cover  them  close  and 
let  them  simmer  gently  until  tender;  add  a good  bit  of  butter, 
pepper  and  salt  to  taste,  and  some  browned  flour;  a wineglass 
of  wine  or  catsup  may  be  added,  if  liked.  Toast  some  thin 
slices  of  bread  delicately  brown,  take  off  the  crust  and  lay 
them  in  a dish,  and  put  the  stew  or  hash  over.  A finely 
chopped  onion  or  leek  may  be  added  to  it,  if  liked. 

Hashed  Beef. — Take  some  very  rare  done  or  uncooked 
beef,  chop  it  fine,  one-fourth  as  much  fat  as  lean,  and  moisten 
it  with  water  or  gravy;  if  with  water,  add  a bit  of  butter  rolled 
in  flour;  put  it  in  a closely  covered  stewpan  over  a gentle 
fire  for  half  an  hour;  then  dredge  in  a little  browned  flour,  add 
salt  and  pepper  to  taste,  and  cover  it  for  fifteen  minutes,  and 


610 


HOUSEHOLD. 


serve.  Or,  cut  some  thin  slices  of  toast  in  neat  squares,  put 
them  in  the  dish  and  put  the  hash  on  it;  or  serve  it  on  boiled 
rice.  Some  persons  like  a teaspoonful  of  made  mustard  or 
catsup  put  to  it  before  dishing  it. 

Beef  Steaks. — Sirloin,  and  what  is  known  in  New  York 
markets  as  porter-house  steaks,  are  the  choicest  cuts.  If  the 
beef  is  not  very  tender  and  young,  it  may  be  improved  by  beat- 
ing gently  with  a rolling-pin  or  potato-beetle  before  cooking; 
the  steaks  should  be  nearly  the  thickness  of  an  inch;  beef 
steaks  must  on  no  account  be  washed.  By  keeping  beef  as 
long  as  possible  without  tainting,  it  may  be  improved  in  flavor, 
and  will  become  more  tender;  broiling  is  by  far  the  best  man- 
ner of  cooking  beef  steaks. 

Fried  Beef  Steaks. — Cut  some  of  the  fat  from  the  steak 
and  put  it  into  a frying-pan  and  set  it  over  the  fire;  if  the 
steaks  are  not  very  tender,  beat  them  with  a rolling-pin,  and 
when  the  fat  is  boiling  hot,  put  the  steak  evenly  in,  cover  the 
pan  and  let  it  fry  briskly  until  one  side  is  done;  sprinkle  a little 
pepper  and  salt  over,  and  turn  the  other;  let  it  be  rare  or  well- 
done,  as  may  be  liked;  take  the  steak  on  a hot  dish,  add  a wine- 
glass or  less  of  boiling  water  or  catsup  to  the  gravy;  let  it  boil 
up  once  and  pour  it  in  the  dish  with  the  steak. 

Beef  and  Onion  Stew. — Cut  two  pounds  of  meat  in  pieces 
the  size  of  an  egg,  and  put  it  into  a stewpan  with  enough  warm 
water  nearly  to  cover  it;  cover  the  stewpan  and  let  it  simmer 
slowly  for  half  an  hour;  then  skim  it  clear,  peel  five  or  six  small 
onions  and  cut  them  in  thick  slices;  pare  half  a dozen  large 
potatoes  and  cut  them  in  half,  or  quarters;  add  a tablespoon- 
ful of  salt,  and  a small  teaspoonful  of  pepper  to  the  stewed 
meat;  then  put  in  the  potatoes  and  onions.  If  the  meat  is 
lean,  (it  is  best  to  have  a small  portion  of  fat,)  add  a bit  of 
butter  the  size  of  a large  egg;  shake  over  it  a tablespoonful  of 
wheat  flour,  or  work  it  into  the  butter;  cover  the  stewpan  close, 
and  let  it  stew  gently  that  it  may  brown  without  burning;  one 
hour  is  required  for  making  this  stew.  If  the  potatoes  are  cut 
smaller  than  halves,  they  should  be  put  in  twenty  minutes 
before  it  is  done;  half  an  hour  will  be  required  to  cook  them 
if  cut  in  two. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


611 


To  Roast  Beef. — Have  a bright,  clear  fire  before  putting 
down  the  roast;  if  it  is  large,  have  afire  according;  let  it  be  a 
clear,  steady  fire,  with  a bed  of  coals  at  the  bottom — this  is  for 
a wood  fire;  for  a coal  fire,  make  one  large  enough  to  last  the 
length  of  time  required  for  the  roast  (fifteen  minutes  for  each 
pound  of  meat);  make  the  front  of  the  fire  clear  from  ashes, 
and  brush  up  the  hearth;  rinse  the  meat  in  cold  water,  wipe  it 
dry;  mix  salt  and  pepper,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  asaltspoon- 
ful  of  pepper  for  each  pound  of  meat;  rub  it  over  every  part> 
then  put  it  evenly  on  the  spit,  taking  care  not  to  run  it  through 
the  best  parts;  orif  it  is  done  in  a reflector,  set  it  on  a trivet  or 
muffin  rings,  and  turn  the  pan  about  as  occasion  may  require; 
then  put  it  down  at  a little  distance  from  the  fire,  that  the  out- 
side may  not  be  too  much  done  before  the  inside  is  cooked; 
put  at  least  a pint  of  water  into  the  dripping-pan,  with  which 
to  baste;  replenish  with  boiling  water,  so  that  there  shall  not  be 
less  than  a pint  of  gravy  when  the  meat  is  done,  for  a piece 
weighing  five  or  six  pounds;  when  about  half  done,  clear  the 
front  of  the  fire  and  set  it  a little  nearer;  turn  the  meat  so 
that  all  sides  may  be  done  evenly;  fifteen  minutes  before  it  is 
done,  if  you  please,  dredge  with  the  fat  of  the  meat  wheat  flour 
until  it  looks  white;  baste  it  freely  and  set  it  to  finish;  when 
done,  take  it  on  to  a large  dish  and  cover  with  a tin  cover;  set 
the  dripping  over  the  fire,  dredge  in  a small  tablespoonful  of 
flour,  stir  it  smooth;  when  it  is  a fine  brown,  add  a teacupful  of 
boiling  water,  let  it  boil  up,  stirring  it  meanwhile;  then  pour 
it  through  a gravy  strainer  into  a tureen;  if  there  is  much  fat 
skim  nearly  all  of  it  off*;  or,  instead  of  dredging  in  flour,  make 
a thin,  smooth  batter  of  a tablespoonful  of  flour,  and  a small 
cup  of  cold  water;  let  the  gravy  in  the  pan  become  boiling  hot 
before  stirring  it  in;  then  stir  it  smooth,  and  when  it  is  a fine 
rich  brown,  strain  it  into  the  tureen  and  serve  with  the  meat. 

The  vegetables  most  proper  with  roast  beef  are  plain  boiled 
or  mashed  potatoes,  with  boiled  spinach,  beets  or  dressed  celery, 
and  turnips  mashed,  or  squash.  If  you  please,  pickles,  or 
grated  horseradish,  may  also  be  served  with  roast  beef  instead 
of  spinach  or  celery,  with  made  mustard  and  catsup  in  the 
castor.  In  roasting  meat  it  should  be  so  placed  as  to  bring  the 
largest  or  thickest  part  nearest  the  fire.  In  roasting  meat  its 


612 


HOUSEHOLD. 


juiciness  depends  on  the  frequency  of  basting  it,  after  it  has 
fairly  begun  to  roast. 

Veal. — Veal  should  not  be  kept  long  before  dressing,  as  it 
by  no  means  improves  by  keeping.  The  loin  is  apt  to  taint 
under  the  kidney.  When  soft  and  slimy  it  is  stale;  it  will  be 
cool  and  firm  and  have  an  agreeable  smell  when  fresh. 

In  the  shoulder,  if  the  vein  is  a clear  red,  it  is  good.  When 
there  are  any  yellow  or  dark  spots  it  is  stale.  The  breast  and 
neck,  when  good,  look  white  and  clear.  V eal  must  always  be 
well  cooked.  The  leg  of  veal  is  generally  boiled  or  made  soup 
of.  The  loin  also  may  be  boiled,  but  it  is  best  roasted,  and 
cut  into  chops  and  broiled  and  fried.  The  shoulder  may  be 
roasted;  it  may  be  boned  and  stuffed  and  then  roasted,  or  it 
may  be  split,  after  having  been  boned,  and  fried  or  broiled. 
The  breast  may  be  roasted,  stewed,  or  broiled,  or  made  a pie. 
Steaks  are  cut  from  leg  or  shoulder.  The  neck,  or  scrag,  may 
be  cut  in  chops  and  fried,  broiled,  or  stewed;  or  a dish  of  soup 
may  be  made  of  it. 

Calf’s  liver  is  cut  in  steaks,  and  fried  like  beef  liver,  or  it 
may  be  broiled  and  buttered. 

Veal  sweet-breads  are  roasted  with  the  breast,  or  they  may 
be  fried  or  stewed. 

Calf’s  head  may  be  boiled  and  served  with  a sauce,  and  a 
soup  made  of  the  liquor  in  which  it  is  boiled. 

The  head  and  feet  are  used  for  making  jellies. 

To  Broil  Veal. — Put  in  hot  water  (not  boiling)  to  cover 
it,  put  to  it  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  cover  the  pot,  and  let  it  boil 
very  gently,  taking  off  the  scum  as  it  rises;  allow  fifteen  min- 
utes for  each  pound  of  meat;  four  pounds  of  meat  will  require 
one  hour  gentle  boiling.  Serve  boiled  veal  with  drawn  butter, 
or  oysters,  or  lemon,  or  parsley  sauce,  and  plain  boiled  pota- 
toes with  pickles,  or  lettuce,  or  celery.  Boil  the  loin  and 
serve  with  egg  sauce. 

Calf’s  Head. — Clean  it  very  nicely  and  soak  it  in  salt  and 
water,  that  it  may  look  white  (clean  as  directed  for  beef  tripe), 
take  out  the  eyes,  take  out  the  tongue  to  salt,  and  the  brains  to 
make  a little  dish;  boil  the  head  very  tender,  and  serve  with  a 
sauce,  or  take  it  up,  put  bits  of  buttef  all  over  it,  dredge  with 


HOUSEHOLD. 


613 


flour,  and  season  with  pepper  and  finely  sifted  sweet  herbs,  if 
liked,  set  it  in  a hot  oven  or  before  the  fire;  baste  with  some  of 
the  water  in  which  it  was  boiled,  or  squeeze  the  juice  of  a 
lemon  over;  roast  it  a fine  brown;  then  take  it  on  a hot  dish 
and  put  on  a tin  cover;  add  a piece  of  butter,  the  size  of  an 
egg,  to  the  gravy;  cut  a small  lemon  in  thin  slices,  and  make 
the  gravy  boiling  hot;  add  them  to  it;  let  them  fry  brown,  then 
put  a teaspoonful  of  browned  flour,  and  a teacup  of  boiling 
water  to  the  gravy,  and  serve  with  the  meat.  The  lemon  may 
be  dispensed  with  if  preferred — it  will  generally  be  liked. 

To  Make  a Dish  of  Calf’s  Brains. — Wash  them  in  salt 
and  water,  then  boil  them  tender,  and  take  them  in  a dish;  put 
butter  and  pepper  over,  and  serve.  Or,  after  washing  the 
brains  in  salt  and  water,  wipe  them  dry,  and  dip  them  in  wheat 
flour,  or  in  beaten  egg,  and  then  into  bread  crumbs,  and  fry 
in  hot  lard  or  beef  dripping;  season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and 
slices  of  lemon  fried,  if  liked. 

Calf’s  Head  Cheese. — Boil  a calf’s  head  in  water  enough 
to  cover  it,  until  the  meat  leaves  the  bones,  then  take  it  with  a 
skimmer  into  a wooden  bowl  or  tray;  take  from  it  every  parti- 
cle of  bone;  chop  it  small;  season  with  pepper  and  salt,  a heap- 
ing teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a teaspoonful  of  pepper  will  be 
sufficient;  if  liked,  add  a teaspoonful  of  finely  chopped  sweet 
herbs;  lay  a cloth  in  a cullender,  put  the  minced  meat  in  it, 
then  fold  the  cloth  closely  over  it,  lay  a plate  over,  and  on  it  a 
gentle  weight.  When  cold  it  may  be  sliced  for  supper  or  sand- 
wiches. Spread  each  slice  with  made  mustard. 

Calf’s  Head  (a  fine  dish). — Boil  a calf’s  head  (after 
having  cleaned  it),  until  tender,  then  split  it  in  two,  and  keep 
the  best  half  (bone  in  it  if  you  like);  cut  the  meat  from  the 
other  in  uniform  pieces,  the  size  of  an  oyster;  put  bits  of  butter 
the  size  of  a nutmeg  all  over  the  best  half  of  the  head; 
sprinkle  pepper  over,  and  dredge  on  flour  until  it  looks  white, 
then  set  it  on  a trivet  or  muffin  rings  in  a dripping  pan;  put  a 
cup  of  water  into  the  pan  and  set  it  in  a hot  oven  or  before  a 
hot  fire;  turn  it  that  it  may  brown  evenly;  baste  once  or  twice. 
Whilst  this  is  doing,  dip  the  prepared  pieces  of  the  head  in 
wheat  flour  or  batter,  and  fry  in  hot  lard  or  beef  dripping,  a 


614 


HOUSEHOLD. 


delicate  brown;  season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  slices  of 
lemon,  if  liked.  When  the  roast  is  done  put  it  in  a hot  dish,  lay 
the  fried  pieces  around  it  and  cover  with  a tin  cover;  put 
the  gravy  from  the  dripping  pan  into  the  pan  in  which  the 
pieces  were  fried,  with  the  slices  of  lemon,  and  a teaspoonful 
of  browned  flour,  and,  if  necessary,  a little  hot  water.  Let  it 
boil  up  once,  and  strain  it  into  a gravy  boat  and  serve  with  the 
meat. 

Veal  Chops. — Cut  your  chops  about  an  inch  thick;  beat 
them  flat  with  a rolling  pin,  put  them  in  a pan,  pour  boiling 
water  over  them,  and  set  them  over  the  fire  for  five  minutes; 
then  take  them  up  and  wipe  them  dry;  mix  a tablespoonful  of 
salt  and  a teaspoonful  of  pepper  for  each  pound  of  meat;  rub 
each  chop  over  with  this,  then  dip  them,  first  into  beaten  egg, 
then  into  rolled  crackers  as  much  as  they  will  take  up;  then 
finish  by  frying  in  hot  lard  or  beef  dripping;  or  broil  them. 
For  the  broil  have  some  sweet  butter  on  a steak  dish;  broil  the 
chops  until  well  done,  over  a bright,  clear  fire  of  coals  (let 
them  do  gently  that  they  may  be  well  done)  then  take  them 
on  to  the  butter,  turn  them  carefully  over  once  or  twice  in  it, 
and  serve.  Or,  dip  the  chops  into  a batter,  made  of  one  egg 
beaten  with  half  a teacup  of  milk,  and  as  much  wheat  flour  as 
may  be  necessary.  Or,  simply  dip  the  chops  without  parboil- 
ing into  wheat  flour;  make  some  lard  or  beef  fat  hot  in  a fry- 
ing pan;  lay  the  chops  in,  and  when  one  side  is  a fine,  delicate 
brown,  turn  the  other.  When  all  are  done,  take  them  up,  put 
a very  little  hot  water  into  the  pan,  then  put  it  into  the  dish 
with  the  chops. 

Or,  make  a flour  gravy  thus:  After  frying  them  as  last  di- 
rected, add  a tablespoonful  more  of  fat  to  that  in  the  pan,  let 
it  become  boiling  hot;  make  a thin  batter,  of  a small  table- 
spoonful of  wheat  flour  and  cold  water;  add  a little  more  salt 
and  pepper  to  the  gravy,  then  gradually  stir  in  the  batter;  stir 
it  until  it  is  cooked  and  a nice  brown;  then  put  it  over  the 
meat,  or  in  a dish  with  it;  if  it  is  thicker  than  is  liked,  add  a 
little  boiling  water. 

Veal  Stewed  with  Vegetables  (Ragout). — Wash  three 
pounds  of  veal  in  cold  water,  then  cut  it  small  and  put  it  in  a 
stewpan  with  water  nearly  to  cover  it;  add  a tablespoonful  ©f 


HOUSEHOLD. 


615 


salt  and  a teaspoonful  of  pepper;  cover  the  stewpan,  and  let  it 
simmer  for  twenty  minutes,  then  skim  it  clear.  Whilst  the  meat 
is  stewing,  scrape  one  large  or  two  small  carrots  and  cut  them 
in  thin  slices,  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  notch  the  edges,  and  put 
them  in  a stewpan,  with  boiling  water  to  cover  them,  and  set  it 
over  the  fire  until  they  are  tender;  dip  a bunch  of  parsley  into 
boiling  water  and  mince  it  fine;  cut  a leek  into  thin  slices;  pare 
and  cut  six  small  potatoes  in  halves  or  quarters,  then  take-  the 
carrot  from  the  water  with  a skimmer;  put  quarter  of  a pound 
of  sweet  butter  to  the  meat;  dredge  over  it  a tablespoonful  of 
browned  flour,  and  add  the  vegetables;  cover  the  stewpan  and 
let  it  stew  gently  for  an  hour;  then  take  the  meat  on  a dish,  put 
the  vegetables  around  it,  pour  the  gravy  over,  and  serve. 

To  Roast  Veal. — Rinse  the  meat  in  cold  water;  if  any 
part  is  bloody,  wash  it  off;  make  a mixture  of  pepper  and  salt, 
allowing  a large  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  saltspoonful  of  pepper 
for  each  pound  of  meat;  wipe  the  meat  dry;  then  rub  the  sea- 
soning into  every  part,  shape  it  neatly  and  fasten  it  with  skewers, 
and  put  it  on  a spit,  or  set  it  on  a trivet  or  muffin  rings,  in 
a pan;  stick  bits  of  butter  over  the  whole  upper  surface;  dredge 
a little  flour  over,  put  a pint  of  water  into  the  pan  to  baste  with, 
and  roast  it  before  the  fire  in  a Dutch  oven  or  reflector,  or  put 
it  into  a hot  oven;  baste  it  occasionally,  turn  it  if  necessary  that 
every  part  may  be  done;  if  the  water  wastes,  add  more,  that  the 
gravy  may  not  burn;  allow  fifteen  minutes  for  each  pound  of 
meat;  a piece  weighing  four  or  five  pounds  will  then  require  one 
hour  or  an  hour  and  a quarter.  When  it  is  nicely  browned 
and  done,  take  it  up;  add  a bit  of  butter  the  size  of  a large  egg 
to  the  gravy,  dredge  in  a tablespoonful  of  flour,  stir  it  smooth, 
let  it  brown,  add  a cup  of  boiling  water  to  it;  then  strain  it  into 
a gravy-boat,  and  serve  with  the  meat;  serve  plain  boiled  or 
mashed  potatoes  with  the  meat,  with  such  green  vegetables  as 
may  be  liked. 

Plain  boiled  or  mashed  potatoes,  with  any  other  vegetable 
which  may  be  liked  may  be  served  with  roast  veal;  also  pickles 
of  any  kind. 

Veal  Hashed. — Cut  a pound  of  cold  veal  small,  season  it 
to  taste  with  pepper  and  salt,  dredge  a small  teaspoonful  of 
wheat  flour  over  it,  add  a bit  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg,  put 


m 


household. 


it  in  a stewpan,  put  water  enough  to  make  it  moist;  then  cover 
it  close  and  set  it  over  a gentle  fire  for  half  an  hour;  stir  it 
occasionally;  if  liked,  a bunch  of  parsley  may  be  cut  small  and 
added  to  it;  when  half  done,  toast  some  thin  slices  of  bread 
delicately  brown,  cut  it  in  small  squares  or  diamonds,  and  serve 
the  hash  on  it,  for  breakfast.  A glass  of  wine  may  be  added. 

Veal  Pie. — Cut  a breast  of  veal  small  and  put  it  in  a stew- 
pan,  with  hot  water  to  cover  it;  add  to  it  a tablespoonful  of  salt 
and  set  it  over  the  fire;  take  off  the  scum  as  it  rises;  when  the 
meat  is  tender,  turn  it  into  a dish  to  cool;  take  out  all  the  small 
bones,  butter  a tin  or  earthen  basin  or  pudding-pan,  line  it 
with  a pie  paste  (see  clam  pie),  lay  some  of  the  parboiled  meat 
in  to  half  fill  it,  put  bits  of  butter  the  size  of  a hickory  nut 
all  over  the  meat,  shake  pepper  over,  dredge  wheat  flour  over 
until  it  looks  white;  then  fill  it  nearly  to  the  top  with  some  of 
the  water  in  which  the  meat  was  boiled,  roll  a cover  for  the  top 
of  the  crust,  puff  paste  it,  giving  it  two  or  three  turns,  and  roll 
it  to  nearly  half  an  inch  thickness;  cut  a slit  in  the  centre  and 
make  several  small  incisions  on  either  side  of  it;  lay  some 
skewers  across  the  pie,  put  the  crust  on,  trim  the  edges  neatly 
with  a knife,  bake  one  hour  in  a quick  oven.  A breast  of  veal 
will  make  two  quart  basin  pies;  half  a pound  of  nice  corned 
pork,  cut  in  thin  slices  and  parboiled  with  the  meat,  will  make 
it  very  nice,  and  little,  if  any,  butter  will  be  required  for  the 
pie;  when  pork  is  used  no  other  salt  will  be  necessary. 

Potato  and  Veal  Pie. — Peel  and  cut  small  some  cold 
boiled  potatoes;  cut  some  cold  veal  small;  put  some  of  the  meat 
in  the  bottom  of  a baking  dish,  or  tin  basin,  put  on  a layer  of 
potatoes,  sprinkle  pepper  and  salt  over  and  bits  of  butter;  then 
another  layer  of  meat  and  potatoes  and  seasoning,  and  so  con- 
tinue until  the  pan  is  nearly  full,  then  add  to  it  water  or  gravy 
to  moisten  it;  cover  it  with  a pie  crust,  and  bake  in  a quick 
oven  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

To  Boil  Pickled  Beef. — Put  on  the  fire  in  cold  water;  let 
it  simmer  slowly,  allowing  fifteen  minutes  to  every  pound;  do 
not  let  it  boil;  keep  skimming  or  it  will  look  dirty;  if  it  is  left  in 
the  pot  until  the  water  is  cold  it  will  be  much  more  tender. 

Spiced  Beef. — Take  a piece  of  beef  from  the  fore-quarter, 


HOUSEHOLD. 


61? 

weighing  ten  pounds.  Those  who  like  fat  should  select  a fatty 
piece;  those  who  prefer  lean  may  take  the  shoulder  clod,  or 
upper  part  of  the  fore-leg.  Take  one  pint  of  salt,  one  teacup 
of  molasses  or  brown  sugar,  one  tablespoonful  of  ground  cloves, 
allspice  and  pepper,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  pulverized  salt- 
petre. Place  the  beef  in  a deep  pan;  rub  with  this  mixture; 
turn  and  rub  each  side  twice  a day  for  a week;  then  wash 
off  the  spices;  put  in  a pot  of  boiling  water,  and,  as  often  as  it 
boils  hard,  turn  in  a teacupful  of  cold  water.  It  must  simmer 
for  five  hours,  on  the  back  part  of  the  stove.  Press  under  a 
heavy  weight  until  it  is  cold,  and  you  will  never  desire  to  try 
corned-beef  of  the  butcher  again.  Your  pickle  will  do  for 
another  ten  pounds  of  beef,  first  rubbing  into  it  a handful  of 
salt.  It  can  be  renewed  and  a piece  kept  in  preparation  every 
day.  This  is  good  to  pickle  tongues  also. 

Beef. — To  pickle  for  drying  or  boiling,  thoroughly  rub 
salt  into  it,  and  let  it  remain  twenty-four  hours  to  draw  off  the 
blood;  after  which  drain  and  pack  as  desired;  have  ready  a 
pickle  prepared  as  follows:  For  every  one  hundred  pounds  of 
beef,  seven  pounds  of  salt,  one  ounce  of  saltpetre,  one  quart 
of  molasses,  eight  gallons  of  soft  water;  boil  and  skim  well; 
when  cold  pour  it  over  the  beef.  Pieces  designed  for  drying 
should  be  taken  out  in  two  weeks,  and  soaked  over  night,  to 
take  the  salt  from  the  outside. 

Remains  of  Roast  Beef. — Take  off  with  a sharp  knife  all 
the  meat  from  the  bones,  chop  it  fine,  take  cold  gravy  without 
the  fat,  put  it  in  the  spider  to  heat;  if  you  have  not  this,  some 
of  the  water  in  which  the  bones  were  boiled;  when  it  boils  up, 
sprinkle  in  salt  and  put  in  the  minced  meat;  cover  it  and  let  it 
stand  upon  the  fire  long  enough  to  heat  it  thoroughly,  then  stir 
in  a small  piece  of  butter,  toast  bread,  and  lay  in  a dish;  put 
the  meat  over  it;  serve  hot. 

Boiling  Meat. — There  is  all  the  difference  in  the  world 
between  boiling  meat  which  is  to  be  eaten,  and  meat  whose 
juices  are  to  be  extracted  in  the  form  of  soup.  If  the  meat  is 
required  as  nourishment,  of  course  you  want  the  juices  kept 
in.  To  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  plunge  it  into  boiling  water, 
which  will  cause  the  albumen  in  the  meat  to  coagulate  suddenly 


HOUSEHOLD. 


«18 

and  act  as  a plug  or  stopper  to  all  the  tubes^of  the  meat,  so 
that  the  nourishment  will  be  tightly  kept  in.  The  temperature 
of  the  water  should  be  kept  at  boiling  point  for  five  minutes, 
and  then  as  much  cold  water  must  be  added  as  will  reduce  the 
temperature  to  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  degrees.  Now  if 
the  hot  water,  in  which  the  meat  is  being  cooked,  is  kept  at 
this  temperature  for  some  hours,  we  have  all  the  conditions 
united,  which  give  to  the  flesh  the  quality  best  adapted  for  its 
use  as  food.  The  juices  are  kept  in  the  meat,  and,  instead  of 
being  called  upon  to  consume  an  insipid  mass  of  indigestible 
fibres,  we  have  a tender  piece  of  meat,  from  which,  when  cut, 
the  imprisoned  juice  runs  freely.  If  the  meat  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  boiling  water,  without  the  addition  of  any  cold 
water  to  it,  it  becomes  in  a short  time  altogether  cooked,  but 
it  will  also  be  almost  indigestible,  and  therefore  unpalatable. 

To  Bake  a Ham. — Most  persons  boil  a ham,  but  a first- 
rate  Virginia  housewife  tells  us  it  is  much  better  if  baked  prop- 
erly. Soak  it  for  an  hour  or  more  and  wipe  dry.  Next  spread 
it  all  over  with  a batter  made  of  flour  and  water;  put  it  into  a 
deep  pan  with  muffin  rings  or  bits  of  oak  wood  under  it  to 
keep  it  out  of  the  gravy.  When  fully  done — it  will  take  from 
five  to  seven  hours — take  off  the  skin  and  batter  crusted  upon 
the  flesh  side  and  set  it  away  to  cool,  or  glaze  it  by  the  follow- 
ing recipe: 

Glazed  Ham. — Beat  the  yolks  of  two  eggs  very  light. 
Spread  them  all  over  your  ham;  then  sift  over  fine  cracker 
crumbs,  and  set  in  the  oven  to  brown.  Currant  jelly  may  be 
used  instead  of  yolks  of  eggs,  and  is  very  nice. 

Poultry  ^nd  Game. — To  Clean  Poultry. — First  be  very 
careful  to  singe  off  all  down  by  holding  over  a blazing  paper, 
or  a little  alcohol  burning  in  a saucer.  Cut  off  the  feet  and 
the  ends  of  the  wings,  and  the  neck  as  far  as  it  is  dark.  If  the 
fowl  is  killed  at  home,  be  sure  that  the  head  is  chopped  off, 
and  never  allow  the  neck  to  be  wrung,  as  is  often  done.  It  is 
not  only  an  unmerciful  way  of  killing,  but  the  blood  has  thus 
no  escape,  and  settles  about  all  the  vital  organs.  The  head 
should  be  cut  off,  and  the  body  hang  and  bleed  thoroughly  be- 
fore using. 

Pick  out  all  the  pin-feathers  with  the  blade  of  a small  knife. 


/HOUSEHOLD.  Gi& 

Turn  back  the  skin  of  the  neck,  loosening  it  with  the  finger 
and  thumb,  and  draw  out  the  windpipe  and  crop,  which  can 
be  done  without  making  any  cut.  Now  cut  a slit  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  fowl,  the  best  place  being  close  to  the  thigh.  By 
working  the  fingers  in  slowly,  keeping  them  close  to  the  body, 
the  whole  intestines  can  be  removed  in  a mass.  Be  especially 
careful  not  to  break  the  gall-bag,  which  is  near  the  upper  part 
of  the  breastbone,  and  attached  to  the  liver.  If  this  operation 
is  carefully  performed,  it  will  be  by  no  means  so  disagreeable 
as  it  seems.  A French  cook  simply  wipes  out  the  inside,  con- 
sidering that  much  flavor  is  lost  by  washing.  We  prefer  to 
wash  in  one  water,  and  dry  quickly,  though  in  the  case  of  an 
old  fowl,  which  often  has  a strong  smell,  it  is  better  to  dis- 
solve a teaspoonful  of  soda  in  the  first  water,  which  should  be 
warm,  and  wash  again  in  cold,  then  wiping  dry  as  possible. 
Slit  and  wash  the  gizzard,  reserving  it  for  gravy. 

Dressing  for  Poultry. — One  pint  of  bread  or  cracker 
crumbs,  into  which  mix  dry  one  teaspoonful  of  pepper,  one  of 
thyme  or  summer  savory,  one  even  tablespoonful  of  salt,  and, 
if  in  season,  a little  chopped  parsley.  Melt  a piece  of  butter 
the  size  of  an  egg  in  one  cup  of  boiling  water,  and  mix  with 
the  crumbs,  adding  one  or  two  well-beaten  eggs.  A slice  of 
salt  pork  chopped  fine  is  often  substituted  for  the  butter. 

For  ducks  two  onions  are  chopped  fine,  and  added  to  the 
above;  or  a potato  dressing  is  made,  as  for  geese,  using  six 
large  boiled  potatoes,  mashed  hot,  and  seasoned  with  an  even 
tablespoonful  of  salt,  a teaspoonful  each  of  sage  and  pepper, 
and  two  chopped  onions. 

Game  is  usually  roasted  unstuffed,  but  grouse  and  prairie- 
chickens  may  have  the  same  dressing  as  chickens  and  turkeys, 
this  being  used  also  for  boiled  fowls. 

Roast  Turkey. — Prepare  by  cleaning,  as  in  general  direc- 
tions above,  and,  when  dry,  rub  the  inside  with  a teaspoonful 
of  salt.  Put  the  gizzard,  heart,  and  liver  on  the  fire  in  a small 
saucepan,  with  one  quart  of  boiling  water  and  one  teaspoon- 
ful of  salt,  and  boil  two  hours.  Put  a little  stuffing  in  the 
breast,  and  fold  back  the  skin  of  the  neck,  holding  it  with  a 
stitch  or  with  a small  skewer.  Put  the  remainder  in  the  body, 
and  sew  it  up  with  darning  cotton.  Cross  and  tie  the  legs 
38 


tf20 


HOUSEHOLD. 


down  tight,  and  run  a skewer  through  the  wings  to  fasten  them 
to  the  body.  Lay  it  in  the  roasting-pan,  and  for  an  eight- 
pound  turkey  allow  not  less  than  three  hours’  time,  a ten  or 
twelve  pound  one  needing  four.  Put  a pint  of  boiling  water 
with  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  in  the  pan,  and  add  to  it  as  it 
dries  away.  Melt  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  butter  in  the 
water  and  baste  very  often.  The  secret  of  a handsomely- 
browned  turkey  lies  in  this  frequent  basting.  Dredge  over  the 
flour  two  or  three  times,  as  in  general  roasting  directions,  and 
turn  the  turkey  so  that  all  sides  will  be  reached.  When  done, 
take  up  on  a hot  platter.  Put  the  baking-pan  on  the  stove, 
having  before  this  chopped  the  gizzard  and  heart  fine,  and 
mashed  the  liver,  and  put  them  in  the  gravy-tureen.  Stir  a 
tablespoonful  of  brown  flour  into  the  gravy  in  the  pan,  scraping 
up  all  the  brown,  and  add  slowly  the  water  in  which  the  gib- 
lets were  boiled,  which  should  be  about  a pint.  Strain  on  to 
the  chopped  giblets,  and  taste  to  see  if  salt  enough.  The  gravy 
for  all  roast  poultry  is  made  in  this  way.  Serve  with  cranberry 
sauce  or  jelly. 

Roa.st  or  Boiled  Chickens. — Stuff  and  truss  as  with  tur- 
keys, and  to  a pair  of  chickens  weighing  two  and  a half  pounds 
each,  allow  one  hour  to  roast,  basting  often,  and  making  a 
gravy  as  in  precedent  recipe.  Boil  as  in  rule  for  turkeys. 

Roast  Duck. — After  cleaning,  stuff  as  in  rule  given  for 
poultry  dressing,  and  roast — if  game,  half  an  hour;  if  tame, 
one  hour,  making  gravy  as  in  directions  given,  and  serving 
with  currant  jelly. 

Birds. — Small  birds  may  simply  be  washed  and  wiped  dry, 
tied  firmly,  and  roasted  twenty  minutes,  dredging  with  flour, 
basting  with  butter  and  water,  and  adding  a little  currant  jelly 
or  wine  to  the  gravy.  They  may  be  served  on  toast. 

Boiled  Turkey. — Clean,  stuff,  and  truss  the  fowl  selected, 
as  for  a roasted  turkey.  The  body  is  sometimes  filled  with 
oysters.  To  truss  in  the  tightest  and  most  compact  way,  run 
a skewer  under  the  leg-joint,  between  the  leg  and  the  thigh, 
then  run  through  the  body  and  under  the  opposite  leg-joint  in 
the  same  way;  push  the  thighs  up  firmly  close  to  the  sides; 
wind  a string  about  the  ends  of  the  skewer,  and  tie  it  tight. 
Treat  the  wings  in  the  same  way,  though  in  boiled  fowls  the 


HOUSEHOLD. 


621 


points  are  sometimes  drawn  under  the  back,  and  tied  there. 
The  turkey  may  be  boiled  with  or  without  cloth  around  it.  In 
either  case  use  boiling  water,  salted  as  for  stock,  and  allow 
twenty  minutes  to  the  pound.  It  is  usually  served  with  oyster 
sauce,  but  parsley  or  capers  may  be  used  instead. 

Boned  Turkey. — This  is  a delicate  dish,  and  is  usually 
regarded  as  an  impossibility  for  any  ordinary  house-keeper; 
and,  unless  one  is  getting  up  a supper  or  other  entertainment, 
it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  undertake  it.  If  the  legs  and  wings 
are  left  on,  the  boning  becomes  more  difficult.  The  best  plan 
is  to  cut  off  both  them  and  the  neck,  boiling  all  with  the  tur- 
key, and  using  the  meat  for  croquettes  or  hash. 

Draw  only  the  crop  and  windpipe,  as  the  turkey  is  more 
easily  handled  before  dressing.  Choose  a fat  hen  turkey  of 
some  six  or  seven  pounds  weight,  and  cut  off  legs  up  to  second 
joint,  with  half  the  wings  and  the  neck.  Now,  with  a very 
sharp  knife,  make  a clean  cut  down  the  entire  back,  and,  hold- 
ing the  knife  close  to  the  body,  cut  away  the  flesh,  first  on  one 
side,  and  then  another,  making  a clean  cut  around  the  pope’s 
nose.  Be  careful,  in  cutting  down  the  breastbone,  not  to  break 
through  the  skin.  The  entire  meat  will  now  be  free  from  the 
bones,  save  the  pieces  remaining  in  legs  and  wings.  Cut  out 
these,  and  remove  all  sinews.  Spread  the  turkey  skin-side 
down  on  the  board.  Cut  out  the  breasts,  and  cut,  them  up  in 
long,  narrow  pieces,  or  as  you  like.  Chop  fine  a pound  and  a 
half  of  veal  or  fresh  pork,  and  a slice  of  ham  also.  Season 
with  one  teaspoonful  of  salt;  a saltspoonful  each  of  mace  and 
pepper;  half  a saltspoonful  of  cayenne  and  the  juice  of  a 
lemon.  Cut  half  a pound  of  cold  boiled  smoked  tongue  into 
dice.  Make  layers  of  this  force-meat,  putting  half  of  it  on 
the  turkey  and  then  the  dice  of  tongue,  with  strips  of  the 
breast  between,  using  force-meat  for  the  last  layer.  Roll  up 
the  turkey  in  a tight  roll,  and  sew  the  skin  together.  Now  roll 
it  firmly  in  a napkin,  tying  at  the  ends  and  across  in  two 
places  to  preserve  the  shape.  Cover  it  with  boiling  water, 
salted  as  for  stock,  putting  in  all  the  bones  and  giblets,  and 
two  onions  stuck  with  two  cloves  each.  Boil  four  hours.  Let 
it  cool  in  the  liquor.  Take  up  in  a pan,  lay  a tin  sheet  on  it, 
and  press  with  a heavy  weight.  Strain  the  water  in  which  it 


m 


HOUSEtfOLb. 


was  boiled,  and  put  in  a cold  place.  Next  day  take  off  the 
napkin  and  set  the  turkey  in  the  oven  a moment  to  melt  off  any 
fat.  It  can  be  sliced  and  eaten  in  this  way,  but  makes  a hand- 
somer dish  served  as  follows: 

Remove  the  fat  from  the  stock,  and  heat  three  pints  of  it 
to  boiling-point,  adding  two-thirds  of  a package  of  gelatine 
which  has  been  soaked  in  a little  cold  water.  Strain  a cupful 
of  this  into  some  pretty  mold — an  ear  of  corn  is  a good  shape 
— and  the  remainder  in  two  pans  or  deep  plates,  coloring  each 
with  caramel — a teaspoonful  in  one,  and  two  in  the  other. 
Lay  the  turkey  on  a small  platter  turned  face  down  in  a larger 
one,  and,  when  the  jelly  is  cold  and  firm,  put  the  molded 
form  on  top  of  it.  Now  cut  part  of  the  jelly  into  rounds  with 
a pepper-box  top,  or  a small  star-cutter,  and  arrange  around 
the  mold,  chopping  the  rest  and  piling  about  the  edge,  so 
that  the  inner  platter  or  stand  is  completely  concealed.  The 
outer  row  of  jelly  can  have  been  colored  red  by  cutting  up, 
and  boiling  in  the  stock  for  it,  half  of  a red  beet.  Sprigs  of 
parsley  or  delicate  celery- tops  may  be  used  as  garnish,  and  it 
is  a very  elegant-looking  as  well  as  savory  dish.  The  legs  and 
wings  can  be  left  on  and  trussed  outside,  if  liked,  making  it  as 
much  as  possible  in  the  original  shape;  but  it  is  no  better,  and 
much  more  trouble. 

Jellied  Chicken. — Tenderness  is  no  object  here,  the  most 
ancient  dweller  in  the  barnyard  answering  equally  well,  and 
even  better  than  “ broilers.” 

Draw  carefully,  and,  if  the  fowl  is  old,  wash  it  in  water  in 
which  a spoonful  of  soda  has  been  dissolved,  rinsing  in  cold. 
Put  on  in  cold  water,  and  season  with  a tablespoonful  of  salt 
and  a half  teaspoonful  of  pepper.  Boil  till  the  meat  slips 
easily  from  the  bones,  reducing  the  broth  to  about  a quart. 
Strain,  and,  when  cold,  take  off  the  fat.  Where  any  floating 
particles  remain,  they  can  always  be  removed  by  laying  a 
piece  of  soft  paper  on  the  broth  for  a moment.  Cut  the  breast 
in  long  strips,  and  the  rest  of  the  meat  in  small  pieces.  Boil  two 
or  three  eggs  hard,  and,  when  cold,  cut  in  thin  slices.  Slice  a 
lemon  very  thin.  Dissolve  half  a package  of  gelatine  in  a little 
cold  water;  heat  the  broth  to  boiling-point,  and  add  a salt- 
spoonful  of  mace,  and,  if  liked,  a glass  of  sherry,  though  it  is 


HOUSEHOLD. 


623 


not  necessary,  pouring  it  on  the  gelatine.  Choose  a pretty 
mold,  and  lay  in  strips  of  the  breast;  then  a layer  of  egg  slices, 
putting  them  close  against  the  mold.  Nearly  fill  with  chicken, 
laid  in  lightly;  then  strain  on  the  broth  till  it  is  nearly  full,  and 
set  in  a cold  place.  Dip  for  an  instant  in  hot  water  before 
turning  out.  It  is  nice  as  a supper  or  lunch  dish,  and  very 
pretty  in  effect. 

Turkey  and  Chicken  Stuffing. — Three  teacups  of 
grated  bread  crumbs  (no  crust  and  not  a drop  of  water),  one 
cup  finely  chopped  suet,  two-thirds  of  a cup  of  chopped  pars- 
ley, a tablespoonful  of  sweet  marjoram  and  summer  savory, 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  pepper,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  or 
two  eggs,  beaten. 

To  Boil  a Chicken  or  Turkey. — It  is  not  every  house- 
wife who  knows  how  best  to  boil  a chicken.  Plain,  artless 
boiling  is  apt  to  produce  a yellowish,  slimy  looking  fowl. 
Before  cooking,  the  bird  should  always  be  well  washed  in  tepid 
water  and  lemon  juice,  and  to  insure  whiteness,  delicacy  and 
succulence,  should  be  boiled  in  a soup  of  flour  and  water; 
after  being  put  in  the  boiling  water  should  be  allowed  to  sim- 
mer slowly.  This  method  is  very  effectual  in  preserving  all 
the  juices  of  the  fowl,  and  the  result  is  a more  toothsome  and 
nourishing  morsel  than  the  luckless  bird  which  has  been  “ gal- 
loped to  death”  in  plain  boiling. 

Escalloped  Turkey. — Take  the  remains  of  cold  turkey, 
from  which  remove  all  the  bones  and  gristle;  chop  the  meat  in 
small  pieces.  Place  in  an  earthen  dish  a layer  of  powdered 
cracker,  moistened  with  milk;  then  add  a layer  of  turkey  sea- 
soned with  pepper  and  salt,  then  another  layer  of  powdered 
cracker,  and  then  one  of  turkey,  and  so  on  until  the  dish  is 
filled;  over  that  pour  the  gravy  you  may  have  left,  or  a little 
hot  water  and  butter.  Finish  the  top  with  the  powdered 
cracker,  moisten  with  a beaten  egg  and  sweet  milk,  bake  one 
hour.  Cover  the  dish  for  the  first  half  hour,  that  the  top  may 
not  become  too  brown. 

Prairie  Chickens,  Partridges  and  Quail.— Clean  nicely, 
using  a little  soda  in  the  water  in  which  they  are  washed;  rinse 
them  and  drain,  and  fill  w#h  dressing,  sewing  them  up  nicely, 


624 


HOUSEHOLD. 


and  binding  down  the  legs  and  wings  with  cord.  Put  them  in 
a steamer  and  let  them  cook  ten  minutes.  Then  put  them  in  a 
pan  with  a little  butter,  set  them  in  the  oven  and  baste  fre- 
quently until  of  a nice  brown.  They  ought  to  brown  in  about 
thirty-five  minutes.  Serve  them  in  a platter  with  sprigs  of 
parsley  alternated  with  currant  jelly. 

A Nice  Way  to  Cook  Pigeons. — Stuff  the  birds  with  a 
rich  bread  dressing;  place  compactly  in  an  iron  or  earthen 
dish;  season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter  (or,  if  you  like  best, 
thin  slices  of  salt  pork  over  the  top),  dredge  thickly  with  flour 
and  nearly  cover  them  with  water.  Then  put  over  a closely 
fitting  plate  or  cover,  and  place  the  dish  in  a moderate  oven, 
from  two  to  four,  or  even  five,  hours,  according  to  the  age  of 
the  birds.  If  the  birds  are  old  and  tough,  this  is  the  best  way 
they  can  be  cooked,  and  they  may  be  made  perfectly  tender 
and  much  sweeter  than  by  any  other  process.  If  the  gravy  is 
insufficient,  add  a little  water  before  dishing. 

To  Pot  Birds. — Prepare  them  as  for  roasting.  Fill  each 
with  a dressing  made  as  follows:  Allow  for  each  bird  of  the 
size  of  a pigeon  one-half  of  a hard  boiled  egg,  chopped  fine, 
a tablespoonful  of  bread  crumbs,  a teaspoonful  of  chopped 
pork;  season  the  bird  with  pepper  and  salt;  stuff  them,  lay 
them  in  a kettle  that  has  a tight  cover.  Place  over  the  birds  a 
few  slices  of  pork,  add  a pint  of  water,  dredge  over  them  a 
little  flour,  cover  and  put  them  in  a hot  oven.  Let  them  cook 
until  tender,  then  add  a little  cream  and  butter.  If  the  sauce 
is  too  thin,  thicken  with  flour.  One  pint  of  water  is  sufficient 
for  twelve  birds. 

Quail  on  Toast. — After  the  birds  are  well  cleaned,  cut 
them  open  on  the  back,  salt  and  pepper  them,  and  dredge  them 
very  lightly  with  flour.  Break  them  down  so  they  will  lie  flat, 
and  broil  them  on  a gridiron,  or  place  them  in  a pan  with  a 
little  butter  and  a little  water  in  a hot  oven,  covering  them 
closely  for  awhile,  until  about  done.  Then  take  them  up  and 
place  in  a spider  on  top  of  the  stove,  and  let  them  fry  a nice 
brown.  Have  ready  slices  of  baker’s  bread  well  toasted  and 
slightly  buttered.  The  toast  should  be  broken  down  with  a 
carving  knife  to  make  the  crust  tender;  on  this  place  your 
quails.  Make  a gravy  of  the  drippings  in  the  pan,  thickened 


HOUSEHOLD. 


625 


very  lightly  with  browned  flour,  and  pour  over  each  quail. 
The  quails  should  only  be  allowed  to  fry  just  long  enough  to 
brown  nicely,  and  not  long  enough  to  dry  out;  five  minutes 
ought  to  be  sufficient. 

Fricassee  Chicken. — Cut  up,  wash  and  dry  a pair  of 
chickens,  put  into  a stewpan  a tablespoonful  of  butter;  let  it 
boil;  lay  the  chickens  into  this  and  shake  them  about,  turning 
them  and  giving  each  piece  a little  glazed  look;  then  add  water 
enough  to  cover  the  fowls,  and  let  stew  slowly  from  forty  min- 
utes to  an  hour.  Just  before  serving  let  it  come  to  a keen  boil, 
and  stir  in  a teacupful  of  milk  or  sweet  cream,  in  which  a heap- 
ing tablespoonful  of  flour  has  been  stirred.  Let  it  cook  five 
minutes  and  pour  into  a dish  over  which  some  freshly  baked 
powder  biscuits  have  been  opened  and  spread.  Season  with 
salt  and  pepper. 

Escalloped  Chicken. — Cold  chicken,  chiefly  the  white 
meat,  one  cup  of  gravy,  one  tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  one 
egg,  well  beaten,  one  cup  of  fine  "bread  crumbs,  pepper  and  salt* 
Take  from  the  chicken  all  gristle  and  skin,  and  cut,  not  chop, 
into  pieces  not  less  than  half  an  inch  long.  Have  ready  the 
gravy,  or  some  rich  drawn  butter  in  a saucepan  on  the  fire. 
Thicken  it  well,  and  stir  into  it  the  chicken;  boil  up  once,  take 
it  off  and  add  the  beaten  egg;  cover  the  bottom  of  a buttered 
dish  with  bread  crumbs,  pour  in  the  mixture,  and  put  in  another 
thick  layer  of  crumbs  on  top,  sticking  butter  all  over  it.  Bake 
to  a delicate  brown  in  a quick  oven.  Turkey  may  be  used 
instead  of  chicken;  also  veal. 

Chicken  Pie. — Stew  until  tender  two  chickens  in  just 
enough  water  to  stew  them.  Make  a nice  crust,  line  a deep 
dish  with  it;  when  the  chickens  are  done  remove  all  the  bones; 
put  the  chickens  into  the  dish  in  which  they  are  to  be  baked; 
thicken  the  gravy  with  a little  flour  and  cream;  add  a can  of 
oysters;  season  with  salt,  pepper  and  butter;  cover  the  pie  with 
a crust,  and  bake  quickly.  This  is  very  nice. 

Rice  and  Chicken  Pie. — Boil  a pint  or  more  of  rice; 
stir  in  a teaspoonful  of  butter,  a little  milk,  two  eggs  and  a little 
salt.  Fricassee  two  chickens;  cover  the  bottom  of  a long 
dish  with  rice,  then  a layer  of  chicken,  and  so  on,  until  it  is 


household: 


G26 


full;  save  out  some  of  the  gravy  of  the  fricassee  to  eat  on  the 
rice;  cover  the  whole  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg  and  brown  it. 
Curry  may  be  put  into  the  chicken  if  liked.  One  chicken 
makes  a good  sized  dish. 

Chicken  Jelly. — Boil  the  chicken  until  tender;  cut  with  a 
knife  fine,  put  it  in  a dish  or  mold;  season  with  salt,  pepper,  a 
little  summer  savory  and  a teaspoonful  of  vinegar;  boil  the 
bones  in  the  broth  awhile  and  pour  over.  When  cold  it  will 
turn  out. 

To  Choose  a Goose. — Be  careful  in  choosing  a goose  that 
it  is  young;  an  old  goose  is  very  poor  fare.  If  the  skin  and 
joints  are  tender  and  easily  broken  with  the  finger,  it  is  young; 
a fat  goose  is  best.  The  feet  and  bill  of  a young  goose  are 
yellow;  in  an  old  one  they  are  red.  When  fresh  killed,  the  feet 
are  pliable;  if  stale,  they  will  be  dry  and  stiff.  The  loose  fat 
from  the  inside  of  a goose  should  be  taken  out,  and  the  fat 
from  the  lower  part  of  the  back.  Goose  grease  may  be  used 
medically,  but  not  for  eating.  Some  persons  use  it  for  making 
pie  crust  and  for  common  molasses  cake  instead  of  other  short- 
ening. 

To  Roast  a Goose. — Pick  it  perfectly  clean,  cut  off  the 
legs  at  the  joints,  and  singe  it  nicely;  cut  off  the  vent,  cut  a 
slit  from  the  breast  bone  to  it,  or  across,  below  the  breast  bone; 
draw  out  the  entrails,  take  off  that  leading  to  the  vent;  take  out 
all  the  loose  fat;  save  the  heart  and  liver;  cut  a slit  at  the  back 
of  the  neck,  and  draw  out  the  crop;  cut  off  a part  of  the  neck, 
leave  enough  of  the  skin  to  fasten  over  against  the  back;  wash 
the  inside  of  the  body  with  cold  water,  wipe  it  dry,  and  rub  it 
well  with  a mixture  of  salt  and  pepper;  prepare  the  stuffing. 

Cut  a sixpenny  loaf  of  wheat  bread  in  slices;  pour  hot  water 
over  to  wet  them;  then  add  a teaspoonful  of  salt  and  the  same 
of  ground  pepper,  and  quarter  of  a pound  of  sweet  butter,  with 
a tablespoonful  of  finely  powdered  sage  or  thyme,  if  liked.  Fill 
the  body,  then  sew  up  the  slit,  tie  the  ends  of  the  legs  together, 
or  cut  a place  and  put  them  in  the  body;  pass  a skewer  through 
the  hips;  put  the  heart  and  liver  between  the  wings  and  the 
body,  and  fasten  close  to  it  with  a skewer;  spit  it;  put  a pint  of 
water  in  the  pan  to  baste  with;  have  a bright,  steady  and  clear 
fise,  with  a bed  of  coals  at  the  bottom,  and  set  the  goose  at  a 


HOUSEHOLD. 


627 


little  distance  at  first,  until  it  is  heated  through;  put  a teaspoon- 
ful of  salt  to  the  water  in  the  pan,  and  baste  freely  with  it  after 
it  has  begun  to  roast;  put  one  side  to  the  fire  first,  then  the 
other;  after  that  the  back,  and  lasiiy  the  breast,  that  it  may  be 
evenly  done;  gradually  draw  it  nearer  the  fire;  when  nearly 
done,  stir  up  the  fire,  put  quarter  of  a pound  of  butter  in  the 
pan  and  baste  with  it;  dredge  a little  flour  over  it;  turn  it  that 
every  part  may  be  browned;  allow  fifteen  minutes  for  each 
pound  of  meat.  It  must  be  well  done,  which  will  depend  on 
the  state  and  management  of  the  fire. 

If  the  gravy  is  very  fat,  take  some  of  it  off;  put  the  pan  over 
the  fire,  let  it  become  hot,  then  stir  into  it  a thin  batter  made 
of  a tablespoonful  of  wheat  flour  and  cold  water;  stir  it  until  it 
is  brown  and  smooth;  if  it  is  thicker  than  is  liked,  add  a little 
boiling  water;  stir  it  in  and  pour  it  through  a gravy-strainer 
into  a tureen. 

A goose  may  be  equally  well  dressed  in  a hot  oven  or  stove. 
Prepare  it  as  directed  for  roasting;  set  a trivet  or  muffin  rings 
in  a dripping-pan,  and  place  the  goose  with  its  back  upon  the 
trivet  or  rings;  put  a pint  of  hot  water  in  the  pan;  put  bits  of 
butter  the  size  of  a large  hickory  nut  over  the  body;  dredge 
wheat  flour  over,  and  set  in  a thoroughly  heated  brick  or  stove 
oven;  baste  it  freely  and  often;  when  done,  take  it  from  the  pant 
cover  it,  and  set  it  before  the  fire  to  keep  hot;  put  the  pan  over 
the  fire;  take  out  the  rings  or  trivet;  add  a bit  of  butter  the  size 
of  an  egg,  and  when  it  is  hot  stir  it  into  a thin  batter  made  of  a 
tablespoonful  of  wheat  flour  and  cold  water;  if  too  thick,  add 
hot  water  to  thin  it;  stir  it  smooth,  and  pour  through  a gravy- 
strainer  into  a tureen.  A lemon  sliced  thin  and  fried  in  the 
gravy  before  putting  in  the  batter  and  served  over  the  goose, 
or  put  in  the  tureen  with  the  gravy,  is  liked  by  some  persons. 

The  stuffing  may  be  made  of  boiled  potatoes,  chopped  or 
mashed,  instead  of  bread,  and  moistened  with  milk.  An  onion 
or  leek,  finely  minced,  may  be  added  to  the  gravy,  if  liked. 
Half  a pound  of  fat  corned  pork  chopped  small  may  be  put 
with  the  stuffing  instead  of  butter  for  ordinary  occasions,  if 
preferred. 

A young  goose  may  be  cut  up  and  made  in  a pie  or  potpie. 

An  old  goose  may  be  rendered  eatable  thus:  Empty  it  and 


628 


HOUSEHOLD. 


put  it  in  hot  water  to  cover  it,  and  let  it  boil  until  tender,  then 
roast  it  or  make  a fricassee. 

The  vegetables  to  be  served  with  roast  goose  are  as  follows: 
Plain  boiled  or  mashed  potatoes,  mashed  yellow  turnips  or  winter 
squash,  apples  stewed  with  sugar,  or  cranberry  jam,  boiled 
onions,  pickles  and  dressed  celery. 

Dessert — Apple,  pumpkin,  custard  or  mince  pies. 

To  Choose  Ducks. — Ducks  must  be  fat  and  plump  and 
thick  on  the  breast.  If  a duck  is  young,  the  skin  can  be  easily 
broken  with  the  finger,  and  the  feet  are  pliable.  Tame  ducks 
are  prepared  for  the  table  the  same  as  young  geese.  For  roast- 
ing, have  a hot  fire,  and  baste  freely  and  often;  half  an  hour 
will  be  sufficient  for  the  smallest,  the  larger  in  proportion. 
Wild  ducks  should  be  fat,  the  claws  small,  reddish  and  supple; 
if  they  are  not  fresh,  on  opening  the  beak  there  will  be  a dis- 
agreeable smell.  The  flesh  of  the  hen  is  the  most  delicate. 
Pick  them  clean  without  scalding;  cut  the  wings  close  to  the 
body  and  empty  it;  cut  off  a part  of  the  neck,  and  singe  them 
nicely. 

Having  drawn  wild  ducks,  wipe  them  well  inside  with  a 
cloth,  rub  each  outside  and  in  with  a mixture  of  pepper  and 
salt,  cut  a slice  of  white  bread,  dip  it  in  hot  water,  spread  it 
thick  with  butter,  sprinkle  pepper  over  and  put  it  in  the  body, 
sew  it  up,  truss  the  legs  close  to  the  body  and  fasten  them  with 
skewers;  then  split  them  or  lay  them  on  a trivet  in  a dripping- 
pan;  have  a bright,  clear  fire  that  they  may  roast  quickly;  put 
half  a pint  of  water  in  the  pan,  put  to  it  a teaspoonful  of  salt 
and  an  onion  sliced  thin,  baste  with  this  ten  or  twelve  minutes 
(to  take  off  the  fishy  taste  peculiar  to  wild  ducks)  throw  it  away, 
put  half  a pint  of  hot  water  in  its  place,  put  in  a little  pepper, 
baste  the  ducks  with  butter,  dredge  a little  flour  over  and 
^ baste  with  the  water  in  the  pan;  turn  them  that  every  part  may 
be  done.  Half  an  hour,  with  a hot  fire  and  frequent  basting, 
will  roast  them  nicely.  Serve  the  ducks  as  hot  as  possible. 

Whilst  the  ducks  are  roasting,  boil  the  giblets  tender  in  a 
little  water,  chop  or  mince  them  fine,  add  to  the  mince  pepper 
and  salt,  a small  bit  of  butter  and  a tablespoonful  of  browned 
flour,  when  the  ducks  are  done  put  it  in  the  pan  with  the  gravy, 
set  it  over  the  fire,  stir  it  for  a few  minutes,  then  serve  in  a 


HOUSEHOLD. 


629 


tureen.  Make  a glass  of  wine  hot,  put  to  it  a tablespoonful  of 
currant  jelly  and  white  sugar  each,  and  serve  with  ducks,  or 
put  a wineglass  of  port  in  the  pan;  a few  minutes  before  taking 
them  up  baste  the  ducks  once  or  twice  with  it;  add  a table- 
spoonful of  jelly  and  the  gravy. 

Or  half  roast  wild  ducks  without  seasoning.  When  they  are 
brought  to  the  table  slice  the  breast,  strew  over  pepper  and 
salt,  pour  a little  port  wine  over,  or  squeeze  the  juice  of  an 
orange  or  lemon  over;  add  a bit  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg, 
sprinkle  over  a teaspoonful  of  fine  white  sugar,  cut  up  the  bird 
and  set  it  over  a chafing  dish,  turn  it  that  it  may  be  nicely 
done;  or  prepare  it  in  this  manner  and  set  it  on  coals  before  a 
hot  fire. 

Canvas  Back  Ducks. — Canvas  back  ducks  are  served  in 
the  same  manner  as  wild  ducks,  without  the  onion  in  the  bast- 
ing; as  there  is  no  disagreeable  taste  to  destroy,  that  is  not 
necessary.  Canvas  back  ducks  may  be  served  the  same  as 
goose  or  tame  duck.  Roast  them  according  to  their  size. 

Venison. — The  choice  of  venison  is  regulated  by  the  fat, 
which  when  young  is  thick,  clear  and  close.  As  it  always  be- 
gins t©  taint  first  towards  the  haunches,  run  a knife  into  that 
part;  if  it  is  tainted  you  will  perceive  a rank  smell,  and  it  will 
have  a greenish  appearance. 

Venison  Steak  Fried. — Cut  venison  steaks  from  the  leg 
or  loin,  half  an  inch  thick,  dip  them  in  rolled  crackers  or  wheat 
flour;  make  of  lard  and  sweet  butter  equal  parts,  or  beef  drip- 
pings, half  the  size  of  an  egg,  hot  in  a frying  pan,  rub  the  steaks 
over  with  a mixture  of  pepper  and  salt,  cover  the  pan  and  let 
them  fry  quickly,  until  one  side  is  a fine  brown,  then  turn  the 
other,  and  finish  frying  without  the  cover;  take  care  that  they 
are  not  over  done,  then  add  to  the  gravy  a glass  of  red  wine,  or 
a wineglass  of  hot  water,  with  a tablespoonful  of  currant  jelly, 
stir  it  over  the  fire  for  a few  minutes,  then  put  it  in  the  dish 
with  the  meat,  and  serve  as  hot  as  possible.  Steak  dishes  of 
block  tin,  with  heaters,  are  used  for  beef  or  venison.  Lean 
steaks  of  fat  beet  cooked  in  this  way  are  equal  to  venison,  for 
which  the  beef  should  be  kept  till  ready  to  taint,  then  rinse 
them  in  cold  water,  wipe  them  dry,  and  finish  as  directed;  the 
steaks  should  be  cut  small  like  venison, 


630 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Pork. — Spare-Rib.  — Broil  the  blade-bone  and  spare-rib 
nicely  over  a bright  clear  fire  of  coals;  let  it  be  well  done.  It  is 
best  to  cover  it  whilst  on  the  gridiron,  as  by  so  doing  it  is 
sooner  done  and  the  sweetness  is  kept  in.  Put  the  inside  to 
the  fire  first,  and  let  it  be  done  nearly  through  before  turning 
it;  when  done,  take  it  on  a hot  dish,  butter  it  well,  season  with 
pepper  and  salt,  and  serve  hot. 

Sausage  Meat. — Take  of  pork  three-quarters,  and  one  of 
beef,  chop  it  fine,  put  four  ounces  of  fine  salt,  and  one  of  pep- 
per to  every  ten  pounds  of  meat;  mix  the  seasoning  well  into 
the  meat;  then  put  it  in  small  muslin  bags,  tie  them  close,  and 
hang  them  in  a dry,  cool  cellar.  When  wanted  for  use,  cut  it 
in  slices,  or  form  it  in  small  cakes,  flour  the  outside  of  each, 
and  fry  in  hot  lard.  Let  them  be  nicely  browned.  Serve 
with  boiled  vegetables.  Fine  hominy  may  be  boiled  and  served 
with  them  for  breakfast. 

Pork  Sausages. — Take  such  a proportion  of  fat  and  lean 
pork  as  you  like,  chop  it  quite  fine,  and  for  every  ten  pounds 
of  meat  take  four  ounces  of  fine  salt,  and  one  of  fine  pepper; 
dried  sage  or  lemon  thyme,  finely  powdered,  may  be  added,  if 
liked;  a teaspoonful  of  sage,  and  the  same  of  ground  allspice 
and  cloves,  to  each  ten  pounds  of  meat.  Mix  the  seasoning 
through  the  meat,  pack  it  down  in  stone  pots,  or  put  it  in  mus- 
lin bags.  Or  fill  the  hog’s  or  ox’s  guts,  having  first  made  them 
perfectly  clean,  thus:  empty  them,  cut  them  in  lengths,  and  lay 
them  three  or  four  days  in  salt  and  water,  or  weak  lime  water; 
turn  them  inside  out  once  or  twice;  scrape  them;  then  rinse 
them  and  fill  with  the  meat. 

To  Roast  a Pig. — Thoroughly  clean  the  pig;  then  rinse  it 
in  cold  water,  wipe  it  dry;  then  rub  the  inside  with  a mixture 
of  salt  and  pepper,  and,  if  liked,  a little  pounded  and  sifted 
sage;  make  a stuffing  thus:  cut  some  wheat  bread  in  slices  half 
an  inch  thick,  spread  butter  on  to  half  its  thickness,  sprinkled 
with  pepper  and  salt,  and,  if  liked,  a little  pounded  sage  and 
minced  onion;  pour  enough  hot  water  over  the  bread  to  make 
it  moist  or  soft,  then  fill  the  body  with  it  and  sew  it  together, 
or  tie  a cord  around  it  to  keep  the  dressing  in,  then  spit;  put 
a pint  of  water  in  the  dripping-pan,  put  into  it  a tablespoonful 
of  salt,  and  a teaspoonful  of  pepper,  let  the  fire  be  hotter  at 


HOUSEHOLD. 


631 


each  end  than  in  the  middle,  put  the  pig  down  at  a little  dis- 
tance from  the  fire,  baste  it  as  it  begins  to  roast,  and  gradually 
draw  it  nearer;  continue  to  baste  occasionally,  turn  it  that  it  may 
be  evenly  cooked;  when  the  eyes  drop  out  it  is  done;  or  a bet- 
ter rule  is  to  judge  by  the  weight,  fifteen  minutes  for  each 
pound  of  meat,  if  the  fire  is  right. 

Ha  e a bright,  clear  fire  with  a bed  of  coals  at  the  bottom; 
first  put  the  roast  at  a little  distance,  and  gradually  draw  it 
nearer;  when  the  pig  is  done  stir  up  the  fire,  take  a coarse  cloth 
with  a good  bit  of  butter  in  it,  and  wet  the  pig  all  over  with  it, 
and  when  the  cracking  is  crisp  take  it  up;  dredge  a little  flour 
into  the  gravy,  let  it  boil  up  once,  and  having  boiled  the  heart, 
liver,  etc.,  tender,  and  chopped  it  fine,  add  to  it  the  gravy, 
give  it  one  boil,  then  serve. 

To  Bake  a Pig. — Prepare  a pig  as  for  roasting,  and  lay  it 
on  a trivet  or  on  muffin  rings  in  a dripping-pan,  stick  bits  of 
butter  all  over  it,  sprinkle  pepper  and  salt  over,  and  dredge 
some  flour  over;  put  in  a pint  or  more  of  water  in  the  pan,  then 
set  it  in  a quick  or  hot  oven,  baste  frequently,  when  nearly 
done,  baste  with  a spoonful  of  butter,  and  close  the  oven  to 
finish;  then  take  it  up,  dredge  a tablespoonful  of  flour  to  the 
gravy,  set  it  over  the  fire  to  brown,  stir  it  smooth,  and  if  nec- 
essary add  a little  hot  water,  let  it  boil  up  once,  then  strain  it 
and  serve  with  the  pig.  Pig  to  roast  or  bake  may  be  stuffed 
with  boiled  potatoes,  seasoned  with  butter,  pepper  and  salt, 
and  made  soft  with  a cup  of  milk. 

Sauces  to  Serve  with  Roast  Pig  or  Pork. — Mashed 
potatoes,  boiled  onions,  turnips  mashed,  pickled  beets,  man- 
goes of  cucumbers,  or  dressed  celery  and  cranberry  sauce, 
stewed  apples  or  currant  jelly. 

To  Roast  a Loin. — Take  a sharp  penknife  and  cut  the 
skin  across,  then  cut  over  it  in  the  opposite  direction  so  as  to 
form  small  squares  or  diamonds;  rub  every  part  of  it  with  a 
mixture  of  salt  and  pepper,  put  bits  of  butter  the  size  of  a 
hickory  nut  over  the  skin  side,  and  roast  or  bake  it;  serve  with 
the  gravy,  boiled  potatoes  mashed,  turnips  mashed,  and  dressed 
celery  or  pickles,  and  tart  apples  stewed  without  sugar. 

Pork  Tender  Loin. — This  part  of  pork  is  the  most  deli- 


632 


HOUSEHOLD. 


cate;  it  may  be  got  where  pork  is  cut  up  for  packing  or  salting. 
It  may  be  fried  or  broiled;  if  it  is  too  thick,  split  it  in  two. 
Steaks  cut  from  the  tender-loin  are  nice,  but  not  equal  to  the 
tender-loin  which  is  cut  with  the  grain;  steaks  are  cut  across  it. 
The  chine  of  pork  may  be  roasted. 

Pig’s  Feet  Soused. — Scald  and  scrape  clean  the  feet;  if  the 
covering  of  the  toes  will  not  come  off  without,  singe  them  in 
hot  embers  until  they  are  loose,  then  take  them  off.  Many 
persons  lay  them  in  a weak  lime-water  to  whiten  them.  Having 
scraped  them  clean  and  white,  wash  them  and  put  them  in  a 
pot  of  hot  (not  boiling)  water,  with  a little  salt,  and  let  them 
boil  gently,  until,  by  turning  a fork  in  the  flesh,  it  will  easily 
break,  and  the  bones  are  loosened.  Take  off  the  scum  as  it 
rises.  When  done,  take  them  from  the  hot  water  into  cold 
vinegar,  enough  to  cover  them;  add  to  it  one-third  as  much  of 
the  water  in  which  they  were  boiled;  add  whole  pepptr  and 
allspice,  with  cloves  and  mace,  if  liked;  put  a cloth  and  tight- 
fitting  cover  over  the  pot  or  jar.  Boil  until  the  bones  are  loose. 
Soused  feet  may  be  eaten  cold  from  the  vinegar,  split  in  two 
from  top  to  toe;  or,  having  split  them,  dip  them  in  wheat  flour 
and  fry  in  hot  lard,  or  broil  and  butter  them.  In  either  case, 
let  them  be  nicely  browned. 

To  Boil  Ham. — Wash  the  ham  in  cold  water  two  or  three 
times,  and  put  it  into  a kettle  of  hot  (not  boiling)  water  to 
cover  it;  let  it  boil  gently  according  to  its  weight  (fifteen 
minutes  to  each  pound);  it  must  be  kept  slowly  boiling  all  the 
time;  keep  the  pot  covered,  except  to  take  off  the  scum  as  it 
rises;  if  it  is  likely  to  boil  over,  take  the  lid  partly  off. 

Putting  meat  down  to  boil  in  cold  water  draws  out  its  juices. 
Hard  or  fast  boiling  makes  it  tough  and  hard.  Ham  which 
has  been  smoked  a long  time,  should  be  soaked  over  night. 
I When  it  is  done,  take  off  the  skin,  trim  off  the  under  side 
neatly,  and  put  spots  of  pepper,  and  stick  cloves  at  regular 
intervals,  over  the  whole  upper  surface;  or  dredge  it  well 
with  wheat  flour  or  rolled  crackers,  and  brown  it  in  a hot 
oven,  or  before  a hot  fire.  Serve  hot  with  the  gravy  from  it 
and  boiled  vegetables;  or  it  may  be  served  cold.  Trim  the 
bone  with  parsley,  or  the  delicate  leaves  of  celery,  and  put 
sprigs  of  the  same  around  it  on  the  dish;  lemon  sliced  and 


HOUSEHOLD. 


63$ 

dipped  in  flour  or  batter  and  fried,  may  be  laid  over  the  ham 
and  on  the  dish.  Mashed  potatoes,  stewed  apple,  or  cranberry, 
celery,  or  boiled  spinach,  or  cauliflower  and  mashed  turnips  are 
served  with  hot  ham. 

With  cold  ham  serve  pickles  or  dressed  celery,  or  both,  and 
bread  and  butter  sandwich. 

To  Boil  a Leg  of  Pork. — Take  a leg  of  pork  which  has 
been  in  pickle  for  three  or  four  days,  soak  it  for  half  an  hour 
in  cold  water  to  make  it  look  white;  then  tie  it  in  a nicely 
floured  cloth,  and  put  it  in  hot  water  to  cover  it.  Boil  the  same 
as  ham.  When  done,  take  a small  sharp  knife,  and  cut  through 
th^  skin  in  a straight  line  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  apart;  put 
spots  of  pepper  over  and  serve  with  the  same  vegetables  as  for 
ham;  or  with  mashed  potatoes,  turnips  mashed,  and  pickles  or 
tart  apples  stewed  without  sugar.  Currant  jelly  or  cranberries 
may  be  served  with  ham  or  leg  of  pork. 

Pig’s  Cheek — Is  smoked  and  boiled  like  ham  with  vegeta- 
bles; boiled  cabbage  or  fried  parsnips  maybe  served  with  it. 

Pork  Chops,  Steaks  and  Cutlets. — Fry  or  stew  pork 
chops,  after  taking  off  the  rind  or  skin,  the  same  as  for  veal. 
Cutlets  and  steaks  are  also  fried,  broiled,  or  stewed,  the  same 
as  veal. 

To  Fry  or  Broil  Salt  Pork  and  Bacon. — Cut  some 
slices  from  corned  pork,  or  streaked  bacon  (fat  and  lean),  put 
them  in  a pan,  pour  boiling  water  over,  set  it  over  the  fire,  and 
let  it  boil  up  once;  then  pour  the  water  off,  and  fry  them  in 
their  own  fat,  sprinkle  with  pepper,  and,  if  liked,  a little  dried 
sage,  or  thyme,  pounded  fine;  when  both  sides  are  nicely 
browned,  take  them  up,  put  a little  hot  water  or  some  vinegar 
in  the  pan,  let  it  boil  up  once,  and  put  it  in  the  dish  with  the 
meat.  Or,  having  fried  the  meat,  dredge  a teaspoonful  of 
flour  into  the  gravy;  while  it  is  hot,  stir  it  about;  then  add 
a little  hot  water,  stir  it  smooth,  and  pour  into  the  dish  with 
the  meat. 

To  Broil. — After  having  parboiled  the  slices  with  plenty 
of  water  in  the  pan,  lay  them  on  a gridiron,  over  a bright  fire 
of  coals;  sprinkle  a little  pepper  over;  when  both  sides  are 
done,  put  them  on  a hot  dish,  put  a little  butter  over  and 


634 


HOUSEHOLD. 


serve.  Or,  whilst  broiling,  dip  the  slices  several  times  into  a 
dish  of  hot  water. 

Salt  pork  is  very  nice  fried  thus:  Cut  it  in  thin  slices,  put 
them  in  the  frying-pan  with  hot  water  to  cover  them;  set  it 
over  the  fire,  let  it  boil  up  once,  then  pour  off  the  water,  shake 
a little  pepper  over  the  meat,  and  fry  it  nicely  in  its  own  fat, 
both  sides;  then  take  it  up,  add  to  the  gravy  a large  teaspoon- 
ful of  flour,  stir  it  smooth;  then  put  to  it  a cup  of  milk, 
stir  over  the  fire  for  a few  minutes,  shake  pepper  over,  and  put 
it  in  the  dish  with  the  meat. 

Cold  boiled  potatoes,  sliced  thin,  may  be  fried  in  the  pan, 
after  pork  or  bacon,  and  served  with  it;  parsnips  boiled,  cut 
in  thin  slices  and  fried,  may  also  be  served  with  fried  salt  meat. 
Or,  having  boiled  some  cabbage  or  spinach,  and  pressed  all  the 
water  from  it,  cut  it  small,  put  it  on  a steak  dish,  lay  the  fried 
meat  on  it,  and  pour  the  gravy  over.  Vinegar  is  generally 
eaten  with  the  vegetables. 

To  Fry  Ham. — Cut  some  large-  slices  from  the  large  end 
of  the  ham,  take  off  the  skin,  put  them  in  a frying-pan,  and 
pour  hot  water  over;  set  if  over  the  fire  and  let  it  boil  up  once, 
then  pour  the  water  off,  take  the  slices  up,  put  a spoonful  of 
lard  in  the  frying-pan  and  let  it  become  hot;  dip  the  slices  in 
rolled  cracker  or  wheat  flour,  and  fry  them  a nice  brown;  when 
one  side  is  done,  turn  the  other;  then  take  them  on  a dish,  put 
a very  little  water  in  the  pan,  let  it  boil  up  once,  put  it  over 
the  meat.  Or,  if  a flour  gravy  is  wanted,  make  a thin  batter 
with  a teaspoonful  of  flour  and  cold  water,  and  stir  it  into 
the  gravy  in  the  pan,  let  it  brown,  and,  if  too  thick,  put  a little 
hot  water  to  it,  stir  it  smooth,  and  serve  with  the  meat. 

To  Broil  Ham. — Cut  some  slices  of  ham,  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick,  lay  them  in  hot  water  for  half  an  hour,  or  give 
them  a scalding  in  a pan  over  the  fire,  then  take  them  up  and 
lay  them  on  a gridiron  over  bright  coals;  then  take  the  slices 
on  a hot  dish,  butter  them  freely,  sprinkle  pepper  over  and 
serve.  Or,  after  scalding  them,  wipe  them  dry,  dip  each  slice 
in  beaten  egg,  and  then  into  rolled  crackers  and  fry  or  broil. 

Ham  Gravy. — When  a ham  is  almost  done  with,  cut 
off  what  meat  remains  on  the  bone,  break  or  saw  the  bones 
small,  and  put  it  into  a saucepan  with  hot  water  to  cover  it; 


HOUSEHOLD. 


635 


set  th*  stewpan  over  the  fire  and  let  it  simmer  gently;  then 
strain  it,  add  a little  pepper  and  fine  sage,  if  liked,  dredge  in  a 
tablespoonful  of  browned  flour,  and  add  a bit  of  butter;  stir  it 
over  the  fire  for  a few  minutes;  then,  having  toasted  some 
slices  of  bread  a nice  brown,  lay  them  in  a dish  and  serve  the 
gravy  over.  Or,  serve  ham  gravy  with  boiled  vegetables. 

Ham  and  Eggs  Fried. — Cut  some  nice  slices  of  ham,  put 
them  in  a frying-pan,  cover  them  with  hot  water,  and  set  the 
pan  over  the  fire,  let  it  boil  up  once  or  twice,  then  take  out  the 
slices  and  throw  out  the  water;  put  a bit  of  lard  in  the  pan,  dip 
the  slices  in  wheat  flour  or  rolled  crackers,  and,  when  the  fat  is 
hot,  put  them  in  the  pan,  sprinkle  a little  pepper  over;  when 
both  sides  are  a fine  brown,  take  them  on  a steak  dish,  put  a 
little  boiling  water  into  the  pan,  and  put  it  in  the  dish  with  the 
meat. 

Now  put  a bit  of  lard  the  size  of  a large  egg  into  the  pan, 
add  a saltspoonful  to  it,  let  it  become  hot;  break  six  or  eight 
eggs  carefully  into  a bowl,  then  slip  them  into  the  hot  lard,  set 
the  pan  ever  a gentle  fire;  when  the  white  begins  to  set,  pass  a 
knife  blade  so  as  to  divide  an  equal  quantity  of  white  to  each 
yolk,  cut  it  entirely  through  to  the  pan  that  they  may  cook  the 
more  quickly;  when  done,  take  each  one  up  with  a skimmer 
spoon,  and  lay  them  in  a chain  around  the  meat  on  the  dish. 
Fried  eggs  should  not  be  turned  in  the  pan. 

Poached  Eggs  with  Fried  Ham. — Fry  the  ham  as  above 
directed,  take  a clean  frying  or  omelet  pan,  nearly  fill  it  with 
boiling  water,  set  it  over  a gentle  fire,  break  the  eggs  singly 
into  a cup  and  slip  each  one  into  the  boiling  water,  cover  the 
pan  for  four  or  five  minutes;  when  done,  take  them  up  with  a 
skimmer  on  to  a dish,  sprinkle  a little  pepper  and  salt  over, 
add  a small  bit  of  butter,  and  serve  in  a dish  or  over  the  ham. 

Pork  and  Beans. — Take  two  quarts  of  dried  white  beans 
(the  small  ones  are  best),  pick  out  any  imperfections,  and  put 
them  to  soak  in  hot  water,  more  than  to  cover  them,  let  them 
remain  one  night;  the  next  day,  about  two  hours  before  dinner 
time,  throw  off  the  water,  have  a pound  of  nicely  corned  pork; 
a rib  piece  is  best;  put  the  beans  in  an  iron  dinner-pot,  score 
th-e  rind  or  skin  of  the  pork  in  squares  or  diamonds,  and  lay  it 
on  the  beans,  put  in  hot  (not  boiling)  water  to  cover  them,  add 
39 


636 


HOUSEHOLD. 


a small  dried  red-pepper,  or  a saltspoonful  of  cayenne,  cover 
the  pot  close,  and  set  it  over  a gentle  fire  for  one  hour;  then 
take  a tin  basin  or  earthen  pudding-pan,  rub  the  inside  over 
with  a bit  of  butter,  and  nearly  fill  it  with  the  boiled  beans, 
lay  the  pork  in  the  centre,  pressing  it  down  a little,  put  small 
bits  of  butter  over  the  beans,  dredge  a little  flour  over  them 
and  the  pork,  and  set  it  in  a moderately  hot  oven  for  nearly 
one  hour. 

Serve  in  the  dish  in  which  it  was  baked,  thus:  Lay  a nicely 
fringed  small  napkin  on  a dinner  plate,  set  the  basin  or  pan  on 
that,  turn  the  corners  of  the  napkin  up  against  it,  and  keep  it 
in  place  by  sprigs  of  green  parsley  or  celery  leaves  on  the  plate 
under  it,  and  so  continue  a wreath  around  the  dish,  concealing 
the  pan  entirely.  Serve  pickles  and  mashed  potatoes  with  it. 

Succotash. — Take  of  dried  sweet  corn  and  white  beans, 
one  quart  of  dried  sweet  corn  to  one  or  two  of  beans.  Put  the 
beans  to  soak  in  a basin  with  water  to  cover  them;  rinse  the 
corn  in  cold  water,  and  put  them  in  a basin  with  water  to  cover 
it,  let  them  remain  until  the  next  day;'  within  two  hours  of  din- 
ner time,  pour  the  water  from  the  beans,  pick  out  any  imper- 
fections, and  put  them  with  the  corn,  with  the  water  in  which 
it  is  soaked,  into  a dinner-pot;  cut  a pound  of  nicely  corned 
pork  in  thin  slices,  put  it  to  the  corn  and  beans,  and  put  over 
them  hot  water,  rather  more  than  to  cover  them,  add  a very 
small  red  pepper,  or  a saltspoonful  or  cayenne,  and  cover  the 
pot  close;  set  it  where  it  will  boil  very  gently,  for  an  hour 
and  a half,  then  put  it  in  a deep  dish,  add  a bit  of  butter  to  it 
and  serve.  The  pork  may  be  scored,  and  not  cut  up,  if  pre- 
ferred, and  served  in  a separate  dish. 

To  Boil  Salted  or  Corned  Beef. — Wash  the  brine  from 
a piece  of  corned  beef  and  put  it  in  a pot  of  hot  (not  boiling) 
water,  take  off  the  scum  as  it  rises,  then  try  if  it  is  tender;  let 
it  boil  gently.  When  it  is  done,  take  it  up  and  press  it  between 
two  plates. 

Cabbage,  or  spinach,  or  some  other  greens,  are  generally 
boiled  with  salt  beef;  put  down  the  beef  in  time  that  it  may  be 
done  before  it  is  time  to  boil  the  vegetables,  and  set  it  to  press 
while  the  vegetables  are  boiling. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


637 


To  Prepare  the  Cabbage. — Take  off  the  discolored  out- 
side leaves,  and  cut  each  head  in  four;  look  well  between  the 
leaves  to  see  that  no  insects  are  secreted;  wash  the  quarters, 
and  put  them  in  the  water  in  which  the  meat  was  boiled;  set  it 
over  the  fire  and  let  it  boil  fast  for  three  quarters  of  an  hour; 
if  you  wish  tne  potatoes  boiled  with  it,  choose  large,  equal 
sized  ones,  and  put  them  in  with  the  cabbage;  when  they  are 
done  take  the  potatoes  into  a covered  dish,  put  the  cabbage 
into  a cullender,  press  out  all  the  water.  If  you  wish  to  have 
the  meat  hot,  after  pressing  it,  put  it  into  the  pot  ten  minutes 
before  taking  up  the  vegetables.  Serve  the  cabbage  and  pota- 
toes in  covered  dishes,  and  the  meat  on  an  oval  dish. 

Parsnip  Stew. — Cut  half  a pound  of  fat  salt  pork  or  bacon 
in  slices,  and  a pound  of  beef  or  veal  in  bits,  put  them  in  a 
dinner-pot  with  very  little  water.  Scrape  some  parsnips,  and 
cut  them  in  slices  an  inch  thick,  wash  and  put  them  to  the 
meat;  pare  and  cut  six  small  sized  potatoes  in  halves.  Cover 
the  pot  close  and  set  it  over  a bright  fire  for  half  an  hour; 
then  dredge  in  a tablespoonful  of  wheat  flour,  add  a small  bit 
of  butter,  and  a small  teaspoonful  of  pepper,  stir  it  in,  and  set 
it  over  the  fire  to  brown  for  fifteen  minutes.  Take  the  stew 
into  a dish  and  serve. 

Lamb. — To  Choose  Lamb. — The  vein  in  the  neck  of  a fore- 
quarter of  a lamb  will  be  a fine  blue,  if  it  is  fresh;  if  it  is  of  a 
green  or  yellowish  color  it  is  stale. 

The  hind-quarter  first  becomes  tainted  under  the  kidney. 

A fore-quarter  includes  the  shoulder,  neck  and  breast. 

The  pluck  is  sold  with  the  head,  liver,  heart  and  lights. 
The  melt  is  not  used  with  us. 

The  fry  contains  the  sweet-breads,  skirts,  and  some  of  the 
liver. 

Lamb  may  be  hashed,  stewed,  roasted,  fried,  broiled,  or 
made  in  a pie,  the  same  as  veal. 

To  Broil  a Breast  of  Lamb. — Have  a clear,  bright  fire 
of  coals;  when  the  gridiron  is  hot  rub  it  over  with  a bit  of  suet, 
then  lay  on  the  meat,  the  inside  to  the  fire  first,  let  it  broil 
gently  , when  it  is  nearly  cooked  through  turn  the  other  side; 
let  it  brown  nicely,  put  a good  bit  of  butter  on  a steak  dish, 


638 


HOUSEHOLD. 


work  a large  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  a small  one  of  pepper  into 
it,  lay  the  meat  upon  it,  turn  it  once  or  twice,  and  serve  hot. 
The  shoulder  may  be  broiled  in  the  same  manner. 

Lamb  Stewed  with  Peas. — Cut  the  scrag  or  breast  of 
lamb  in  pieces,  and  put  it  in  a stewpan  with  water  enough  to 
cover  it.  Cover  the  stewpan  close,  and  let  it  simmer  or  stew 
for  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes;  take  off  the  scum,  then  add  a 
tablespoonful  of  salt  and  a quart  of  shelled  peas;  cover  the 
stewpan  and  let  them  stew  for  half  an  hour;  work  a small 
tablespoonful  of  wheat  flour  with  a quarter  of  a pound  of  but- 
ter, and  stir  it  into  the  stew;  add  a small  teaspoonful  of 
pepper;  let  it  simmer  together  for  ten  minutes.  Serve  with 
new  potatoes,  boiled.  A blade  of  mace  may  be  added  if 
liked. 

Quarter  of  Lamb  Roasted. — Wash  a quarter  of  lamb 
with  cold  water,  mix  a large  tablespoonful  of  salt,  and  a heaping 
teaspoonful  of  pepper,  and  rub  it  well  over  every  part  of  the 
meat;  then  split  it,  or  lay  it  on  muffin  rings  or  a trivet  in  a 
dripping-pan;  put  a pint  of  water  in  the  pan  to  baste  with,  set 
it  before  the  fire  in  a Dutch  oven  or  reflector,  or  in  a hot  stove 
oven,  baste  very  often  after  it  begins  to  roast;  lay  it  so  that  the 
thickest  part  may  be  nearest  the  fire;  allow  fifteen  minutes  for 
each  pound  of  meat;  baste  with  the  water  in  the  pan  until 
nearly  done;  add  more  to  it  as  it  wastes,  then  put  to  it  a quar- 
ter of  a pound  of  butter,  baste  the  meat  with  it,  dredge  it  white 
with  flour,  stir  up  the  fire  to  brown  it. 

To  Prepare  a Quarter  of  Lamb  For  Broiling. — Wash 
a quarter  of  lamb  in  cold  water,  then  rub  it  all  over  with  a 
mixture  of  salt  and  pepper,  dredge  well  with  wheat  flour,  and 
put  in  a pot  of  hot  (not  boiling)  water;  cover  the  pot  and  let 
it  boil  gently,  allowing  fifteen  minutes  for  each  pound  of  meat; 
take  off  the  scum  as  it  rises.  Served  with  boiled  potatoes  and 
parsley,  or  drawn  butter  sauce,  and  mint  sauce,  and  lettuce 
dressed.  Break  the  leaves  from  some  white  heart  lettuce  and 
rinse  each  one  in  cold  water,  then  cut  them  small,  put  a tea- 
spoonful of  made  mustard  with  a teaspoonfnl  of  sugar,  and 
the  same  of  oil,  beat  them  together  in  a cup;  then  add  enough 
vinegar  to  fill  a cup,  and  pour  it  over  the  lettuce. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


639 


Mutton. — Observations  on  Mutton. — The  pipe  which 
runs  along  the  bone  inside  of  a chine  or  saddle  of  mutton, 
must  be  taken  out.  If  it  is  to  be  kept  any  length  of  time,  wipe 
the  meat  perfectly  dry,  and  rub  pepper  over  it  in  every  part. 
Whenever  you  find  any  moisture,  wipe  it  dry,  rub  it  with  pep- 
per, and  dredge  flour  over.  The  kernels  should  be  taken  out 
by  the  butcher. 

Mutton  for  roasting  or  steaks  should  hang  as  long  as  it  will 
keep  without  tainting.  Let  it  hang  in  the  air  in  a cool,  dry 
place.  Pepper  will  keep  flies  from  it.  The  chine  or  rib  bones 
should  be  wiped  every  day.  The  bloody  part  of  the  neck 
should  be  cut  off.  In  the  breast  the  brisket  changes  first.  In 
the  hind  quarter,  the  part  under  and  about  the  kidneys  is  first 
to  taint.  Mutton  for  stewing  or  broiling  should  not  be  so  long 
kept.  It  will  not  be  so  fine  a color  if  it  is.  The  lean  of  mutton 
should  be  a clear  red,  fine,  close  grain,  and  tender  to  the 
touch.  The  fat  should  be  firm  and  white.  Skewer  a piece 
of  letter  paper  over  the  fat  of  mutton  whilst  roasting.  When 
nearly  done,  take  it  off. 

Haunch  of  Mutton. — Keep  the  haunch  as  long  as  you 
can,  and  have  it  sweet,  wash  it  in  vinegar  and  water  before 
dressing  it.  Before  putting  the  meat  to  the  fire,  rub  it  all  over 
with  a mixture  of  pepper  and  salt;  make  a stiff  paste  of  wheat 
flour  and  water,  roll  it  thin,  and  put  it  over  the  meat;  have  a 
large,  bright  fire,  and  set  the  meat  at  a little  distance  from  it 
(allow  fifteen  minutes  to  each  pound  of  meat);  when  half  done, 
take  off  the  paste,  draw  it  nearer  the  fire,  and  baste  freely 
with  water  from  the  pan;  turn  it  so  that  every  part  may  be 
done;  half  an  hour  before  taking  it  up,  stir  up  the  fire,  put 
quarter  of  a pound  of  butter  in  the  pan,  baste  with  it,  dredge 
the  meat  white  with  flour,  baste  again,  turn  the  meat  over, 
baste  freely,  and  dredge  more  flour  over,  and  baste  again;  the 
fire  must  be  bright  for  finishing.  When  done,  take  it  up,  put 
the  dripping-pan  over  the  fire,  cut  a lemon  in  thin  slices  into 
it,  dredge  in  a large  tablespoonful  of  browned  flour,  stir  it 
smooth  for  ten  minutes,  then  strain  into  a gravy  tureen,  and 
serve  with  the  slices  of  lemon.  Or,  instead  of  a lemon,  put  a 
wineglass  of  port  wine  to  the  gravy. 

Boiled  potatoes,  asparagus;  or  spinach,  dressed  celery,  and 
currant  jelly,  is  served  with  roast  mutton. 


640 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Putting  the  paste  over  the  meat  keeps  in  its  juices,  and 
therefore  makes  it  sweeter.  A gravy  may  be  made  of  a pound 
of  loin  of  mutton,  cut  small  and  simmered  in  a pint  of  water 
till  reduced  to  half;  salt  it  a little,  stir  in  a teaspoonful  of 
browned  flour  and  a little  pepper;  let  it  boil  up  once,  then 
strain  it,  and  serve  with  the  meat  and  currant  jelly. 

A Shoulder  of  Mutton. — Broil  a shoulder  of  mutton 
over  a clear,  bright  fire  of  coals,  let  it  broil  gently,  putting  the 
inside  to  the  fire  first,  cover  it  with  a tin;  when  nearly  done 
through,  turn  it;  let  it  brown  nicely;  when  it  is  done,  take  it 
on  to  a hot  steak  dish,  sprinkle  a small  tablespoonful  of  salt 
and  a teaspoonful  of  pepper  over;  butter  it  freely,  turn  it  once 
or  twice  in  the  seasoning,  turn  the  inside  down,  cover  it  with  a 
tin  cover,  and  serve  hot,  with  boiled  hominy,  or  potatoes,  for 
breakfast.  The  shoulder  may  be  boned,  before  broiling. 

To  Broil  a Breast  of  Mutton. — Parboil  a breast  of 
mutton,  then  wipe  it  dry,  and  broil  it  as  directed  for  shoulder. 

Mutton  Chop  Fried. — Cut  some  fine  mutton  chops  with- 
out much  fat;  rub  over  both  sides  with  a mixture  of  salt  and 
pepper,  dip  them  in  wheat  flour  or  rolled  crackers,  and  fry  in 
hot  lard  or  beef  drippings;  when  both  sides  are  a fine  brown, 
take  them  on  a hot  dish,  put  a wineglass  of  hot  water  in  the 
pan,  let  it  become  hot,  stir  in  a teaspoonful  of  browned  flour, 
let  it  boil  up  once,  and  serve  in  the  pan  with  the  meat.  A 
tablespoonful  of  currant  jelly  may  be  stirred  into  the  gravy,  or 
a wineglass  of  port  wine  instead  of  water.  Or,  cut  a lemon  in 
thin  slices,  take  out  the  pits,  and  fry  them  brown  with  a bit  of 
butter  in  the  pan,  dredge  in  a teaspoonful  of  browned  flour, 
add  a wineglass  of  hot  water,  stir  it  for  a few  minutes  over 
the  fire,  then  serve  in  the  dish  with  the  meat. 

Leg  of  Mutton  Boiled. — -Wash  a leg  of  mutton,  dredge 
it  well  with  flour,  and  wrap  it  in  a cloth,  then  put  it  in  a pot  of 
hot  water,  and  boil  according  to  its  weight.  Serve  with  drawn 
butter  or  parsley  sauce,  with  boiled  vegetables  and  pickles. 

Eggs. — To  Choose  Eggs. — Fresh  eggs,  when  held  to  the 
light,  the  white  will  look  clear,  and  the  yellow  distinct;  if  not 
good,  they  will  have  a clouded  appearance. 

When  eggs  are  stale,  the  white  will  be  thin  and  watery,  and 


HOUSEHOLD. 


641 


the  yolk  will  not  be  a uniform  color,  when  broken;  if  there  is 
no  mustiness,  or  disagreeable  smell,  eggs  in  this  state  are  not 
unfit  for  making  cakes,  puddings,  etc. 

Eggs  for  boiling  should  be  as  fresh  as  possible;  a new  laid 
egg  will  generally  recommend  itself,  by  the  delicate  transpa- 
rency of  its  shell. 

To  Boil  Eggs. — Wash  the  shells  clean  in  cold  water  be- 
fore boiling;  have  a stewpan  of  boiling  water,  into  which  put 
the  eggs;  keep  it  boiling — four  minutes  for  very  soft — five, 
that  the  yolk  only  may  be  soft — six  minutes  will  boil  the  yolk 
hard,  for  eating.  Eight  minutes  are  required  to  boil  eggs  for 
salad  or  garnish.  When  done,  take  them  from  the  boiling 
water,  into  a basin  of  cold  water,  which  will  prevent  the  yolk 
turning  dark  or  black. 

Egg  Omelet. — Five  well-beaten  eggs,  one  and  a half  cups 
of  milk,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  flour;  mix  the  flour  in  a little 
milk,  and  rub  smooth,  then  add  milk  and  flour  to  eggs,  and 
beat  well  together;  grease  well  with  lard  a frying-pan;  put  in 
when  not  very  hot,  a large  teaspoonful,  it  will  cover  about  half; 
turn  with  knife  when  light  brown,  and  roll  up  as  it  browns. 

Ham  Omelet. — One-half  pint  of  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  flour,  three  teaspoonfuls  of  cracker  crumbs,  six  eggs.  Put 
thinly  and  evenly  over  the  griddle;  then  immediately  scatter 
over  it  finely  minced  ham.  Double  it,  then  fold  again  in  a 
quarter  circle. 

Omelet. — Set  a smooth  frying-pan  on  the  fire  to  heat; 
break  five  eggs  into  a bowl;  put  butter  the  size  of  an  egg  into 
a heated  pan,  give  twelve  strong  beats  to  your  eggs,  and,  when 
the  butter  begins  to  boil,  pour  in  the  eggs.  Draw  up  the  eggs 
from  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  but  do  not  stir,  simply  shake  the 
pan.  When  the  bottom  is  well  done,  and  the  top  a little  soft, 
fold  over  and  put  on  a platter.  Serve  immediately.  This  may 
be  varied  by  the  addition  of  three  tablespoonfuls  of  milk. 

Baked  Eggs. — Six  eggs,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  good  gravy, 
veal,  beef  or  poultry;  the  latter  is  particularly  nice;  one  hand- 
ful of  bread  crumbs,  six  rounds  of  buttered  toast  or  fried 
bread.  Put  the  gravy  into  a shallow  baking  dish,  break  the 
eggs  into  this,  pepper  and  salt  them,  and  strew  the  bread 


642 


HOUSEHOLD. 


crumbs  over  them.  Bake  for  five  minutes  in  a quick  oven. 
Take  up  the  eggs  carefully,  one  by  one,  and  lay  upon  the  toast, 
which  must  be  arranged  on  a hot,  flat  dish.  Add  a little 
cream,  and,  if  you  like,  some  very  finely  chopped  parsley  and 
onion  to  the  gravy  left  in  the  baking  dish,  and  turn  it  into  a 
saucepan.  Boil  up  once  quickly,  aud  pour  over  the  eggs. 

Eggs  Sur  le  Prat. — Six  eggs,  one  tablespoonful  of  but- 
ter, or  nice  dripping,  pepper  and  salt  to  taste.  Melt  the  butter 
on  a stone  china  or  tin  plate,  or  shallow  baking  dish.  Break 
the  eggs  carefully  into  this,  dust  lightly  with  pepper  and  salt, 
and  put  into  a moderate  oven  until  the  whites  are  well  set. 
Serve  in  the  dish  in  which  they  were  baked. 

Eggs  Poached  in  Balls. — Put  three  pints  of  boiling 
water  into  a stewpan;  set  it  on  a hot  stove  or  coals;  stir  the 
water  with  a stick  until  it  runs  rapidly  around,  then  having 
broken  an  egg  into  a cup — taking  care  not  to  break  the  yolk — 
drop  it  into  the  whirling  water,  continue  to  stir  it  until  the  egg 
is  cooked;  then  take  into  a dish  with  a skimmer  and  set  it  over 
a pot  of  boiling  water;  boil  one  at  a time,  until  you  have 
enough.  These  will  remain  soft  for  a long  time.  Or,  put 
some  hot  water  in  a frying  pan;  break  in  the  eggs;  let  it  set 
over  the  fire,  without  boiling,  until  they  are  done;  then  serve 
on  toast. 

Sweet-Breads. — Veal  Sweet-Breads — Spoil  very  soon; 
the  moment  they  come  from  the  butcher’s  they  should  be  put 
in  cold  water  to  soak  for  about  an  hour;  lard  them  or  draw  a 
lardoon  of  pork  through  the  centre  of  each  one;  put  into  salt 
boiling  water  or  stock  and  let  boil  for  fifteen  or  twenty  min- 
utes; throw  them  into  cold  water  for  only  a few  moments,  they 
will  now  be  firm  and  white;  remove  carefully  the  skinny  portion 
and  pipes. 

Sweet-Breads  Stewed. — Wash  carefully,  remove  all  bits 
of  skin  and  fatty  matter,  cover  with  cold  water  and  heat  to  a 
boil;  pour  off  the  hot  water  and  cover  with  cold  until  the 
sweet-breads  are  firm.  If  liked,  add  butter  as  for  frying  before 
you  put  in  the  second  water;  stir  in  a very  little  water  the 
second  time.  When  they  are  tender,  add  for  each  sweet-bread 
a heaping  teaspoonful  of  butter,  a little  chopped  parsley,  pep- 


HOUSEHOLD. 


643 


per,  salt,  and  a little  cream.  Let  them  simmer  in  this  gravy 
for  five  minutes.  Send  to  table  in  a covered  dish  with  the 
gravy  poured  over  them. 

Sweet-Breads  Roasted.  — Parboil  and  put  into  cold 
water  for  fifteen  minutes;  change  to  more  cold  water  for  five 
minutes  longer;  wipe  perfectly  dry,  lay  them  in  a dripping-pan 
and  roast,  basting  with  butter  and  water  until  they  begin  to 
brown;  then  withdraw  them  for  an  instant,  roll  in  beaten  egg, 
then  in  cracker  crumbs,  and  return  to  the  fire  for  ten  minutes 
longer,  basting  meanwhile  twice  with  melted  butter.  Keep  hot 
in  a dish  while  you  add  to  the  dripping  half  a cup  of  hot  water, 
some  chopped  parsley,  a teaspoonful  of  browned  flour  and  the 
juice  of  half  a lemon.  Pour  over  the  sweet-breads  and  serve 
at  once. 

Broiled  Sweet-Breads. — Parboil  and  blanch  by  putting 
them  first  in  hot  water  and  keeping  it  at  a fast  boil  for  five 
minutes.  Then  plunging  it  into  ice  cold  water,  a little  salted. 
When  the  sweet-breads  have  lain  in  this  ten  minutes,  wipe 
them  very  dry,  and  with  a sharp  knife  split  them  each  in  half 
lengthwise.  Broil  on  a clear,  hot  fire,  turning  every  minute  as 
they  begin  to  drip.  Have  ready  on  a deep  plate  some  melted 
butter,  well  salted  and  peppered,  mixed  with  catsup  or  pungent 
sauce.  When  the  sweet-breads  are  done  to  a fine  brown,  lay 
them  in  this,  turning  them  over  several  times,  and  set  covered 
in  a warm  oven.  Lay  toast  upon  a plate  or  chafing-dish  and  a 
sweet-bread  on  each,  and  pour  the  hot  butter,  in  which  they 
have  been  lying,  over  them,  and  send  to  the  table. 

Vegetables. — Potatoes. — To  be  able  to  boil  a potato  per- 
fectly is  one  of  the  tests  of  a good  cook,  there  being  nothing 
in  the  whole  range  of  vegetables  which  is  apparently  so  difficult 
to  accomplish.  Like  the  making  of  good  bread,  nothing  is 
simpler  when  once  learned.  A good,  boiled  potato  should  be 
white,  mealy,  and  served  very  hot.  If  the  potatoes  are  old, 
peel  thinly  with  a sharp  knife;  cut  out  all  spots,  and  let  them 
lie  in  cold  water  some  hours  before  using.  It  is  more  econom- 
ical to  boil  before  peeling,  as  the  best  part  of  the  potato  lies 
next  the  skin;  but  most  prefer  them  peeled.  Put  on  in  boiling 
water,  allowing  a teaspoonful  of  salt  to  every  quart  of  water. 


644 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Medium  sized  potatoes  will  boil  in  half  an  hour.  Let  them  be 
as  nearly  of  a size  as  possible,  and,  if  small  and  large  are 
cooked  at  the  same  time,  put  on  the  large  ones  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  before  the  small.  When  done,  pour  off  every  drop 
of  water;  cover  with  a clean  towel,  and  set  on  the  back  of  the 
range  to  dry  for  a few  minutes  before  serving.  The  poorest 
potato  can  be  made  tolerable  by  this  treatment.  Never  let 
them  wait  for  other  things,  but  time  the  preparation  of  dinner 
so  that  they  will  be  ready  at  the  moment  needed.  New  pota- 
toes require  no  peeling,  but  should  merely  be  well  washed  and 
rubbed. 

Potato  Snow.—  Mash  fine,  and  rub  through  a colan- 
der into  a very  hot  dish,  being  careful  not  to  press  it  down  in 
any  way,  and  serve  hot  as  possible. 

Browned  Potato. — Mash  well  boiled  potatoes  finely;  mix 
with  them,  as  you  do  so,  a palatable  allowance  of  butter  and 
salt;  nice  beef  dripping  will  do  instead  of  butter;  put  into  tin 
baking  plates,  and  ,set  in  a hot  oven  till  well  browned.  Give 
them  twenty  minutes’  time. 

Cream  Potato. — Mash  finely;  salt  well;  stir  in  a cupful 
of  scalded  cream  to  a dishful  made  with  ten  large  sized  pota- 
toes; add  a little  butter,  by  taste.  Do  all  this  in  the  hot  pan 
they  were  steamed  off  in.  Keep  hot  over  the  fire,  where  it  can- 
not burn.  Serve  as  soon  as  possible. 

Rice. — Wash  and  rinse  repeatedly  in  cold  water,  till  very 
white.  Pick  out  all  discolored  grains,  and  other  refuse  articles. 
The  best  rice  ought  not  to  need  much  picking  over.  Let  it 
soak  in  the  last  water  an  hour  or  more.  Drain  off  all  the 
water,  and  dry  the  rice  on  a large  towel.  Prepare  it  long 
enough  beforehand  to  allow  of  its  remaining  awhile  spread  out 
on  the  cloth  to  dry  more  perfectly.  It  must  not  dry  hard; 
simply  let  all  the  actual  water  be  absorbed  from  it,  leaving  the 
kernels  separate,  and  with  a beginning  of  swelling  and  soft- 
ning  from  the  moisture.  Have  a kettle  with  a good,  deal  of 
boiling  water  in  it.  The  rice  must  have  room  to  scatter  in  it 
as  it  boils.  See  that  it  does  scatter,  by  frequently  stirring  it  up 
from  the  bottom  with  a fork.  Never  stir  rice  with  a spoon. 
Let  it  boil  fifteen  minutes;  then  try  a grain  or  two  by  tasting; 


HOUSEHOLD. 


645 


the  moment  you  find  it  tender  enough  to  bite  through  without 
any  feeling  of  hardness  or  rawness,  take  the  kettle  off,  and 
pour  the  water  away  through  a fine  colander  or  vegetable 
strainer.  Set  the  strainer,  with  the  rice  in  it,  on  the  back  of  the 
stove  for  about  ten  minutes,  to  let  the  grains  dry  perfectly. 

All  depends  upon  the  plenty  of  water,  and  the  instant 
watching  of  the  rice  to  detect  the  exact  point  of  its  sufficient 
softening.  It  must  not  boil  a minute  after  you  can  bite  it  as 
before  said. 

Macaroni. — Wash  and  soak  like  rice,  having  broken  it  up 
into  lengths  of  six  or  eight  inches.  Wipe  dry  and  put  into  a 
plenty  of  boiling  water.  Boil  half  an  hour,  in  salted  water. 
Meanwhile,  for  an  average  dishful,  cream  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
butter,  scald  a teacupful  of  cream,  or  rich  milk,  stir  the  hot 
cream  gradually  to  the  butter,  adding  a heaping  saltspoonful  of 
salt.  Do  not  mix  these  till  the  macaroni  is  ready  to  be  taken 
up.  Turn  off  all  the  water  carefully  from  the  macaroni,  pour 
the  butter  and  cream  upon  it  in  the  kettle,  and  set  it  back  on 
the  fire  to  turn  it  over  in  the  dressing.  Then  dish  for  the 
table. 

Tomatoes. — Stewed:  Pour  boiling  water  over  them,  to 
take  the  skins  off.  Peel  them  nicely  and  cut  them  up.  Put 
them  into  a saucepan  with  a little  butter,  allow  a round  table- 
spoonful to  half  a dozen  tomatoes;  salt,  half  a teaspoonful  to 
as  many;  and  a sprinkle  of  pepper.  Stew  three  quarters  of  an 
hour.  As  they  boil,  after  cooking  about  half  an  hour,  dredge 
over,  and  stir  in,  two  or  three  sprinkles  of  flour.  Or,  if  you 
prefer,  scatter  and  stir  in  fine  cracker  crumbs,  until  thickened 
a little. 

Fried:  Mix  together  in  a dish  a little  flour,  pepper,  and 
salt.  A pinch  of  pepper  and  a large  saltspoonful  of  salt  to 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  flour.  Slice  the  tomatoes  without  skin- 
ning; lay  each  slice  in  the  flour,  turning  it  over  to  flour  it  well; 
or  put  your  flour,  pepper,  and  salt  into  a little  sifter  or  sprink- 
ler, and  dredge  each  tomato  slice  on  both  sides. 

Put  enough  butter  into  a frying-pan  to  cover  the  bottom 
when  melted,  let  it  heat  till  it  sizzles,  and  then  lay  in  the  slices 
of  tomato.  Fry  brown. 


646 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Broiled:  Slice  the  tomatoes  without  peeling.  See  that 
your  fire  is  clear  and  hot.  Put  the  slices  in  a wire  toaster,  and 
toast,  carefully,  like  bread,  or  like  broiling  steak;  turning  often, 
to  keep  the  juice  in.  Bring  them  to  a nice,  decided  brown  on 
both  sides.  Lay  the  slices  in  a dish,  dropping  on  the  middle 
of  each  one  a bit  of  butter,  and  giving  it  a dust  of  salt  and  pep- 
per. Send  to  the  table  as  hot  as  possible. 

Baked:  Scald,  peel,  and  slice.  Butter  a baking  dish.  Have 
ready  a cupful  of  fine  cracker  crumbs.  Put  a layer  of  toma- 
toes in  the  dish,  sprinkle  them  with  pepper  and  salt,  the  former 
cautiously;  drop  a bit  of  butter  on  each  slice,  and  strew  cracker 
crumbs  over  the  whole.  Proceed  in  this  way  until  you  have 
used  all  your  tomatoes,  or  filled  the  dish.  Finish  with  a good 
sprinkle  of  crumbs,  and  drop  bits  of  butter  over  the  top.  Bake 
an  hour. 

Canned  tomatoes:  May  be  stewed  or  baked  in  the  same 
way  as  fresh  ones. 

Cauliflower. — Pick  off  the  leaves;  trim  down  the  stalk; 
put  the  cauliflower  in  cold  water.  An  hour  before  dinner,  put 
it  into  a large  porcelain  kettle,  or  nice  tin  boiler,  with  a great 
deal  of  boiling  water,  salted.  Let  it  boil  steadily,  but  not  in  a 
furious  manner,  to  toss  and  bruise  it,  for  one  hour.  Prepare 
for  it  a cream  butter  sauce,  without  the  spicing  of  mace.  Take 
up  the  cauliflower  carefully,  with  a large  vegetable  skimmer  or 
wire  ladle.  Put  it  in  the  dish  for  table,  and  pour  over  it  the 
cream  sauce. 

Cabbage. — Wash  it,  examining  it  carefully,  and  stripping 
off  the  old  outside  leaves.  Let  it  lie  for  an  hour  or  two,  as 
convenient,  in  cold  water.  Put  it  into  a large  potful  of  boiling 
water.  Have  a plenty  more  of  boiling  water,  to  renew  with, 
as  below.  When  it  has  boiled  half  long  enough — see  “Time- 
Table,”  for  old  and  young  cabbages — turn  away  all  the  water, 
and  fill  the  pot  with  more;  throwing  in  two  or  three  spoonfuls 
of  salt.  Let  it  boil  the  remainder  of  the  time,  then  take  it  out 
carefully  upon  a drainer,  let  the  water  run  from  it,  and  serve. 
A drawn  butter  sauce  is  nice,  poured  over  it.  Or,  when  well 
boiled,  chop  it  fine,  put  it  in  a saucepan,  stir  butter  with  it, 
and  sprinkle  in  a little  pepper,  put  it  on  the  fire,  and  stir  it  till 
boiling  hot  again.  Or,  chop  and  dress  like  cauliflower. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


647 


Fried  Potatoes. — Pare  and  slice  the  potatoes  thin — if 
sliced  in  small  flakes  they  look  more  inviting  than  when  cut  in 
larger  pieces — keep  in  ice  water  two  or  three  hours;  then  drain 
them  dry,  or  dry  them  on  a crash  towel,  and  drop  them  into 
boiling  lard;  when  nearly  done  take  them  out  with  a skimmer 
and  drain  them.  Let  them  get  cold,  and  then  drop  them 
again  into  boiling  lard,  and  fry  until  well  done.  This  last 
operation  causes  them  to  swell  up  and  puff  out;  sprinkle  with 
salt,  and  serve  hot — our  recipe  says;  but  many  like  them  cold 
as  a relish  for  tea  or  with  cold  meats. 

Saratoga  Potatoes. — Peel  good  sized  potatoes  and  cut 
as  thin  as  your  cabbage  cutter  will  slice  them,  and  throw  into 
cold  water.  After  soaking  an  hour  wipe  them  dry,  and  drop 
into  boiling  lard  until  a light  brown.  Skim  them  out  into  a 
colander  and  sprinkle  with  salt  while  hot.  A wire  basket  is 
better  to  boil  in,  if  you  have  it. 

Potato  Puff. — Stir  two  cupfuls  of  mashed  potatoes,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  melted  butter  and  some  salt  to  a light,  fine  and 
creamy  condition;  then  add  two  eggs,  well  beaten  (separately) 
and  six  tablespoonfuls  of  cream;  beat  it  all  will  and  lightly 
together;  pile  it  in  a rocky  form  on  a dish;  bake  it  in  a quick 
oven  until  nicely  colored;  it  will  puff  up  quite  light. 

Creaming  Potatoes. — Slice  cold  boiled  potatoes  very 
thin,  have  ready  a saucepan  of  boiling  milk,  in  which  place  the 
potatoes,  with  salt,  a good  sized  piece  of  butter,,  and  while  boil- 
ing, thicken  with  flour,  mixed  with  water,  stirring  until  delicate 
and  creamy;  when  ready  dish  for  the  table.  The  goodness  of 
this  dish  depends  much  upon  catering,  just  when  ready;  ten 
minutes  being  sufficient  to  prepare  it. 

Oyster  Plant. — Scrape  the  root,  dropping  each  into  cold 
water  as  soon  as  cleaned.  Exposure  to  the  air  blackens  them. 
Cut  in  pieces  an  inch  long,  put  into  a saucepan  with  hot  water 
to  cover  them,  and  stew  until  tender.  Turn  off  the  water  and 
add  soup  stock  enough  to  cover  them.  Stew  ten  minutes 
after  this  begins  to  boil;  put  in  a great  lump  of  butter  cut  into 
bits  and  rolled  in  flour.  Boil  up  once,  and  serve. 

Fried  Salsify  or  Mock  Oysters.  — Scrape  the  roots 
thoroughly  and  lay  in  cold  water  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  Boil 


648 


HOUSEHOLD, 


whole  until  tender,  and,  when  cold,  mash  with  a wooden  spoon 
to  a smooth  paste,  picking  out  all  the  fibers.  Moisten  with  a 
little  milk,  add  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  an  egg  and  a half 
for  every  cupful  of  salsify.  Beat  the  egg  light.  Make  into 
round  cakes,  dredge  with  flour  and  fry  brown. 

Cooking  Carrots. — Cut  the  carrots  in  small  pieces  and 
stew  in  a little  water  until  tender;  pour  off  what  water  is  left; 
put  in  milk  enough  to  make  a sauce,  and  a good  lump  of 
butter  rolled  in  flour;  boil  up  again  altogether,  having  added 
salt  and  pepper  to  taste.  Celery  is  excellent  prepared  in  the 
same  way. 

Potato  Fritters. — Mash  and  rub  through  a colander  six 
good  boiled  potatoes;  add  a little  salt,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
flour,  one  egg  and  the  yolks  of  two  others;  beat  the  reserved 
whites  to  a stiff  froth  and  stir  it  into  the  other  ingredients, 
after  they  are  well  mixed;  have  ready  a spider  of  hot  lard, 
and  drop  by  the  spoonful,  and  boil  as  other  fritters.  This  is  a 
delicious  breakfast  dish. 

Mashed  Potatoes. — Potatoes  are  not  good  for  mashing 
until  they  are  full  grown;  peel  them  and  lay  them  in  water  for 
an  hour  or  more  before  boiling,  for  mashing. 

Old  potatoes,  when  unfit  for  plain  boiling,  may  be  served 
mashed;  cut  out  all  imperfections,  take  off  all  the  skin  and  lay 
them  in  cold  water  for  one  hour  or  more;  then  put  them  into  a 
dinner  pot  or  stewpan,  with  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  cover  the 
stewpan  and  let  them  boil  for  half  an  hour  unless  they  are 
large,  when  three-quarters  of  an  hour  will  be  required;  when 
they  are  done,  take  them  up  with  a skimmer  into  a wooden  bowl 
or  tray,  and  mash  them  fine  with  a potato-beetle;  melt  a piece 
of  butter  the  size  of  a large  egg  into  half  a pint  of  hot  milk, 
mix  it  with  the  mashed  potatoes  until  it  is  thoroughly  incorpor- 
ated, and  a smooth  mass;  then  put  it  in  a deep  dish,  smooth 
the  top  over,  and  mark  it  neatly  with  a knife;  put  pepper  over 
and  serve.  The  quantity  of  milk  used  must  be  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  potatoes. 

Mashed  potatoes  may  be  heaped  on  a flat  dish;  make  it  in  a 
crown  or  pineapple;  stick  a sprig  of  green  celery  or  parsley  in 
the  top;  or,  first  brown  it  before  the  fire  or  in  an  oven. 
Mashed  potatoes  may  be  made  a highly  ornamental  dish;  after 


HOUSEHOLD. 


649 


shaping  it  as  taste  may  direct,  trim  the  edge  of  the  plate  with 
a wreath  of  green  celery  leaves  or  parsley;  or  first  brown  the 
outside  before  the  fire  or  in  an  oven. 

Hashed  Potatoes. — Peel  and  chop  some  cold  boiled 
potatoes,  put  them  into  a stewpan  with  a very  little  milk  or 
water  to  moisten  them,  put  to  them  a small  bit  of  butter  and 
pepper  and  salt  to  taste,  cover  the  stewpan  close,  and  set  it 
over  a gentle  fire  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes;  stir  them  once  or 
twice  whilst  cooking.  Serve  hot  for  breakfast. 

Sweet,  or  Carolina  Potatoes. — The  best  sweet  potatoes 
are  from  the  Southern  States;  those  raised  in  New  Jersey  are 
not  nearly  as  sweet  as  those  from  the  South. 

The  best  manner  of  serving  sweet  potatoes  is  roasted  or 
baked. 

To  Bake  Sweet  Potatoes. — Wash  them  perfectly  clean, 
wipe  them  dry,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven,  according  to  their 
size — half  an  hour  for  quite  small-sized,  three-quarters  for 
larger,  and  a full  hour  for  the  largest.  Let  the  oven  have  a 
good  heat,  and  do  not  open  it  unless  it  is  necessary  to  turn 
them,  until  they  are  done. 

Roasted  Sweet  Potatoes. — Having  washed  them  clean 
and  wiped  them  dry,  roast  them  on  a hot  hearth  as  directed  for 
common  potatoes,  or  put  them  in  a Dutch  oven,  or  tin  reflector. 
Roasted  or  baked  potatoes  should  not  be  cut,  but  broken  open 
and  eaten  from  the  skin,  as  from  a shell. 

To  Boil  Sweet  Potatoes. — Wash  them  perfectly  clean, 
put  them  into  a pot  or  stewpan,  and  pour  boiling  water  over 
to  cover  them;  cover  the  pot  close,  and  boil  for  half  an  hour, 
or  more  if  the  potatoes  are  large;  try  them  with  a fork;  when 
done,  strain  off  the  water,  take  off  the  skins,  and  serve. 

Cold  sweet  potatoes  may  be  cut  in  slices  across  or  length- 
wise, and  fried  or  broiled  as  common  potatoes;  or  they  may  be 
cut  in  half  and  served  cold.  Sweet  potatoes  are  made  pie  of, 
the  same  as  pumpkin  pie. 

Young  Turnips. — Cut  off  the  green  leaves  of  new  turnips, 
leaving  an  inch  or  more  of  the  stalk;  pare  them,  and  trim  them 
neatly,  put  them  into  a pot  of  boiling  water,  with  a teaspoonful 
of  salt;  cover  the  pot,  and  let  them  boil  fast  for  half  an  hour, 


650 


HOUSEHOLD. 


or  until  perfectly  tender;  put  butter  and  pepper  over,  and  serve 
hot.  Or  serve  with  drawn  butter  over. 

Ruta  Baga — Or  large  winter  turnip,  may  be  cut  in  quar- 
ters or  slices,  and  boiled  with  meat,  and  served  with  a little 
butter  and  pepper  over;  or  boil  in  water  with  a little  salt;  take 
off  the  thick  outside  rind,  and  cut  them  in  quarters  and  slices, 
and  boil  them  for  half  an  hour  or  more,  until  they  are  soft; 
then  drain  off  the  water  and  mash  them  fine,  add  a bit  of  but- 
ter and  pepper  to  taste,  work  them  smooth,  then  put  them  into 
a covered  dish,  smooth  the  upper  surface  over,  and  mark  it 
with  a knife-blade  in  flutes,  meeting  in  the  centre,  or  make  it 
in  a pyramid  or  pineapple,  and  serve. 

Summer  Squash. — Young  green  squashes  must  be  fresh  to 
be  fit  for  eating;  if  they  are  so,  the  outside  will  be  crisp  when 
cut  with  the  nail.  Cut  them  in  quarters,  and  if  not  very  tender, 
pare  off  the  outside  skin;  take  the  seed  and  strings  from  the 
inside,  and  cut  the  squashes  small;  then  put  them  into  a stew- 
pan,  with  a teaspoonful  of  salt  to  a common-sized  squash; 
pour  boiling  water  on  nearly  to  cover  them,  cover  the  stewpan, 
and  let  them  boil  fast,  until  they  are  tender;  half  an  hour  is 
generally  enough;  take  them  from  the  water  into  a colander 
with  a skimmer,  press  the  water  from  them,  then  take  them  on 
to  a dish,  mash  them  smooth,  add  a bit  of  butter  and  pepper  to 
taste,  put  them  into  a dish  and  serve. 

Winter  Squash. — Cut  the  large  yellow  or  winter  squash 
small,  take  off  the  outside  skin  and  the  inside  strings  and  seeds; 
then  put  it  into  a stewpan,  with  hot  water  to  cover  it;  cover 
the  stewpan  for  half  an  hour  or  longer  until  they  are  tender; 
take  them  into  a colander  with  a skimmer,  press  out  the  water; 
then  take  them  into  a dish  and  mash  them  perfectly  smooth; 
add  a good  bit  of  butter,  and  pepper  and  salt  to  taste;  make  it 
in  a neat  form,  the  same  as  mashed  turnips  or  potatoes,  but  do 
not  brown  it;  put  pepper  over  in  spots,  and  garnish  with  sprigs 
of  parsley,  or  celery  leaves,  if  you  wish  it  ornamental. 

Sprouts  and  Greens. — Cabbage  sprouts,  young  beet  tops, 
and  the  green  leaves  of  young  turnips,  or  boiled  with  salt  meats, 
or  in  clear  water,  with  a little  salt. 

Beets. — Winter  beets  should  be  put  in  cold  water  over 


HOUSEHOLD. 


651 


night  to  take  off  the  earthy  taste  which  they  are  apt  to  have; 
before  boiling  wash  them  clean,  put  them  into  a pot  of  boiling 
water,  and  boil  fast;  if  not  very  large,  one  hour  will  be  sufficient 
for  them;  should  they  be  very  large,  one  hour  and  a half  or  two 
hours  will  be  required;  when  done,  take  them  into  a pan  of  cold 
water,  rub  the  skins  off  with  the  hands,  and  cut  them  in  thin 
slices;  put  them  into  a deep  dish,  strew  a little  salt  and  pepper 
over,  and  pour  on  cold  vinegar  nearly  to  cover  them;  prepare 
them  an  hour  before  serving,  with  roasted  or  fried  meat;  if  to 
be  served  with  cold  or  boiled  meat,  make  a cup  of  vinegar  hot, 
put  a large  tablespoonful  of  butter  to  it;  add  pepper  and  salt  to 
taste,  and  serve  hot.  Winter  beets  may  be  cut  in  halves  or 
quarters,  and  pickled  by  covering  them  with  cold  vinegar. 

Beets  must  be  washed,  but  never  cut  before  boiling,  else 
they  will  lose  their  fine  color. 

Spinach. — Take  off  every  discolored  leaf  from  the  bunches; 
put  them  into  a large  pan  or  pail  of  water,  and  wash  each  clus- 
ter of  leaves  separately,  shaking  it  well  in  the  water,  otherwise 
it  will  be  gritty  and  sandy;  washing  it  in  this  way  through  two 
waters,  will  generally  be  enough;  have  a large  kettle  of  water 
boiling  fast,  put  in  the  spinach;  cover  the  pot  and  let  it  boil 
fast  for  fifteen  minutes,  it  will  sink  when  done;  then  take  it  into 
a colander* with  a skimmer,  press  the  water  from  it,  cut  it 
small  with  a knife,  press  it  again,  put  a good  bit  of  butter  and 
a little  pepper  to  suit;  put  it  into  a deep  dish,  smooth  the  sur- 
face over,  let  it  rise  high  in  the  center,  cut  a cold  boiled  egg  in 
slices  and  lay  them  over,  serve  hot  with  a cover;  or  it  may  be 
served  on  a flat  dish;  put  it  neatly  on,  lay  hard  boiled  and 
sliced  egg  over.  Spinach  is  boiled  with  salt  beef,  pork  or  ham. 
After  the  meat  is  done,  take  it  up  and  press  it  between  two 
plates  that  it  may  be  cut  nicely;  meanwhile  put  the  spinach 
into  the  pot,  let  it  boil  fast  for  fifteen  minutes,  then  take  it  into 
a colander,  press  all  the  water  from  it,  cut  it  small  and  serve 
with  the  meat.  To  be  served  with  fried  meat  and  gravy;  boil 
it  in  water  with  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  press  the  water  from  it 
and  serve. 

Green  Peas. — Shell  green  peas  until  you  have  a quart; 
half  a peck  in  the  shells  will  generally  produce  a quart  of 
shelled  peas.  Put  boiling  water  to  cover  them,  add  a teaspoon- 

40 


m 


HOUSEHOLD. 


ful  of  salt,  cover  the  stewpan,  and  boil  fast  for  half  an  hour ; 
then  take  one  between  your  fingers,  if  it  will  mash  easily  they 
are  done;  drain  off  the  water,  take  them  into  a deep  dish,  put 
to  them  a teacupful  or  less  of  sweet  butter,  and  a little  pepper; 
a small  teaspoonful  of  white  sugar  is  a great  improvement;  serve 
hot.  Small  young  potatoes,  nicely  scraped,  may  be  boiled  and 
served  with  them,  or  in  a separate  dish  with  a little  butter  over. 

Lamb  and  peas  are  a favorite  dish  in  the  spring  of  the  year; 
they  are  nice  with  poultry,  veal  and  mutton.  A bit  of  saleratus 
or  carbonate  of  soda,  the  size  of  a pea,  put  with  green  vegeta- 
bles, improves  the  color  and  renders  them  more  healthful;  fast 
boiling  keeps  the  color  good. 

Asparagus. — Choose  green  stalks  of  asparagus,  the  largest 
are  best;  cut  off  the  white,  tough  part,  wash  the  green  in  cold 
water,  and  tie  it  in  small  bundles  that  they  may  be  taken  up 
without  danger  of  breaking,  put  them  in  hot  water  with  a tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  and  let  them  boil  for  half  an  hour;  toast  some 
thin  slices  of  bread  a delicate  brown,  cut  off  the  extreme  out- 
side crust,  butter  each  slice  frequently;  and  then  lay  them  on 
small  oval  dishes;  untie  the  asparagus  and  lay  it  on  the  toast, 
butter  it  a little,  sprinkle  pepper  over  and  serve.  Or  it  may  be 
served  without  the  toast;  the  toast  may  be  moistened  by  put- 
ting a little  of  the  water  in  which  the  asparagus,  was  boiled, 
over  it. 

Vinegar  is  eaten  with  asparagus;  it  is  generally  added  at 
table  by  such  as  like  it.  Asparagus  may  be  laid  on  plain  toast, 
and  a little  drawn  butter  poured  over  both. 

Green  Beans. — Cut  the  bud  and  stem  end  off,  and  take 
the  strings  from  the  sides  of  stringed  beans,  cut  them  in  inch 
lengths,  wash  them  in  cold  water,  then  put  them  into  a stew- 
pan  of  hot  water,  add  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  cover  the  stewpan 
and  let  them  boil  fast  for  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  hour; 
take  one  up,  if  it  will  mash  easily  when  pressed  between  the 
thumb  and  finger,  they  are  done.  Drain  off  the  water,  add 
sweet  butter  and  pepper  to  taste,  cut  some  nicely  toasted  bread 
in  squares  or  diamonds,  lay  them  on  a dish,  and  serve  the  beans 
over.  Green  beans,  when  good,  will  be  a bright  color,  and 
crisp,  when  broken.  They  should  be  fresh  picked. 

Brans  and  Corn,  Called  Succotash. — Take  the  husks 


HOUSEHOLD. 


653 


and  silk  from  a dozen  ears  of  sweet  corn,  and  with  a sharp  knife 
cut  the  kernels  from  the  cob,  scrape  gently  what  remains  on  the 
cob  with  the  knife  blade,  string  a quart  or  more  of  green  beans 
and  cut  them  in  inch  lengths  or  shorter;  wash  them  and  put 
them  to  the  corn;  put  them  with  the  corn  into  a stewpan,  add 
half  a pint  of  boiling  milk  or  water,  cover  it  close  and  let  them 
boil  rather  gently  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  then  add  a tea- 
cupful of  butter,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a saltspoonful  of 
pepper;  stir  them  well  together,  cover  it  for  ten  minutes,  take 
the  beans  and  corn  into  a dish,  with  more  or  less  of  the  liquids 
as  may  be  liked. 

This  may  be  made  without  butter  by  substituting  half  a 
pound  of  nicely  corned  fat  pork,  washed  in  cold  water,  and  cut 
in  slices  as  thin  as  a knife  blade.  No  other  salt  is  required. 
Lima  beans  and  sweet  corn  make  the  finest  succotash. 

Lima  Beans. — Lay  a quart  of  shelled  Lima  beans  in  cold 
water  for  one  hour,  then  put  them  into  a stewpan  and  pour 
water  over  to  cover  them,  cover  the  stewpan  and  let  it  boil 
fast  for  half  an  hour;  then  take  one  between  your  finger  and 
thumb;  if  it  will  mash  easily,  it  is  done;  drain  off  nearly  all  the 
water,  add  a small  teacupful  of  butter,  a teaspoonful  of  salt, 
and  a little  pepper;  cover  them  fora  few  minutes  over  the  fire, 
then  serve  hot. 

Old  or  Winter  Carrots — Must  be  scraped  and  washed 
clean,  then  boil  them  tender,  slice  them,  and  serve  with  butter, 
pepper  and  salt  over.  Carrots  may  be  sliced  before  boiling, 
and  served  in  the  same  manner.  Carrots  are  mostly  used  for 
soups. 

Green  Corn. — Cut  the  center  of  kernels  through  length- 
wise with  a sharp  knife:  scrape  the  inside  out  with  the  back  of 
the  knife;  put  over  and  boil  with  a very  little  water.  Aftet 
cooking  ten  minutes,  add  milk,  salt,  a very  little  sugar,  and 
plenty  of  butter,  and  let  boil  gently  for  five  or  ten  minutes 
more. 

Corn  Oysters. — One  dozen  grated  ears  of  sweet  corn, 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  cream,  two  do.  of  flour,  one  do.  of 
melted  butter,  one  egg  well  beaten;  mix  and  bake  in  small 
cakes  on  a griddle.  These  are  very  nice  for  tea  when  made 
from  cold  boiled  ears  of  corn  left  over  from  dinner. 


654 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Egg  Plant. — Slice  the  egg  plant  about  half  an  inch  thick, 
parboil  in  salt  and  water  for  about  a quarter  of  an  hour;  then 
take  out  and  fry  in  part  butter  and  part  lard.  These  are  nice 
also  when  each  plant  is  dipped  in  beaten  egg  and  bread  crumbs, 
and  then  fried. 

Boiled  Cauliflower. — To  each  half  a gallon  of  water 
allow  one  heaped  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Choose  cauliflowers 
that  are  close  and  white.  Trim  off  the  decayed  outside  leaves, 
cut  the  stalks  off  flat  at  the  bottom.  Open  the  flowers  a little 
to  remove  the  insects,  and  let  lie  in  salt  and  water,  with  the 
head  down,  for  an  hour  before  cooking;  then  put  them  into 
fast  boiling  water,  with  the  addition  of  salt  as  above.  Skim 
well  and  boil  till  tender.  Serve  with  melted  butter  or  delicate 
drawn  butter  poured  over. 

Cabbage  Jelly. — Boil  a cabbage  in  the  usual  way,  and 
squeeze  in  a colander  till  perfectly  dry,  then  chop  fine;  add  a 
little  butter,  pepper  and  salt;  press  the  whole  very  closely  into 
an  earthenware  mold,  and  bake  one  hour,  either  in  an  oven  or 
in  front  of  the  fire. 

Cold  Slaw. — Sprinkle  a quart  of  finely  chopped  cabbage 
with  salt,  and  let  it  stand  an  hour;  drain  off  the  brine  into  a 
saucepan;  pour  half  a pint  of  strong  vinegar,  a piece  of  butter 
(size  of  a hickory  nut),  a teaspoonful  of  strong  mustard  (after 
it  has  been  stirred  with  water),  and  half  the  same  of  pepper; 
when  it  boils  stir  in  two  well-beaten  eggs,  and  three  table- 
spoonfuls of  sweet  cream;  pour  hot  on  the  cabbage,  and  have 
it  cold  when  it  is  to  be  served.  A very  delicious  relish  with 
meats. 

Onions. — If  milk  is  plenty,  use  equal  quantities  of  skim- 
milk  and  water,  allowing  a quart  of  each  for  a dozen  or  so 
large  onions.  If  water  alone  is  used,  change  it  after  the  first 
half-hour,  as  this  prevents  their  turning  dark;  salting  as  for  all 
vegetables,  and  boiling  young  onions  one  hour;  old  ones,  two. 
Either  chop  fine,  and  add  a spoonful  of  butter,  half  a teaspoon- 
ful of  salt,  and  a little  pepper,  or  serve  them  whole  in  a dressing 
made  by  heating  one  cupful  of  milk  with  the  same  butter  and 
other  seasoning  as  when  chopped.  Put  the  onions  in  a hot 
dish,  pour  this  over  them,  and  serve.  They  may  also  be  half- 


HOUSEHOLD. 


655 


boiled;  then  put  in  a buttered  dish,  covered  with  this  sauce 
and  a layer  or  bread  crumbs,  and  baked  for  an  hour. 

String  Beans. — String,  cut  in  “Sits,  and  boil  an  hour  if 
very  young.  If  old,  an  hour  and  a half,  or  even  two,  may  be 
needed.  Drain  off  the  water,  a d season  like  green  peas. 

Shelled  Beans. — Any  green  bean  may  be  used  in  this  way, 
Lima  and  butter  kbeans  being  the  nicest.  Put  on  in  boiling, 
salted  water,  and  boil  not  less  than  one  hour.  Season  like 
string  beans. 

Green  Corn. — Husk,  and  pick  off  the  silk.  Boil  in  well- 
salted  water,  and  serve  on  the  cob,  wrapped  in  a napkin,  or 
cut  off  and  seasoned  like  beans.  Cuttin^  down  through  each 
row  gives,  when  scraped  off,  the  kernel  without  the  hull. 

Green  Corn  Fritters. — One  pint  of  green  corn  grated. 
This  will  require  about  six  ears.  Mix  with  this  half  a cupful 
of  milk,  two  well-beaten  eggs,  half  a cupful  of  flour,  one  tea- 
spoonful oC  salt,  half  a teaspoonful  of  pepper,  and  a table- 
spoonful of  melted  butter.  Fry  hi  very  small  cakes  in  a little 
hot  butter,  browning  well  on  both  sides.  Serve  very  hot. 

Corn  Pudding. — One  pint  of  cut  or  grated  corn,  one  pint 
of  milk,  two  well-beaten  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  a 
saltspoonful  of  pepper.  Butter  a pudding  dish,  and  bake  the 
mixture  half  an  hour.  Canned  corn  can  be  used  in  the  same 
way. 

Spinach. — Not  less  than  a peck  is  needed  for  a dinner  for 
three  or  four.  Pick  over  carefully,  wash,  and  let  it  lie  in  cold 
water  an  hour  or  two.  Put  on  in  boiling,  salted  water,  and 
boil  an  hour,  until  tender,  ^ake  up  in  colander,  that  it  may 
drain  perfectly.  Have  in  hot  dish  a piece  butter  the  size 
of  an  egg,  half  a teaspoonful  of  vinegar.  Chop  the  spinach 
fine,  and  put  in  the  dish,  stirring  in  this  dressing  thoroughly. 
A teacupful  of  cream  is  often  added.  Any  tender  greens,  beet 
or  turnip  tops,  kale,  etc.,  are  treated  in  this  way;  kale,  however, 
requiring  two  hours  boiling. 

Artichokes. — Cut  off  the  outside  leaves;  trim  the  bottom; 
throw  into  boiling,  salted  water,  with  a teaspoonful  of  vinegar 
in  it,  and  boil  an  hour.  Season,  and  serve  like  turnips,  or  with 
drawn  butter  poured  over  them. 


656 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Tomatoes  Stewed. — Pour  on  boiling  water,  to  take  off  the 
skins;  cut  in  pieces,  and  stew  slowly  for  half  and  hour;  adding 
for  a dozen  tomatoes  a tablespoonful  of  butter,  a teaspoonful 
of  salt,  a saltspoonful  of  pepper,  and  a teaspoonful  of  sugar. 
Where  they  are  preferred  sweet,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar 
will  be  necessary.  They  may  be  thickened  with  a tablespoon- 
ful of  flour  or  corn-starch  dissolved  in  a little  cold  water,  or 
with  half  a cupful  of  rolled  cracker  or  bread  crumbs.  Canned 
tomatoes  are  stewed  in  the  same  way. 

Bread-Making  and  Flour. — Much  of  the  health,  and  conse- 
quently much  of  the  happiness,  of  the  family  depends  upon 
good  bread;  therefore,  no  pains  should  be  spared  in  learn- 
ing the  best  method  of  making,  which  will  prove  easiest  in  the 
end. 

Yeast,  flour,  kneading,  and  baking  must  each  be  perfect, 
and  nothing  in  the  whole  range  of  cooking  is  of  such  prime 
importance. 

Once  master  the  problem  of  yeast,  and  the  first  form  of 
wheat  bread,  and  endless  varieties  of  both  bread  and  breakfast 
cakes  can  be  made. 

The  old  and  the  new  process  flour — the  former  being 
known  as  the  St.  Louis,  and  the  latter  as  Haxall  flour — are  now 
to  be  had  at  all  good  grocers;  and  from  either  good  bread  may 
be  made,  though  that  from  the  latter  keeps  moist  longer. 
Potapsco  flour  is  of  the  same  quality  as  the  St.  Louis.  It  con- 
tains more  starch  than  the  St.  Louis,  and  for  this  reason 
requires,  even  more  than  that,  the  use  in  the  family  of  coarser, 
or  graham  flour,  at  the  same  time;  white  bread  alone  not  being 
as  nutritious  or  strengthening. 

Flour  made  by  the  new  process  swells  more  than  that  by 
the  old,  and  a little  less  quantity — about  an  eighth  less — is 
therefore  required  in  mixing  and  kneading.  As  definite  rules 
as  possible  are  given  for  the  whole  operation;  but  experience 
alone  can  insure  perfect  bread,  changes  of  temperature  affect- 
ing it  once,  and  baking  being  also  a critical  point. 

Pans  made  of  thick  tin,  or,  better  still,  of  Russia  iron,  ten 
inches  long,  four  or  five  wide,  and  four  deep,  make  the  best 
shaped  loaf,  and  one  requiring  a reasonably  short  time  to  bake. 

Yeast. — Ingredients:  One  teacupful  of  lightly  broken 


HOUSEHOLD. 


657 


hops;  one  pint  of  sifted  flour;  one  cupful  of  sugar;  one  table- 
spoonful of  salt;  four  large  or  medium-sized  potatoes;  and  two 
quarts  of  boiling  water. 

Boil  the  potatoes  and  mash  them  fine.  At  the  same  time, 
having  tied  the  hops  in  a little  bag,  boil  them  for  half  an  hour 
in  two  quarts  of  water,  but  in  another  saucepan.  Mix  the 
flour,  sugar,  and  salt  well  together  in  a large  mixing-bowl,  and 
pour  on  the  boiling  hop-water,  stirring  constantly.  Now  add 
enough  of  this  to  the  mashed  potato  to  thin  it  till  it  can  be 
poured,  and  mix  all  together,  straining  it  through  a sieve  to 
avoid  any  possible  lumps.  Add  to  this,  when  cool,  either  a 
cupful  of  yeast  left  from  the  last,  or  of  baker’s  yeast,  or  a Twin 
Brothers’  yeast  cake,  dissolved  in  a little  warm  water.  Let  it 
stand  till  partly  light,  and  then  stir  down  two  or  three  times  in 
the  course  of  five  or  six  hours,  as  this  makes  it  stronger.  At 
the  end  of  that  time  it  will  be  light.  Keep  in  a covered  stone 
jar,  or  in  glass  cans.  By  stirring  in  corn  meal  till  a dough  is 
made,  and  then  forming  it  in  small  cakes  and  drying  in  the  sun, 
dry  yeast  is  made,  which  keeps  better  than  the  liquid  in  hot 
weather.  Crumb,  and  soak  in  warm  water  half  an  hour  before 
using. 

Potato  yeast  is  made  by  omitting  hops  and  flour,  but  mash- 
ing the  potatoes  fine  with  the  same  proportion  of  other  ingre- 
dients, and  adding  the  old  yeast,  when  cool,  as  before.  It  is 
very  nice,  but  must  be  made  fresh  every  week;  while  the  other, 
kept  in  a cool  place,  will  be  good  a month. 

Bread. — For  four  loaves  of  bread  of  the  pan-size  given 
above,  allow  as  follows:  Four  quarts  of  flour;  one  large  cupful 
of  yeast;  one  tablespoonful  of  salt,  one  of  sugar,  and  one  of 
butter  or  lard;  one  pint  of  milk  mixed  with  one  of  warm  water, 
or  one  quart  of  water  alone  for  the  “wetting.” 

Sift  the  flour  into  a large  pan  or  bowl.  Put  the  sugar,  salt, 
and  butter  in  the  bottom  of  the  bread  pan  or  bowl,  and  pour 
on  a spoonful  or  two  of  boiling  water,  enough  to  dissolve  all. 
Add  the  quart  of  wetting  and  the  yeast.  Now  stir  in  slowly  two 
quarts  of  the  flour;  cover  with  a cloth,  and  set  in  a tempera- 
ture of  about  75  degrees  to  rise  until  morning.  Bread  mixed 
at  nine  in  the  evening  will  be  ready  to  mold  into  loaves  or 
rolls  by  six  the  next  morning.  In  summer  it  would  be  neces- 


658 


HOUSEHOLD. 


sary  to  find  a cool  place;  in  winter  a warm  one — the  chief 
point  being  to  keep  the  temperature  even.  If  mixed  early  in 
the  morning,  it  is  ready  to  mold  and  bake  in  the  afternoon, 
from  seven  to  eight  hours  being  all  that  it  should  stand. 

The  first  mixture  is  called  a sponge;  and,  if  only  a loaf  of 
graham  or  rye  bread  is  wanted,  one  quart  of  it  can  be  meas- 
ured and  thickened  with  other  flour,  as  in  the  rules  given  here- 
after. 

To  finish  as  wheat  bread,  stir  in  enough  flour  from  the  two 
quarts  remaining  to  make  a dough.  Flour  the  moulding-board 
very  thickly,  and  turnout.  Now  begin  kneading,  flouring  the 
hands,  but  after  the  dough  is  gathered  into  a smooth  lump, 
using  as  little  flour  as  may  be.  Knead  with  the  palm  of  the 
hand  as  much  as  possible.  The  dough  quickly  becomes  a flat 
cake.  Fold  it  over,  and  keep  on  kneading  not  less  than  twenty 
minutes;  half  an  hour  being  better. 

Make  into  loaves;  put  into  the  pans;  set  them  in  a warm 
place,  and  let  them  rise  from  thirty  to  forty-five  minutes,  or 
till  they  have  become  nearly  double  in  size.  Bake  in  an  oven 
hot  enough  to  brown  a teaspoonful  of  flour  in  one  minute; 
spreading  the  flour  on  a bit  of  broken  plate,  that  it  may  have 
an  even  heat.  Loaves  of  this  size  will  bake  in  from  forty-five 
to  sixty  minutes.  Then  take  them  from  the  pans;  wrap  in 
thick  cloths  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  stand  them  tilted  up 
against  the  pans  till  cold.  Never  lay  hot  bread  on  a pine  table, 
as  it  will  sweat,  and  absorb  the  pitchy  odor  and  taste;  but  tilt 
so  that  air  may  pass  around  it  freely.  Keep  well  covered  in  a 
tin  box,  or  large  stone  pot,  which  should  be  wiped  out  every  day 
or  two,  and  scalded  and  dried  thoroughly  now  and  then.  Pans 
for  wheat  bread  should  be  greased  very  lightly;  for  graham  or 
rye,  much  more,  as  the  dough  sticks  and  clings. 

Instead  of  mixing  a sponge,  all  the  flour  may  be  molded 
in  and  kneaded  at  once,  and  the  dough  set  to  rise  in  the  same 
way.  When  light,  turn  out.  Use  as  little  flour  as  possible, 
and  knead  for  fifteen  minutes;  less  time  being  required,  as 
part  of  the  kneading  has  already  been  done. 

Graham  Bread. — One  quart  of  wheat  sponge;  one  even 
quart  of  graham  flour;  half  a teacupful  of  brown  sugar  or  mo- 
lases;  half  a teaspoonful  of  soda  dissolved  in  a little  hot  water; 
and  half  a teaspoonful  of  salt. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


659 


Pour  the  sponge  in  a deep  bowl;-stir  in  the  molasses,  etc.; 
and  lastly  the  flour,  which  must  never  be  sifted.  The  mixture 
should  be  so  stiff  that  the  spoon  moves  with  difficulty.  Bake 
in  two  loaves  for  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a quarter,  graham 
requiring  longer  baking  than  wheat. 

If  no  sponge  can  be  spared,  make  as  follows:  One  pint  of 
milk  or  water;  half  a cupful  of  sugar  or  molasses;  half  a cupful 
of  yeast;  one  teaspoonful  of  salt;  one  cupful  of  wheat  flour;  two 
cupfuls  of  graham.  Warm  the  milk  or  water;  add  the  yeast  and 
other  ingredients,  and  then  the  flour;  and  set  in  a cool  place — 
about  60  degrees  Fahrenheit — over  night,  graham  bread  sour- 
ing more  easily  than  wheat.  Early  in  the  morning  stir  well; 
put  into  two  deep,  well-greased  pans;  let  it  rise  an  hour  in  a 
warm  place  and  bake  one  hour. 

Old  School  Presbyterian  Yeast. — Boil  two  good  hand- 
fuls of  good  hops  in  three  quarts  of  water.  Strain.  When  cool 
stir  in  one  quart  of  flour,  one  cupful  of  sugar,  and  a handful  of 
salt.  Cover  this  in  a stone  jar,  and  let  it  stand  three  days  in 
a warm  place,  stirring  it  occasionally.  On  the  fourth  day  add 
one  quart  of  nicely  mashed  potatoes.  Let  it  stand  until  the 
day  following,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  A small  teacup- 
ful is  sufficient  for  five  loaves  of  bread. 

This  yeast,  which  has  proved  most  reliable,  needs  nothing 
to  start  it,  as  it  is  self-raising,  and,  if  kept  in  a cool  place,  will 
keep  six  weeks  in  the  summer,  and  three  months  in  cold 
weather. 

It  does  not  foam  as  do  other  kinds  of  yeast,  so  that  one 
who  had  not  used  it  would  think  it  worthless,  but  if  once  used 
its  excellency  will  not  be  doubted. 

in  making  bread,  a tablespoonful  of  white  sugar  to  a quart 
of  flour  is  a great  improvement  to  all  kinds  of  bread. 

Hop  Yeast. — Of  pressed  hops,  break  up  fine  about  enough 
to  make  a teacupful;  boil  them  in  one  quart  of  water  for  half 
an  hotir.  At  the  same  time  boil  in  another  kettle  ten  or  twelve 
potatoes  (peeled)  in  a quart  of  water;  when  thoroughly  done 
mash  the  potatoes  and  pour  the  water  back  over  them.  If  the 
frater  is  boiled  away,  restore  the  quantity.  Have  ready  two 
quarts  of  sifted  flour;  strain  the  hop  water  on  to  it,  and  add  the 
potato  gruel;  when  lukewarm  put  in  a teacupful  of  good  yeast, 


660 


HOUSEHOLD. 


or  a yeast  cake,  and  a little  salt.  After  it  is  thoroughly  light 
it  should  be  kept  in  a stone  jug  or  jar  in  a cool  place. 

Brown  Bread. — One  quart  of  com  meal,  one  pint  of  rye 
or  graham  flour,  one  quart  of  sour  milk,  one  teacupful  of  mo- 
lasses, and  one  teaspoonful  of  soda.  Steam  four  hours,  or  bake 
one  hour.  This  quantity  will  make  two  loaves. 

Corn  Bread. — One  quart  of  Indian  meal,  two  ounces  of 
butter,  as  much  warm  milk  as  will  make  a stiff  batter,  four 
eggs,  a little  salt.  Beat  the  whole  well  together,  and  bake  in 
shallow  tins  in  a moderate  oven. 

To  Make  Twist  Bread. — Let  the  bread  be  made  as  di- 
rected for  baker’s  or  for  wheat  bread,  then  take  three  pieces  as 
large  as  a pint  bowl  each;  strew  a little  flour  over  the  paste- 
board or  table,  roll  each  piece  under  your  hands,  to  twelve 
inches  length,  making  it  smaller  in  circumference  at  the  ends 
than  in  the  middle;  having  tolled  the  three  in  this  way,  take  a 
baking  tin,  lay  one  part  on  it,  join  one  end  of  each  of  the  other 
two  to  it,  and  braid  them  together  the  length  of  the  rolls,  and 
join  the  ends  by  pressing  them  together;  dip  a brush  in  milk, 
and  pass  over  the  top  of  loaf;  after  ten  minutes  or  so,  set  it  in 
a quick  oven,  and  bake  for  nearly  an  hour. 

Wheat  and  Indian  Bread. — Put  three  pints  of  water  over 
the  fire;  when  it  is  boiling  hot,  add  a large  tablespoonful  of 
salt,  stir  into  it  sweet  white  corn  meal,  until  it  is  a thick  batter; 
continue  to  stir  it  for  ten  minutes,  that  it  may  not  burn,  then 
turn  it  into  a dish,  stir  into  it  a quart  of  cold  water;  when  it  is 
cool  enough  to  bear  your  hand  in  it,  pour  it  into  a bowl,  in 
which  is  seven  pounds  of  wheat  flour,  heaped  around  the  sides 
so  as  to  leave  a hollow  in  the  centre;  add  to  it  a gill  of  baker’s 
yeast,  and  half  a teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  dissolved  in  a little 
hot  water,  then  work  the  whole  into  a smooth  dough,  work  it,  or 
knead,  for  nearly  an  hour,  then  strew  a little  flour  over  it,  lay 
a thickly  folded  cloth  over,  and  set  it  in  a warm  place  for  five 
or  six  hours  in  summer,  or  mix  at  night  in  winter;  when  light, 
work  it  down,  set  it  to  rise  again  for  one  hour,  then  heat  the 
oven,  work  the  bread  down,  and  divide  it  in  loaves,  and  bake, 
according  to  their  size,  in  a quick  oven;  when  taken  from  the 
oven,  turn  them  over  in  the  pans,  and  set  them  to  become  cold; 


HOUSEHOLD. 


661 


if  the  crust  is  hard,  wrap  them  in  a towel  as  soon  as  taken 
from  the  oven. 

Rye  Bread. — Make  the  same  as  wheat  and  Indian  bread, 
substituting  rye  flour  for  wheat.  Or,  thus:  To  a quart  of 
warm  water  stir  as  much  wheat  flour  as  will  make  a smooth 
batter,  stir  into  it  half  a gill  of  baker’s  yeast,  and  set  it  in  a 
warm  place  to  rise;  this  is  called  setting  a sponge;  let  it  be 
mixed  in  some  vessel  which  will  contain  twice  the  quantity;  in 
the  morning  put  three  pounds  and  a half  of  rye  flour  into  a 
bowl  or  tray;  make  a hollow  in  the  centre,  pour  in  the  sponge, 
add  a dessert  spoonful  of  salt,  and  half  a small  teaspoonful  of 
saleratus,  dissolved  in  a little  water;  make  the  whole  into  a 
smooth  dough  with  as  much  warm  water  as  may  be  necessary; 
knead  it  well,  cover  it,  and  let  it  set  in  a warm  place  for  three 
hours,  then  knead  it  again,  and  make  it  in  two  or  three  loaves; 
bake  in  a quick  oven  one  hour,  if  made  in  two  loaves,  and  less 
if  the  loaves  are  smaller. 

Bread-Cake  or  Biscuit. — Take  from  risen  bread  dough, 
the  size  of  a small  loaf,  work  into  it  one  egg  and  a large  table- 
spoonful of  lard  when  it  is  thoroughly  amalgamated,  flour  the 
hands  and  make  it  in  balls  the  size  and  shape  of  a hen’s  egg; 
rub  a tin  pan  over  with  a bit  of  sponge  dipped  in  butter,  lay 
them  in  so  as  to  touch  each  other  until  the  pan  is  full,  wet  the 
tops  over  with  milk,  then  set  them  into  a quick  oven  for  twenty 
minutes;  serve  hot  for  breakfast  or  tea.  When  eaten,  break 
them  open — to  cut  them  would  make  them  heavy. 

These  cakes  are  very  nice,  when  cold,  for  breakfast  or  tea. 

Indian  Griddle  Cakes. — Beat  two  eggs  light,  stir  them 
into  a quart  of  sweet  milk  with  a teaspoonful  of  salt  and 
enough  corn  meal  to  make  a good  batter;  bake  as  soon  as  mixed, 
on  a hot  griddle  rubbed  over  with  a bit  of  suet  or  fat  pork;  a 
tablespoonful  of  butter  for  each  cake. 

Johnny  Cake. — Put  a quart  of  fresh  corn  meal  into  a basin, 
add  a heaping  teaspoonful  of  salt,  stir  into  it  boiling  water 
until  it  is  all  moistened,  then  with  your  hands  make  it  in  cakes 
half  an  inch  thick,  and  bake  them  on  a hot  griddle  rubbed 
over  with  a bit  of  pork  fat  or  beef  suet;  let  them  do  slowly; 
when  one  side  is  done  turn  the  other;  they  may  be  baked  in  an 


GO  2 


HOUSEHOLD. 


oven  for  twenty  minutes;  or,  put  the  cake  on  a flat  board  or 
iron  plate,  and  slant  it  in  front  of  the  fire;  when  one  side  is 
done,  turn  the  other;  serve  hot,  split  them  open  and  butter 
freely;  they  are  eaten  with  fried  pork. 

Indian  Meal  Muffins. — Pour  boiling  water  into  a quart 
of  yellow  corn  meal,  stirring  it  all  the  time  until  it  is  a thick 
batter;  let  it  cool;  when  only  warm,  add  a small  teacupful  of 
butter,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a tablespoonful  of  yeast,  with 
two  well-beaten  eggs;  set  it  in  a warm  place  for  two  hours,  then 
stir  it  smooth,  and  bake  in  small  cakes  on  a hot  griddle;  when 
one  side  is  a rich  brown,  turn  the  other,  lay  them  singly  on  a 
hot  dish,  and  serve.  These  may  be  made  without  the  yeast, 
and  baked  as  soon  as  mixed. 

Buckwheat  Griddle  Cakes. — Put  three  pints  of  warm 
water  into  a stone  pot  or  jar,  add  a gill  of  baker’s  yeast,  or  an 
inch  square  of  turnpike  cake  dissolved  in  a little  warm  water; 
add  a heaping  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  half  a small  teaspoonful 
of  saleratus,  have  a pudding  stick,  or  spatula,  and  gradually 
stir  in  enough  buckwheat  flour  to  make  a nice  batter,  beat  it 
perfectly  smooth,  then  cover  it  and  set  it  in  a moderately  warm 
place  until  morning;  a large  handful  of  corn  meal  may  be  put 
with  the  flour,  and  it  is  by  many  persons  considered  an 
improvement. 

To  Bake  Buckwheat  Cakes. — Set  a griddle  over  a gentle, 
steady  fire;  when  it  is  hot,  rub  it  over  with  a bit  of  suet  or  fat 
fresh  pork  on  a fork;  the  griddle  must  be  hot  but  not  scorch- 
ing; put  the  batter  on  in  small  cakes;  when  one  side  is  nicely 
browned  and  about  half  cooked  through,  turn  them. 

These  cakes,  to  be  in  perfection,  must  be  not  much  thicker 
than  a dollar  piece,  and  both  sides  a delicate  brown.  Should 
the  batter  prove  too  thick,  it  may  be  made  thinner  with  sweet 
milk;  this  will  also  make  them  bake  a finer  color.  The  best 
of  sweet  butter  and  syrup  to  be  served  with  buckwheat  cakes 
hot  from  the  griddle.  Should  the  cakes  be  preferred  thicker 
than  mentioned  in  this  recipe,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  make 
them  so;  take  care  that  they  are  baked  through. 

Buckwheat  may  be  mixed  the  same  as  wheat  muffins,  and 
baked  on  a griddle. 


HOUSEHOLD. 


663 


Muffins. — Mix  with  a pint  of  warm  milk  two  well  beaten 
eggs,  half  a teaspoonful  of  melted  butter,  and  half  a gill  of 
baker’s  yeast,  with  a teaspoonful  of  salt  and  a bit  of  saleratus 
the  size  of  a large  pea  (dissolved  in  hot  water);  stir  in  enough 
sifted  wheat  flour  to  make  a thick  batter,  set  it  in  a warm  place 
to  rise,  for  three  hours  in  warm  weather,  or  longer  in  winter;  it 
may  be  mixed  at  night  for  breakfast  next  morning;  put  a grid- 
dle over  the  fire;  when  it  is  hot,  rub  it  over  with  some  fat, 
grease  the  inside  of  the  rings,  set  them  on  and  half  fill  them 
with  the  batter,  or  they  may  be  done  without  rings;  when  one 
side  is  done,  turn  the  other;  bake  a light  color;  as  they  are 
done  break  each  one  open,  put  a bit  of  butter  in  each,  and  set 
them  in  front  of  the  fire  until  served;  muffins  should  never  be 
cut  open.  Cold  muffins  may  be  toasted  and  served  hot. 

Tea  Rusk. — To  a pint  of  warm  milk  put  half  a gill  of 
baker’s  yeast,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  half  a small  teaspoon- 
ful of  saleratus,  dissolved  in  a little  hot  water;  put  to  it  enough 
wheat  flour  to  make  a soft  dough;  mix  well  and  smooth;  cover 
it,  and  set  it  in  a warm  place  for  two  hours,  to  rise;  when  light, 
add  half  a teacupful  of  sugar,  and  a cupful  of  melted  butter; 
work  them  well  into  the  dough,  flour  your  hands  well,  and 
make  it  in  small  cakes  (the  size  of  a large  egg,  or  a trifle 
larger),  lay  them  close  together  in  a buttered  pan;  dip  your 
hand  in  a little  sweetened  milk,  and  pass  it  lightly  over  the 
tops  of  the  rusks,  set  them  in  a quick  oven  for  half  an  hour; 
serve  hot. 

Common  Buns. — Rub  four  ounces  of  butter  into  two  pounds 
of  flour,  with  four  ounces  of  fine  sugar  and  a teaspoonful  of 
carraway  seeds,  and  the  same  of  salt;  add  half  a gill  of  yeast, 
and  as  much  warm  milk  as  will  make  a soft  dough;  set  it  in  a 
warm  place  to  rise  (it  will  be  light  after  about  three  hours); 
strew  a paste-slab  and  rolling  pin  with  flour,  and  roll  out  the 
dough  to  half  an  inch  thickness,  and  cut  them  in  large,  round 
cakes;  lay  them  on  baking  tins,  wet  the  tops  over  with  milk, 
strew  sugar  over  each,  and  put  them  on  tins  in  a quick  oven 
for  fifteen  minutes. 

Milk  Biscuits. — Warm  two  ounces  of  sweet  butter  in  a 
gill  of  sweet  milk,  and  with  it  wet  a pound  of  flour  into  a very 


664 


HOUSEHOLD. 


stiff  paste;  beat  it  with  a rolling-pin,  and  work  it  very  smooth; 
roll  it  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick;  cut  it  in  small,  round  cakes; 
stick  each  with  a fork,  and  bake  ten  minutes  in  a quick  oven. 

To  Fry  Doughnuts  and  Crullers. — Have  a small  iron 
or  porcelain  kettle;  put  into  it  a pound  of  lard,  set  it  over  a 
gentle  fire;  when  it  is  boiling  hot,  drop  a bit  of  dough  in  to  try 
it;  if  the  fat  is  not  hot  enough,  the  cakes  will  absorb  it,  and 
thereby  be  rendered  unfit  for  eating;  if  too  hot,  it  will  make 
them  a dark  brown  outside  before  the  inside  is  cooked;  boil- 
ing hot  is  about  the  heat  the  fat  should  be;  if  it  is  at  a right 
heat,  the  doughnuts  will  in  about  ten  minutes  be  of  a delicate 
brown  outside,  and  nicely  cooked  inside;  five  or  six  minutes 
will  cook  a cruller;  try  the  fat,  by  dropping  a bit  of  the  dough 
in;  if  it  is  right,  the  fat  will  boil  up  when  it  is  put  in;  keep  the 
kettle  in  motion  all  the  time  the  cakes  are  in,  that  they  may 
boil  evenly;  when  the  cakes  are  a fine  color  take  them  out  with 
a skimmer  on  to  an  inverted  sieve. 

Doughnuts. — Take  a pound  of  flour,  a quarter  of  a pound 
of  butter,  three-quarters  of  a pound  of  clean  brown  sugar 
rolled  fine,  one  nutmeg,  grated,  and  a tablespoonful  of  ground 
cinnamon;  mix  these  well  together;  then  add  a tablespoonful 
of  baker’s  yeast,  with  as  much  warm  milk,  with  saleratus  the 
size  of  a pea  dissolved  in  it,  as  will  make  a smooth  dough; 
knead  it  for  a few  minutes,  cover  it,  and  set  it  in  a warm  place 
to  rise  for  three  hours  or  more,  until  it  is  light;  then  roll  it  out 
to  a quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness;  cut  it  in  small  squares  or 
diamonds,  and  fry  as  directed. 

Indian  Muffins. — One  quart  of  milk,  eight  eggs,  one  and  a 
half  cupfuls  of  butter,  one  cupful  of  flour,  two  cupfuls  of  Indian 
meal,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of 
tartar,  and  a little  salt;  two  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar.  Beat  well 
together  and  bake  in  muffin  rings. 

(This  recipe  is  from  a reliable  source,  but  we  can  only 
recommend  it  to  those  who  have  eggs  and  butter  in  abun- 
dance.) 

Rice  Muffins. — Two  cups  of  milk,  four  tablespoonfuls  of 
yeast,  one  tablespoonful  of  white  sugar,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
melted  butter,  nearly  a cupful  of  well  boiled  rice,  four  cup- 


HOUSEHOLD. 


665 


fuls  of  flour,  or  enough  to  make  a good  batter;  salt  to  the  taste; 
one-quarter  teaspoonful  of  soda,  dissolved  in  hot  water,  added 
just  before  baking.  Beat  the  ingredients  well  together,  set  to 
rise  for  six  hours,  or  until  very  light;  put  into  muffin  rings,  let 
it  stand  fifteen  minutes,  and  bake  quickly;  eat  hot. 

Flannel  Cakes. — One  cupful  of  sweet  milk,  one-half  cup- 
ful of  yeast,  whites  of  two  eggs,  two-thirds  of  a cupful  of  but- 
ter, flour,  enough  to  make  a thick  batter;  set  to  rise  over  night 
and  in  the  morning  add  whites  and  butter.  Bake  in  cups. 

Pancakes. — Add  enough  flour  to  one  quart  of  sour  milk 
to  make  a rather  thick  batter.  Let  it  stand  over  night  and  in 
the  morning  add  two  well  beaten  eggs,  salt,  and  half  a teaspoon- 
ful of  soda  dissolved  in  one  tablespoonful  of  warm  water. 
Bake  immediately. 

Rice  Pancakes. — One  and  a half  pints  of  boiled  rice,  the 
same  of  flour,  one-half  teacupful  of  sour  milk,  one  teacupful  of 
sweet  milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  salt,  three  eggs,  and  butter 
the  size  of  a walnut. 

Salads. — Chicken  Salad. — Mix  the  celery  and  chicken 
together,  and  then  stir  well  into  them  a mixture  in  the  propor- 
tion of  three  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar  to  one  of  oil  and  one 
(level)  of  salt,  a pinch — the  smallest  pinch — of  cayenne,  about 
what  would  lie  on  the  point  of  a penknife,  and  a teaspoonful 
of  mustard.  Let  the  chicken  stand  in  this  mixture  an  hour  or 
two;  drain  off  what  may  be  in  the  bottom  of  the  bowl;  ten  or 
twenty  minutes  before  serving  pour  over  a mild  mayonnaise. 
Little  strips  of  anchovy  rolled  up  are  used  with  pickles,  hard 
boiled  eggs,  and  lettuce  heads,  or  tender  yellow  celery  tops  to 
garnish. 

As  minute  directions  as  possible  are  given  for  the  various 
methods  and  tastes  in  mixing  the  dressing. 

An  eight-pound  turkey,  rubbed  with  a Lesh  lemon,  and 
boiled  in  well  salted  water  (having  two  tablespoonfuls  of  raw 
rice  in  it),  is  used  and  preferred  by  many  to  a pair  of  chick- 
ens. The  flavor  is  radically  different,  but  quite  delightful. 
Every  one  of  the  recipes  given  will  make  a nice  salad,  unless 
our  scholars  fall  into  the  error  of  a well-meaning  lady,  who  set 
her  dish  of  salad  into  the  hot  oven  for  half  an  hour.  The 


666 


HOUSEHOLD. 


colder  your  salad  is  the  crisper  and  fresher  it  will  taste,  and  the 
thicker  and  better  will  be  your  dressing. 

Chicken  Salad. — One  chicken,  three  bunches  of  celery, 
four  eggs  (whites  and  yolks  beaten  seperately),  one  or  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  mixed  mustard,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  one 
level  teaspoonful  of  pepper,  one  tablespoonful  of  butter  (hard), 
six  or  eight  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar.  Set  the  dish  with  these 
ingredients  into  a pan  of  boiling  water  on  the  stove,  and  stir 
until  it  thickens  like  custard;  then  set  off  to  cool.  Cut  the 
chicken  that  has  been  carefully  boiled  into  little  pieces,  and 
the  celery  also,  and  pour  over  them  the  dressing,  adding,  if  you 
please,  a little  olive  oil  and  sweet  cream. 

Dressing  for  Salad. — Four  eggs  beat  light,  yolks  and 
whites  together;  two  tablespoonfuls  of  mixed  mustard,  one 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  teaspoonful  of  black  pepper,  or  one- 
third  of  a teaspoonful  of  red  pepper,  one  tablespoonful  of  but- 
ter, and  nearly  one  teacupful  of  sharp  vinegar.  Float  the  pan 
containing  the  ingredients  in  a pan  of  boiling  water  on  the 
stove  and  stir  until  thick  like  custard.  When  cold  pour  over 
the  salad,  adding  cold  vinegar  if  needed. 

Pies. — Pastry. — One  pound  and  a quarter  of  flour,  one 
pound  of  shortening  and  a little  salt,  all  put  together,  sufficient 
cold  water  to  mix  with;  no  more  flour.  Put  upon  the  mold- 
ing-board, roll  out  and  cut  in  strips,  put  one  upon  another,  then 
cut  off  in  squares,  roll  out,  and  put  upon  plates. 

Plain  Pie-Crust. — One  pound  of  flour,  half  a pound  of 
butter;  mix  thoroughly  with  a knife  or  a spoon.  Pour  in  very 
cold  water,  just  enough  to  form  a dough  for  rolling  out;  flour 
the  board  and  rolling-pin,  using  a knife  to  handle  the  dough 
(the  warmth  of  the  hand  makes  it  heavy);  roll  out  the  size  of 
one  plate  at  a time,  so  as  to  work  it  as  little  as  possible.  Bake 
in  a quick  oven. 

Tart  Crust. — The  white  of  one  egg  beaten  to  a stiff 
froth,  one  tablespoonful  of  white  sugar,  one  cupful  of  lard,  a 
little  salt,  five  tablespoonfuls  of  water,  three  cupfuls  of  sifted 
flour;  roll  quite  thin  for  tarts;  cut  out  with  a cooky  cutter — a 
scalloped  one  will  look  best;  take  an  open-top  thimble,  make 
five  holes  in  one,  lay  on  a whole  one,  which  makes  one  tart;  pro- 


HOUSEHOLD. 


667 


ceed  with  all  the  dough  in  the  same  way;  bake  lightly;  when 
done  split  open  the  tart  and  lay  a slice  of  nice  jelly  between  the 
layers;  squeeze  up  the  jelly  through  the  holes;  place  them  on 
the  table  on  a plate,  and  you  have  a splendid  looking  dish  for 
the  tea  table,  and  something  that  will  keep  two  months.  Do 
not  put  your  jelly  in  till  you  wish  them  for  the  table. 

Rich  Mince  Pie. — Three  pounds  of  beef,  one  beefs 
tongue,  four  (or  six)  pounds  of  suet,  three  and  a half  pounds 
of  raisins,  three  pounds  of  currants,  three-quarters  of  a pound 
of  citron,  eight  pounds  of  chopped  apples,  four  and  a half 
pounds  of  sugar,  three  pints  of  molasses,  three  ounces  of  cin- 
namon, two  ounces  of  cloves,  a nutmeg,  one  teacupful  of  the 
Mace  Compound,  one  and  a fourth  ounces  of  salt,  half  an 
ounce  of  pepper,  one  gallon  and  a half  of  sweet  cider.  When 
mixed,  put  into  a kettle  and  scald,  stirring  it  all  the  time.  Put 
it  hot  into  Hero  or  Mason  jars— and  the  longer  you  keep  it  the 
nicer  it  will  be. 

Grandmother’s  Apple  Pie. — Line  a deep  pie-plate  with 
plain  paste.  Pare  sour  apples — greenings  are  best;  quarter, 
and  cut  in  thin  slices.  Allow  one  cup  of  Sugar,  and  quarter 
of  a grated  nutmeg  mixed  with  it;  fill  the  pie-plate  heaping 
full  of  the  sliced  apple,  sprinkling  the  sugar  between  the  lay- 
ers. It  will  require  not  less  than  six  good  sized  apples.  Wet 
the  edges  of  the  pie  with  cold  water;  lay  on  the  cover,  and 
press  down  securely,  that  no  juice  may  escape.  Bake  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour,  or  a little  less,  if  the  apples  are  very  ten- 
der. No  pie  in  which  the  apples  are  stewed  beforehand  can 
compare  with  this  in  flavor.  If  they  are  used,  stew  till  tender, 
and  strain;  sweeten  and  flavor  to  taste;  fill  the  pies,  and 
bake  half  an  hour. 

Dried-Apple  Pies. — Wash  one  pint  of  dried  apples,  and 
put  in  a porcelain  kettle  with  two  quarts  of  warm  water;  let 
them  stand  all  night.  In  the  morning  put  on  the  fire,  and  stew 
slowly  for  an  hour;  then  add  one  pint  of  sugar,  a teaspoonful 
of  dried  lemon  or  orange  rind,  or  half  a fresh  lemon  sliced, 
and  half  a teaspoonful  of  cinnamon.  Stew  half  an  hour 
longer,  and  then  use  for  filling  the  pies.  The  apple  can  be 
strained  if  preferred,  and  a teaspoonful  of  butter  added.  This 

41 


HOUSEHOLD. 


quantity  will  make  two  pies.  Dried  peaches  are  treated  in  the 
same  way. 

Lemon  Pies. — Three  lemons,  juice  of  all  and  the  grated 
rind  of  two;  two  cupfuls  of  sugar,  three  cupfuls  of  boiling 
water,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  corn  starch  dissolved  in  a little 
cold  water,  three  eggs,  a piece  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg. 

Pour  the  boiling  water  on  the  dissolved  corn  starch,  and 
boil  for  five  minutes.  Add  the  sugar  and  butter,  the  yolks  of 
the  eggs  beaten  to  a froth,  and  last  the  lemon  juice  and  rind. 
Line  the  plates  with  crust,  putting  a narrow  rim  of  it  around 
each  one;  pour  in  the  filling,  and  bake  half  an  hour.  Beat 
the  whites  to  a stiff  broth;  add  half  a teacupful  of  powdered 
sugar  and  ten  drops  of  lemon  extract,  and,  when  the  pie  is 
baked,  spread  this  on.  The  heat  will  cook  it  sufficiently,  but 
it  can  be  browned  a moment  in  the  oven.  If  to  be  kept  a day, 
do  not  make  the  frosting  till  just  before  using.  The  whites 
will  keep  in  a cold  place.  Orange  pie  can  be  made  in  the  same 
way. 

Sweet-Potato  Pie  or  Pudding. — One  pound  of  hot, 
boiled  sweet  pototo  rubbed  through  a sieve;  one  cupful  of  but- 
ter, one  heaping  cupful  of  sugar,  half  a grated  nutmeg,  one 
glass  of  brandy,  a pinch  of  salt,  and  six  eggs. 

Add  the  sugar,  spice,  and  butter  to  the  hot  potato.  Beat 
whites  and  yolks  seperately,  and  add,  and  last  the  brandy. 
Line  deep  plates  with  nice  paste,  making  a rim  of  puff  paste. 
Fill  with  the  mixture,  and  bake  till  the  crust  is  done,  about 
half  an  hour.  Wickedly  rich,  but  very  delicious.  Irish  pota- 
toes can  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  and  are  more  delicate. 

Squash  or  Pumpkin  Pie. — Prepare  and  steam.  Strain 
through  a sieve.  To  a quart  of  the  strained  squash  add 
one  quart  of  new  milk,  with  a spoonful  or  two  of  cream, 
if  possible;  one  heaping  cupful  of  sugar,  into  which  has 
been  stirred  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  a heaping  one  of  ginger, 
and  half  a one  of  cinnamon.  Mix  this  with  the  squash, 
and  add  from  two  to  four  well  beaten  eggs.  Bake  in  deep 
plates  lined  with  plain  pie-crust.  They  are  done  when  a knife- 
blade,  on  being  run  into  the  middle,  comes  out  clean.  About 
forty  minutes  will  be  enough.  For  pumpkin  pie  half  a cupful 
of  molasses  may  be  added,  and  the  eggs  can  be  omitted,  sub- 


HOUSEHOLD. 


669 


stituting  half  a cupful  of  flour  mixed  with  the  sugar  and  spice 
before  stirring  in.  A teaspoonful  of  butter  can  always  be 
added. 

Cherry  and  Berry  Pies. — Have  a very  deep  plate,  and 
either  no  crust  under,  save  a rim,  or  a very  thin  one.  Allow  a 
cupful  of  sugar  to  a quart  of  fruit,  but  no  spices.  Stone  cher- 
ries. Prick  the  upper  crust  half  a dozen  times  with  a fork,  to 
let  out  the  steam. 

For  rhubarb  or  pie:plant  pies,  peel  the  stalks;  cut  them  in 
little  bits,  and  fill  the  pie.  Bake  with  an  upper  crust. 

Custard  Pie. — Line  and  rim  deep  plates  with  pastry,  a 
thin  custard  pie  being  very  poor.  Beat  together  a teacupful 
of  sugar,  four  eggs,  and  a pinch  of  salt,  and  mix  slowly  with 
one  quart  of  milk.  Fill  the  plate  up  to  the  pastry  rim  after  it 
is  in  the  oven,  and  bake  till  the  custard  is  firm,  trying,  as  for 
squash  pies,  with  a knife  blade. 

Cocoanut  Pie. — One  teacupful  of  sugar,  one-half  cupful 
of  butter,  three  eggs,  one  grated  cocoanut,  one  pint  of  scalded 
milk  poured  on  the  cocoanut,  underlined  with  pastry. 

Orange  Pie. — Rub  the  yellow  of  two  oranges  with  lumps 
of  sugar,  add  juice  of  three,  and  one  cupful  of  white  sugar,  one 
finely  rolled  cracker,  a small  piece  of  butter,  four  eggs,  one 
cupful  of  sweet  milk.  Line  pudding  dish  with  paste,  and  bake 
until  firm;  nice  either  hot  or  cold.  With  or  without  a mer- 
ingue. 

Pie-Plant  Pie. — Peel  a bunch  of  pie-plant,  put  it  into 
your  chopping-bowl  and  chop  into  pieces  the  size  of  your  little 
finger  nail;  grate  the  rind  and  squeeze  the  juice  of  a lemon 
over  this;  add  sugar. 

Strawberry  Pie. — Make  a nice  puff  paste,  with  which  line 
a baking  plate;  half  bake  in  a quick  oven.  Have  ready 
sugared  strawberries  to  fill  the  plate,  and  the  white  of  an  egg 
beaten  and  sweetened  as  a meringue  with  which  to  cover  the 
berries.  Return  to  the  oven  long  enough  to  brown  slightly. 

Pumpkin  Pie. — One  pint  of  well  stewed  and  strained 
pumpkin,  one  good  quart  of  scalding  hot,  rich  milk,  and  one  and 
one-half  cupfuls  of  sugar,  four  eggs,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt, 


670 


HOUSEHOLD. 


one  tablespoonful  of  ginger,  and  one  of  ground  cinnamon. 
Bake  in  pie-plates  lined  with  good  paste;  do  not  let  the  mix- 
ture stand  after  it  is  put  together,  but  bake  at  once. 

Puddings.— For  boiled  puddings  a regular  pudding-boiler, 
holding  from  three  pints  to  two  quarts,  is  best,  a tin  pail  with  a 
very  tight-fitting  cover  answering  instead,  though  not  as  good. 
For  large  dumplings  a thick  pudding-cloth — the  best  being  of 
Canton  flannel,  used  with  the  nap-side  out — should  be  dipped 
in  hot  water,  and  wrung  out,  dredged  evenly  and  thickly  with 
flour,  and  laid  over  a large  bowl.  From  half  to  three-quarters 
of  a yard  square  is  a good  size.  In  filling  this,  pile  the  fruit 
or  berries  on  the  rolled-out  crust  which  has  been  laid  in  the 
middle  of  the  cloth,  and  gather  the  edges  of  the  paste  evenly 
over  it.  Then  gather  the  cloth  up,  leaving  room  for  the  dump- 
ling to  swell,  and  tying  very  tightly.  In  turning  out,  lift  to  a 
dish;  press  all  the  water  from  the  ends  of  the  cloth;  untie  and 
turn  away  from  the  pudding,  and  lay  a hot  dish  upon  it,  turn- 
ing over  the  pudding  into  it,  and  serving  at  once,  as  it  darkens 
or  falls  by  standing. 

In  using  a boiler,  butter  well,  and  fill  only  two-thirds  full 
that  the  mixture  may  have  room  to  swell.  Set  it  in  boiling 
water,  and  see  that  it  is  kept  at  the  same  height,  about  an  inch 
from  the  top.  Cover  the  outer  kettle,  that  the  steam  may  be 
kept  in.  Small  dumplings,  with  a single  apple  or  peach  in 
each,  can  be  cooked  in  a steamer.  Puddings  are  not  only 
much  more  wholesome,  but  less  expensive  than  pies. 

Apple  Dumplings. — Make  a crust,  as  for  biscuit,  or  a po- 
tato-crust, as  follows:  Three  large  potatoes,  boiled  and 
mashed  while  hot.  Add  to  them  two  cupfuls  of  sifted  flour  and 
one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  mix  thoroughly.  Now  chop  or  cut 
into  it  one  small  cupful  of  butter,  and  mix  into  a paste  with  about 
a teacupful  of  cold  water.  Dredge  the  board  thick  with  flour, 
and  roll  out,  thick  in  the  middle,  and  thin  at  the  edges.  Fill, 
as  directed,  with  apples  pared  and  quartered,  eight  or  ten  good- 
sized  ones  being  enough  for  this  amount  of  crust.  Boil  for 
three  hours.  Turn  out  as  directed,  and  eat  with  butter  and 
syrup  or  with  made  sauce.  Peaches  pared  and  halved,  or 
canned  ones  drained  from  the  syrup,  can  be  used.  In  this 


HOUSEHOLD. 


671 


case,  prepare  the  syrup  for  sauce.  Blueberries  are  excellent 
in  the  same  way. 

English  Plum  Pudding. — One  pound  of  raisins  stoned 
and  cut  in  two;  one  pound  of  currants  washed  and  dried;  one 
pound  of  beef-suet  chopped  very  fine;  one  pound  of  bread- 
crumbs; one  pound  of  flour;  half  a pound  of  brown  sugar; 
eight  eggs;  one  pint  of  sweet  milk;  one  teaspoonful  of  salt; 
a tablespoonful  of  cinnamon;  two  grated  nutmegs;  a glass  each 
of  wine  and  brandy. 

Prepare  the  fruit  and  dredge  thickly  with  flour.  Soak  the 
bread  in  the  milk;  beat  the  eggs  and  add.  Stir  in  the  rest  of 
the  flour,  the  suet,  and  last  the  fruit.  Boil  six  hours  either  in 
cloth  or  large  mold.  Half  the  amounts  given  make  a good- 
sized  pudding;  but,  as  it  will  keep  three  months,  it  might  be 
boiled  in  two  molds.  Serve  with  a rich  sauce. 

Any-Day  Plum  Pudding. — One  cup  of  sweet  milk;  one 
cup  of  molasses;  one  cup  each  of  raisins  and  currants;  one 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  one  of  soda,  sifted  with  three  cups  of 
flour;  one  teaspoonful  each  of  cinnamon  and  allspice. 

Mix  milk,  molasses,  suet,  and  spice;  add  flour  and  then  the 
fruit.  Put  in  a buttered  mold  and  boil  three  hours.  Eat  with 
hard  or  liquid  sauce.  A cupful  each  of  prunes  and  dates  or 
figs  can  be  substituted  for  the  fruit,  and  is  very  nice;  and  the 
same  amount  of  dried  apples,  measured  after  soaking  and 
chopping,  is  also  good.  Or  the  fruit  can  be  omitted  altogether, 
in  which  case  it  becomes  “Troy  Pudding.” 

Batter  Pudding,  Boiled  or  Baked. — Two  cups  of  flour 
in  which  is  sifted  a heaping  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder,  two 
cups  of  sweet  milk,  four  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Stir 
the  flour  gradually  into  the  milk,  and  beat  hard  for  five  min- 
utes. Beat  yolks  and  whites  separately,  and  add  to  batter. 
Have  the  pudding-boiler  buttered.  Pour  in  the  batter,  and 
boil  steadily  for  two  hours.  It  may  also  be  baked  an  hour  in 
a buttered  pudding-dish.  Serve  at  once,  when  done,  with  a 
liquid  sauce. 

Tapioca  Pudding. — Put  into  one  quart  of  milk  two-thirds 
of  a cupful  of  tapioca  that  has  soaked  overnight,  one  saltspoon- 
ful  of  salt;  set  it  on  the  back  part  of  the  stove  and  heat  gently 


072 


HOUSEHOLD. 


until  the  tapioca  becomes  clear;  then  beat  the  yolks  of  four 
eggs  with  one  cupful  of  sugar  and  the  rind  and  juice  of  one 
lemon;  stir  this  into  the  boiling  milk  and  tapioca;  of  the  whites 
of  the  eggs  make  a frosting  with  one  cupful  of  pulverized  sugar. 
Add  the  juice  of  a lemon,  or  other  flavoring,  spread  over  the 
top  of  the  pudding  in  a baking  dish,  and  let  it  just  brown  to  a 
cream  tint  in  the  oven.  It  is  best  eaten  cold. 

Cheap  Apple  Pudding. — In  the  first  place  select  two  deep 
earthen  dishes,  of  the  same  size  and  shape,  that  will  hold  two 
or  three  quarts,  according  to  the  family.  Then  fill  one  with 
nice  apples,  peeled  and  sliced  thin.  Add  a teacupful  of  cold 
water.  Cover  the  apples  with  a tender  crust,  then  turn  the 
empty  dish,  after  it  has  been  well  buttered,  over  the  one  in 
which  you  have  the  pudding,  and  place  them  both  in  a hot 
oven.  It  will  require  about  half  an  hour  to  bake.  Let  the 
pudding  be  just  ready  for  the  dessert,  and  do  not  remove  the 
upper  dish  until  the  minute  the  pudding  is  to  be  eaten. 

It  is  nice  with  sugar  and  butter,  but  with  rich  cream,  sweet- 
ened, it  is  a very  delicious  dessert. 

Rice  Pudding. — Half  a teacupful  of  rice  in  three  pints  of 
milk;  set  it  in  a tin  pail  in  a kettle  of  boiling  water;  let  it  sim- 
mer till  the  rice  is  cooked  soft;  while  hot,  stir  in  two  table- 
spoonfuls of  butter;  set  it  by  to  cool;  beat  five  eggs,  leaving 
out  two  whites,  and  a teacupful  of  sugar;  stir  into  the  rice  and 
milk  when  cold,  and  set  in  the  oven  to  bake;  take  out  as  soon 
as  it  forms  a custard;  do  not  wait  for  the  custard  to  set  or  it 
will  whey;  one-quarter  of  a pound  of  stoned  raisins  added  to 
this  is  very  nice.  Make  a meringue  of  the  two  whites  of  eggs 
and  six  tablespoonfuls  of  pulverized  sugar  beaten  to  a stiff 
froth;  pile  up  on  the  top  and  set  in  the  oven  just  two  minutes. 

Ginger  Pudding. — Five  eggs,  two  teacupfuls  sugar,  one 
and  one-half  teacupfuls  butter,  four  teacupfuls  of  flour,  after 
being  sifted,  one  of  molasses,  one  of  sour  milk,  with  a teaspoon- 
ful of  soda  dissolved  in  it,  two  teaspoonfuls  ground  ginger,  a 
little  cinnamon,  a pinch  of  salt,  unless  the  butter  is  salt  enough; 
beat  the  eggs  and  sugar  together,  set  the  molasses  and  butter 
over  the  fire  to  melt  the  latter;  mix  alternately  the  eggs  and 
flour;  lastly,  milk,  soda  and  spice;  bake  slowly.  Eat  with  the 
following  sauce:  One-half  pint  of  molasses,  one  pint  of  sugar, 


HOUSEHOLD. 


673 


lump  of  butter,  size  of  an  egg,  a teaspoonful  of  ginger,  a little 
water.  Let  all  boil  and  serve  hot. 

Cottage  Pudding. — One  egg,  one  pint  of  flour,  one  cup- 
ful of  milk,  one  cupful  of  sugar,  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
melted  butter,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
cream  of  tartar.  Mix  the  cream  of  tartar  in  the  flour,  and  the 
soda  in  the  milk.  Can  be  made  in  twenty  minutes.  Bake 
quickly,  and  eat  with  sauce.  Square,  shallow  pans  are  better 
to  bake  in.  Two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder  can  be  used. 

Marrow  Pudding. — Grate  a large  loaf  of  baker’s  bread 
and  pour  on  the  crumbs  a pint  of  rich  milk  boiling  hot;  when 
cold,  add  four  eggs  and  three-quarters  of  a pound  of  beef’s 
marrow  sliced  thin,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  lemon  juice,  in 
which  one  teaspoonful  (level)  of  mace  has  been  soaked  and 
stirred,  one  teaspoonful  of  extract  of  nectarine,  and  one  table- 
spoonful of  rose  water.  Add  two  cups  of  raisins  and  one  of 
blanched  almonds,  if  you  wish;  boil  three  hours;  or  omit  the 
fruit  and  use  a pound  of  marrow  instead  of  three-quarters,  and 
bake  it. 

Steamed  Graham  Bread. — One  cupful  of  milk,  three- 
quarters  of  a cupful  of  molasses,  one  cupful  of  water,  two 
cupfuls  of  graham  flour,  three  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder, 
one  half  teaspoonful  of  soda  dissolved  in  a little  hot  water,  a 
little  salt;  steam  three  hours.  Nice  hot  for  a dessert  with  Vir- 
ginia molasses  sauce. 

Carrot  Pudding. — One  pound  of  grated  carrots,  three- 
quarters  of  a pound  of  chopped  suet;  one-half  pound  of  raisins 
and  currants,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  eight  tablespoon- 
fuls of  flour,  spices  to  suit  the  taste;  boil  four  hours  and 
bake  twenty  minutes.  This  is  the  recipe,  but  we  question 
whether  we  would  bake  it  the  twenty  minutes  if  it  were  nice 
without. 

Whortleberry  Pudding. — One  quart  of  flour,  one  heap- 
ing tablespoonful  of  baking  powder,  a little  salt,  and  mix  with 
cold  water,  having  the  dough  softer  than  for  soda  biscuit;  roll 
out  the  paste  and  pour  upon  it  one  quart  of  whortleberries, 
then  cover  the  berries  by  securely  lapping  the  paste  as  for 
dumplings.  The  water  must  be  boiling,  the  pot  ample  and 


674 


HOUSEHOLD. 


well  filled  with  the  boiling  water.  Dip  the  pudding  cloth  in 
hot  water,  then  flour  it  well;  tie  the  pudding  very  closely  in 
the  cloth  and  let  it  boil  steadily  one  hour. 

Cakes. — Spice  Cakes. — Two  pounds  of  sifted  flour,  three- 
quarters  of  a pound  of  sugar,  three-quarters  of  a pound  of  but- 
ter, one  tablespoonful  of  ground  spices,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt, 
and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  yeast;  mix  it  to  a nice  dough  with 
warm  milk,  cover  it,  and  set  in  a warm  place  for  three  hours; 
then  roll  it  thin;  cut  it  in  small  cakes,  and  bake  ten  or  twelve 
minutes  in  a quick  oven.  These  may  be  fried  as  doughnuts. 

Wine  Cakes. — Mix  eight  ounces  of  flour  with  half  a pound 
of  finely  powdered  sugar,  beat  four  ounces  of  butter  with  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  wine;  then  make  the  flour  and  sugar  into  a 
paste  with  it,  and  four  eggs,  beaten  light;  add  caraway  seeds, 
and  roll  the  paste  as  thin  as  paper;  cut  the  cakes  with  the  top 
of  a tumbler,  brush  the  tops  over  with  the  beaten  white  of  an 
egg,  grate  sugar  over,  and  bake  ten  or  twelve  minutes  in  a 
quick  oven;  take  them  from  the  tins  when  cold. 

Soft  Gingerbread  ( Molasses ). — Take  half  a pint  of  sour 
milk,  half  a pint  of  molasses,  one  teacupful  of  butter,  or  salted 
lard,  or  beef  fat,  one  large  teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  dissolved 
in  a little  hot  water,  two  well  beaten  eggs,  half  a nutmeg, 
grated,  a teaspoonful  of  ground  cinnamon,  and  a large  spoon- 
ful of  ground  ginger;  mix  in  sifted  wheat  flour  until  it  is  a 
thick  batter  which  you  can  stir  easily  with  a spoon;  beat  it 
well  together  for  some  time,  then  pour  it  in  an  inch  deep  in 
square  tin  pans,  buttered;  bake  half  an  hour  in  a quick 
oven;  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  done,  try  as  directed  in  intro- 
ductory remarks. 

Soft  Gingerbread  ( without  eggs). — Make  as  directed  for 
soft  gingerbread,  omitting  the  eggs,  and  using  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  saleratus  instead  of  one;  dissolve  it  in  a teacupful  of  warm 
water. 

Molasses  Cup  Cakes. — Two  cups  of  molasses,  one  cupful 
butter,  one  cupful  of  milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  powdered  saleratus 
dissolved  in  a little  hot  water,  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  extract, 
half  a nutmeg,  grated,  and  two  well  beaten  eggs;  stir  in,  by 
degrees,  enough  flour  to  make  it  as  stiff  as  you  can  stir  easily 


HOUSEHOLD. 


675 


with  a spoon,  beat  it  well  until  it  is  very  light,  rub  a two-quart 
tin  basin  over  with  a bit  of  butter,  line  it  with  white  paper,  and 
put  the  cake  in  it;  bake  forty  minutes  in  a quick  oven;  try  if 
it  is  done,  by  running  a broom  splint  in  it  at  the  thickest  part; 
if  it  comes  out  clean  it  is  done.  This  is  a delicious  cake. 

Common  Cup  Cake. — One  teacupful  of  butter,  two  of 
sugar,  four  of  flour,  four  well  beaten  eggs,  one  cupful  of  sour 
milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  dissolved  in  a little  water 
one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  extract,  or  a wineglass  of  brandy,  and 
half  a nutmeg,  grated;  beat  up  the  mixture  well,  butter  two 
two-quart  basins,  line  them  with  white  paper,  and  divide  the 
mixture  between  them;  bake  in  a quick  oven  three-quarters  of 
an  hour. 

Pound  Cakes. — One  pound  and  a half  of  flour,  one  pound 
of  butter,  one  pound  of  fine  white  sugar,  ten  eggs,  one  gill  of 
brandy,  half  a nutmeg  grated,  and  a teaspoonful  of  vanilla  or 
lemon  extract,  or  orange  flour  water. 

Beat  the  butter  and  sugar  to  a cream,  beat  the  eggs  to  a 
high  froth,  then  put  all  together,  beat  it  until  it  is  light  and 
creamy,  put  it  in  basins  lined  with  buttered  paper,  let  the  mix- 
ture be  an  inch  and  a half  deep,  and  bake  in  a moderate  oven 
for  one  hour,  then  try  it;  when  done,  turn  it  gently  out,  reverse 
the  pan,  and  set  the  cake  on  the  bottom  until  cold;  let  the 
paper  remain  until  the  cake  is  to  be  cut. 

Sponge  Cake. — One  pound  of  sugar  finely  ground,  half 
a pound  of  sifted  flour,  eight  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt, 
one  tablespoonful  of  rose  brandy,  or  a teaspoonful  of  lemon 
extract. 

Beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs,  flour  and  sugar  together,  until  it 
is  smooth  and  light,  beat  the  whites  of  the  eggs  to  a high  froth, 
then  beat  all  together  until  well  mixed;  one  teaspoonful  of 
cream  of  tartar,  and  half  a teaspoonful  of  soda  sifted  dry  into 
the  flour. 

Butter  a square  tin  pan,  line  it  with  paper,  and  put  in  the 
mixture  more  than  an  inch  deep;  bake  in  a moderate  oven. 

Loaf  Cake. — One  pound  of  butter  beaten  to  a cream,  two 
pounds  of  sugar  rolled  fine,  three  pounds  of  sifted  wheat  flour, 
six  well  beaten  eggs,  three  teaspoonfuls  of  powdered  saleratus 


676 


HOUSEHOLD. 


dissolved  in  a little  hot  water,  one  tablespoonful  of  ground 
cinnamon,  and  half  a nutmeg  grated;  add  one  pound  of  cur- 
rants, well  washed  and  dried,  one  pound  of  raisins  stoned 
and  cut  in  two;  work  the  whole  together,  divide  it  in  three 
loaves,  put  them  in  buttered  basins,  and  bake  one  hour  in  a 
moderate  oven. 

French  Tea  Cake. — Beat  ten  eggs  to  a high  froth,  dis- 
solve half  a teaspoonful  of  volatile  salts  in  a little  hot  water, 
let  it  stand  to  cool,  then  put  it  to  the  eggs  and  beat  for  ten 
minutes;  add  four  ounces  of  powdered  loaf  sugar,  and  the 
same  of  sifted  flour;  beat  them  well  together,  line  square  tin 
pans  with  buttered  paper,  put  in  the  cake  mixture  nearly  an 
inch  deep,  and  bake  in  a quick  oven.  When  served,  cut  it  in 
squares. 

Drop  Cakes. — Beat  eight  eggs  very  light  with  one  pound 
of  powdered  sugar  and  twelve  ounces  of  flour;  flavor  with 
lemon  or  rose,  and  half  a nutmeg,  grated;  if  the  mixture  is  not 
beat  enough  the  cakes  will  run  into  each  other;  make  them  in 
small,  oblong  cakes,  on  sheets  of  paper;  grate  sugar  over  each, 
bake  in  a moderate  oven;  when  done,  take  them  from  the  paper 
with  a knife. 

Wedding  Cake. — One  pound  of  flour,  nine  eggs,  the  whites 
and  yolks  beaten  separately,  one  pound  of  butter  beaten  to  a 
cream,  one  pound  of  sugar,  one  teacupful  of  molasses,  nutmegs 
grated,  or  ground  mace,  one  ounce,  one  teaspoonful  of  ground 
allspice,  one  teaspoonful  of  cinnamon  and  a gill  of  brandy;  beat 
this  mixture  well. 

Having  picked,  washed  and  dried  three  pounds  of  currants, 
and  stoned,  and  cut  in  two,  three  pounds  of  raisins,  strew  half  a 
pound  of  flour  over  them,  mix  it  well  through  and  stir  them 
with  a pound  of  citron  cut  in  strips  into  the  cake. 

Line  round  tin  pans  with  buttered  paper,  put  the  mixture 
in  an  inch  and  a half  or  two  inches  deep,  and  bake  in  a mod- 
erate oven  an  hour  and  a half  or  two  hours.  See  directions 
for  icing  a cake. 

Plum  Cake. — Make  a cake  of  two  cupfuls  of  butter,  two 
cupfuls  of  molasses,  one  cupful  of  sweet  milk,  two  eggs  well 
beaten,  one  teaspoonful  of  powdered  saleratus,  dissolved  with  a 


HOUSEHOLD. 


677 


little  hot  water,  one  teaspoonful  of  ground  mace  or  nutmeg, 
one  teaspoonful  of  ground  allspice,  a tablespoonful  of  cinna- 
mon and  a gill  of  brandy;  stir  in  flour  to  make  a batter  as  stiff  as 
may  be -stirred  easily  with  a spoon,  beat  it  well  until  it  is  light, 
then  add  two  pounds  of  raisins  stoned,  and  cut  in  two,  two 
pounds  of  currants,  picked,  washed  and  dried,  and  half  a pound 
of  citron,  cut  in  slips.  Bake  in  a quick  oven. 

This  is  fine,  rich  cake,  easily  made  and  not  expensive. 

Rich  Bride  Cake. — Take  four  pounds  of  sifted  flour,  four 
pounds  of  sweet  fresh  butter  beaten  to  a cream,  and  two  pounds 
of  white  powdered  sugar;  take  six  eggs  for  each  pound  of  flour, 
an  ounce  of  ground  mace  or  nutmegs,  and  a tablespoonful  of 
lemon  extract  or  orange  flower  water. 

Wash  through  several  waters  and  pick  clean  from  grit,  four 
pounds  of  currants,  and  spread  them  on  a folded  cloth  to  dry; 
stone,  and  cut  in  two,  four  pounds  of  raisins,  cut  two  pounds 
of  citrons  in  slips,  and  chop  or  slice  one  pound  of  blanched 
almonds. 

Beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  with  the  sugar  to  a smooth  paste; 
beat  the  butter  and  flour  together  and  add  them  to  the  yolks 
and  sugar;  then  add  the  spice  and  half  a pint  of  brandy,  and 
the  whites  of  the  eggs  beaten  to  a froth;  stir  all  together  for 
some  time,  strew  half  a pound  of  flour  over  the  fruit;  mix  it 
through,  then  by  degrees  stir  it  into  the  cake. 

Butter  large  tin  basins,  line  them  with  white  paper  and  put 
in  the  mixture  two  inches  deep,  and  bake  in  a moderate  oven 
two  hours.  The  fruit  should  be  prepared  the  day  before  mak- 
ing the  cake. 

To  Make  Icing  for  Cakes. — Beat  the  white  of  two  small 
eggs  to  a high  froth;  then  add  to  them  quarter  of  a pound  of 
white  sugar  ground  fine  like  flour;  flavor  with  lemon  extract 
or  vanilla;  beat  it  until  it  is  light  and  very  white,  but  not  quite 
so  stiff  as  kiss  mixture;  the  longer  it  is  beaten  the  more  firm  it 
will  become.  No  more  sugar  must  be  added  to  make  it  so. 
Beat  the  frosting  until  it  may  be  spread  smoothly  on  the  cake. 

This  quantity  will  ice  quite  a large  cake  over  the  top  and 
sides. 

To  Ice  or  Frost  Cake. — Make  an  icing  as  above  directed, 
more  or  less,  as  may  be  required. 


678 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Turn  over  the  basin  in  which  the  cake  was  baked,  and  set 
the  cake  on  the  bottom,  then  spread  the  icing  on  the  sides  with 
a piece  of  card  paper  or  Bristol  board,  about  four  inches  long 
and  two  and  a half  wide,  then  heap  what  you  suppose  to  be 
sufficient  for  the  t^p  in  the  centre  of  the  cake,  and  with  the 
card  paper  spread  it  evenly  over,  set  it  in  a warm  place  to  dry 
and  harden,  after  which  ornament  it  as  you  may  fancy. 

If  sugar  ornaments  are  put  on,  it  should  be  done  whilst  it 
is  moist  or  soft. 

For  small  cakes,  where  a thin  icing  only  is  required,  it  must 
not  be  beaten  as  stiff.  Let  it  be  so  as  to  flow  for  the  last  coat- 
ing of  a cake  that  it  may  be  smooth. 

Almond  Cake. — One-half  cupful  of  butter,  two  of  sugar, 
two  and  a half  of  flour,  three-quarters  of  a cupful  of  sweet  milk, 
one-half  a teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  teaspoonful  of  cream  of 
tartar,  whites  of  eight  eggs  beaten  to  a stiff  froth,  one  pound 
of  soft-shelled  almonds  blanched  by  steeping  in  boiling  water 
till  the  skins  are  loose  enough  to  remove,  and  then  sliced  or 
rolled,  adding,  while  crushing  them,  the  juice  of  an  orange; 
flavor  with  essence  of  bitter  almond.  Bake  in  a pan  two 
inches  deep. 

Cookies. — Two  cupfuls  of  white  sugar,  one  cupful  of  but- 
ter, three  eggs,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar  in  the  flour, 
one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  tablespoonful  of  sweet  milk;  to 
the  whole  add  flour  enough  to  make  it  a soft  mixture;  add  nut- 
meg. 

Soft  Cookies — Take  one  cupful  of  butter  and  two  of 
sugar;  rub  them  to  a cream;  mix  with  them  three  well  beaten 
eggs,  one  teacupful  of  milk  or  cream,  six  cupfuls  of  flour,  one 
teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  and  a little  nutmeg. 

Currant  Short  Cake. — String  and  sugar  a quart  of  cur- 
rants, take  a quart  of  flour,  mix  well  in  it  a large  tablespoonful 
of  butter  and  a tablespoonful  of  Snowflake  baking  powder,  and 
a little  salt;  add  milk  enough  to  make  a soft  biscuit  dough, 
roll  it  out  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  and  put  it  into  drip- 
ping-pans eight  by  twelve  inches,  as  this  is  a good  size  to  cut. 
Bake,  and  the  moment  it  is  done  turn  out  on  to  a platter,  and 
with  your  carving  knife  open  right  through  the  center;  spread 


HOUSEHOLD. 


679 


well  with  butter  the  top  and  bottom  crust,  then  put  in  your 
currants,  strawberries  or  raspberries,  sprinkle  some  more  sugar 
over,  put  on  the  top  crust,  and  return  to  the  oven  for  ten  min- 
utes to  soak. 

We  consider  sweet  cream  essential  for  eating  with  these 
short  cakes,  but  many  people  do  not  mind  its  absence. 

Strawberry  short  cake  is  made  as  above,  except  that  you 
mash  one-half  the  strawberries  and  leave  the  other  half  whole. 

Freezing  of  Ice  Cream  and  Ices.— With  a patent  freezer, 
ice  cream  and  ices  can  be  prepared  with  less  trouble  than  puff 
paste.  The  essential  points  are  the  use  of  rock-salt,  and 
pounding  the  ice  into  small  bits.  Set  the  freezer  in  the  centre 
of  the  tub.  Put  a layer  of  ice  three  inches  deep,  then  of  salt, 
and  so  on  till  the  tub  is  full,  ending  with  ice.  Put  in  the 
cream,  and  turn  for  ten  minutes,  or  till  you  can  not  turn  the 
beater.  Then  take  off  the  cover,  scrape  down  the  sides,  and 
beat  like  cake  for  at  least  five  minutes.  Pack  the  tub  again, 
having  let  off  all  water;  cover  with  a piece  of  old  carpet.  If 
molds  are  used,  fill  as  soon  as  the  cream  is  frozen;  pack  them 
full  of  it,  and  lay  in  ice  and  salt.  When  ready  to  turn  out,  dip 
in  warm  water  a moment.  Handle  gently  and  serve  at  once. 

Ice  Cream  of  Cream. — To  a gallon  of  sweet  cream  add 
two  and  a quarter  pounds  of  sugar,  and  four  tablespoonfuls  of 
vanilla  or  other  extract,  as  freezing  destroys  flavor.  Freeze 
as  directed. 

Ice  Cream  with  Eggs. — Boil  two  quarts  of  rich  milk,  and 
add  to  it,  when  boiling,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  corn  starch  wet 
with  a cup  of  cold  milk.  Boil  for  ten  minutes,  stirring  often. 
Beat  twelve  eggs  to  a creamy  froth  with  a heaping  quart  of 
sugar,  and  stir  in,  taking  it  from  the  fire  as  soon  as  it  boils. 
When  cold,  add  three  tablespoonfuls  of  vanilla  or  lemon,  and 
two  quarts  either  of  cream  or  very  rich  milk,  and  freeze.  For 
strawberry  or  raspberry  cream,  allow  the  juice  of  one  quart  of 
berries  to  a gallon  of  cream.  For  chocolate  cream,  grate  half 
a pound  of  chocolate;  melt  it  with  one  pint  of  sugar  and  a 
little  water,  and  add  to  above  rule. 

Canning  and  Preserving. — In  canning,  see  first  that  the  jars 
are  clean,  the  rubbers  whole  and  in  perfect  order,  and  the 


680 


HOUSEHOLD. 


tops  clean  and  ready  to  screw  on.  Fill  the  jars  with  hot  (not 
boiling)  water  half  an  hour  before  using,  and  have  them  ready 
on  a table  sufficiently  large  to  hold  the  preserving  kettle,  a dish- 
pan  quarter  full  of  hot  water,  and  the  cans.  Have  ready,  also, 
a deep  plate,  large  enough  to  hold  two  cans,  a silver  spoon,  an 
earthen  cup  with  handle,  and,  if  possible,  a can-filler — that  is, 
a small  tin  in  strainer  shape,  but  without  the  bottom,  and  fit- 
ting about  the  top.  The  utmost  speed  is  needed  in  filling  and 
screwing  down  tops,  and  for  this  reason  every  thing  must  be 
ready  beforehand. 

In  filling  the  can  let  the  fruit  come  to  the  top;  then  run 
the  spoon-handle  down  on  all  sides  to  let  out  the  air;  pour  in 
juice  till  it  runs  over  freely,  and  screw  the  top  at  once,  using  a 
towel  to  protect  the  hand.  Set  at  once  in  a dish-pan  of  water, 
as  this  prevents  the  table  being  stained  by  juice,  and  also  its 
hardening  on  the  hot  can.  Proceed  in  this  way  till  all  are  full; 
wipe  them  dry;  and,  when  cold,  give  the  tops  an  additional 
screw,  as  the  glass  contracts  in  cooling,  and  loosens  them. 
Label  them,  and  keep  in  a dark,  cool  closet.  When  the  fruit 
is  used,  wash  the  jar,  and  dry  carefully  at  the  back  of  the  stove. 
Wash  the  rubber  also,  and  dry  on  a towel,  putting  it  in  the  jar 
when  dry,  and  screwing  on  the  top.  They  are  then  ready  for 
next  year’s  use.  Mason’s  cans  are  decidedly  the  best  for  gen- 
eral use. 

General  Rules  for  Canning. — For  all  small  fruits  allow 
one-third  of  a pound  of  sugar  to  a pound  of  fruit.  Make  it 
into  syrup  with  a teacupful  of  water  to  each  pound,  and  skim 
carefully.  Throw  in  the  fruit,  and  boil  ten  minutes,  canning 
as  directed.  Raspberries  and  blackberries  are  best;  huckle- 
berries are  excellent  for  pies,  and  easily  canned.  Pie-plant 
can  be  stewed  till  tender.  It  requires  half  a pound  of  sugar  to 
j a pound  of  fruit. 

For  peaches,  gages,  etc.,  allow  the  same  amount  of  sugar  as 
for  raspberries.  Pare  peaches,  and  can  whole,  or  in  halves,  as 
preferred.  Prick  plums  and  gages  with  a large  darning-needle 
to  prevent  their  bursting.  In  canning  pears,  pare  and  drop  at 
once  into  cold  water,  as  this  prevents  their  turning  dark. 

Always  use  a porcelain-lined  kettle,  and  stir  either  with  a 
silver  or  a wooden  spoon — never  an  iron  one.  Currants  are 


HOUSEHOLD. 


681 


nice  mixed  with  an  equal  weight  of  raspberries,  and  all  fruit  is 
more  wholesome  canned  than  in  preserves. 

MISCELLANEOUS  RECIPES  AND  DIRECTIONS. 

To  Test  the  Purity  of  the  Atmosphere. — Fill  a glass  tumbler 
with  lime  water,  and  place  it  in  any  convenient  position.  The 
rapidity  with  which  a pellicle  forms  on  its  surface  corresponds 
to  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid,  or  foul  air,  present  in  the 
atmosphere  that  surrounds  it. 

To  Clean  Wall  Papers. — Let  the  servant  or  man  employed 
get  on  high  steps,  and  first  brush  the  wall  all  over  with  a per- 
fectly clean  brush.  Then  divide  a stale  loaf  in  large  pieces 
and  rub  the  paper  downwards  with  it  in  firm,  clear  strokes; 
he  must  not  go  back  over  it  with  the  same  piece  of  bread,  nor 
rub  it  up  and  down,  only  downwards.  The  bread  will  remove 
all  the  dirt  and  leave  the  paper  like  new;  but  it  must  not  be 
used  dirty,  a fresh  piece  must  be  taken  when  the  last  used  is 
soiled,  otherwise  dust  will  be  carried  from  one  breadth  of  the 
paper  to  the  next. 

To  Remove  Grease  Spots. — If  there  are  any  grease  spots  on 
the  paper,  cover  them  with  a little  moist  fuller’s  earth,  and 
when  it  is  dry  brush  it  off.  Repeat  the  application  if  required. 

To  Clean  Paint. — Get  some  of  the  best  whiting;  powder  it 
and  then  sift  it,  so  that  it  may  be  as  fine  as  possible.  Put  .it  in 
a plate  for  use.  Get  some  clean,  warm  water  in  a basin,  and  a 
piece  of  soft  flannel,  and*  a new  soft  chamois  leather. 

Dip  the  flannel  in  the  water  and  squeeze  it  nearly  dry;  then 
rub  it  down  in  the  whiting,  and  take  up  as  much  as  will  adhere 
to  it.  Rub  the  paint  gently  with  it  and  it  will  clean  it  per- 
fectly. Next  lightly  wash  the  part  done  with  clean  water,  and 
dry  with  the  chamois  leather.  The  paint  will  look  as  well  as 
if  it  were  just  done,  and  the  most  delicate  colors  will  be  unin- 
jured. It  is  a better  mode  than  the  old  one  of  soap  and  water, 
and  it  is  also  quicker  about. 

Window-cleaning  should  be  done  by  men,  if  the  windows 
are  high  up.  No  woman  should  be  allowed  to  run  the  risk  of 
breaking  her  neck  from  a height,  nor  to  stand  where  she  is 
indelicately  exposed  to  observation,  but  she  ought  to  clean  the 
inside  of  the  windows  with  the  footman  or  hired  cleaner. 

Plate-glass  is  best  cleaned  with  wet  whiting,  which  is  after- 
wards washed  off,  and  the  glass  is  rubbed  with  a chamois 
leather. 

If  paint-splashes  have  been  left  on  the  panes  of  glass  by 
the  painter,  it  can  be  removed  by  washing  the  glass  with  soda 
and  water,  which  will  quite  clear  it  from  them. 


682 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Board  Cleaning. — Boards  should  never  be  rubbed  across, 
but  up  and  down  the  boards.  After  being  well  scrubbed  with 
soap,  hot  water  and  a brush,  they  should  be  washed  over 
again  with  clean  water  and  soft  cloth,  and  then  well  dried  by 
hard  rubbing.  To  extract  oil  from  boards  (it  is  frequently 
upset  on  them  by  careless  painters),  make  a lye  of  pearl-ashes 
and  rain  water;  add  to  it  unslacked  lime  as  much  as  the  water 
will  absorb;  stir  well  together;  let  it  settle,  and  bottle  for  use. 
Dilute  it  with  rain-water  when  required,  and  wash  the  greasy 
spots  quickly  with  it.  Do  not  let  it  remain  wet,  for  fear  of 
discoloring  the  boards.  Boards  may  be  whitened  by  scrub- 
bing them  with  soft  water,  sand,  and  slacked  lime.  This  will 
also  destroy  insects. 

How  to  Clean  Carpets. — Carpets  should  be  swept  the  way 
of  the  pile,  with  wet  tea-leaves,  to  prevent  the  dust  from  flying 
over  the  curtains  and  furniture.  A short-handled  soft  brush 
should  be  used  for  valuable  carpets,  and  the  servant  must 
sweep  it  with  care  once  a week.  Once  a year  carpets  should 
be  well  shaken. 

Bedroom  carpets  should  be  wiped  over,  especially  under 
the  bed,  with  a damp  cloth  every  day,  or  at  least  three  times  a 
week. 

The  house-wife  who  has  her  carpets  wiped  with  a damp 
cloth  daily  (if  mud  be  on  them,  the  spots  must  first  be  brushed 
off),  will  find  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  sweep  them  once  a 
week,  and  that  they  will  last  for  years  longer  than  if  they  were 
swept  daily.  Of  course  the  cloth  must  not  be  wet,  only  damp 
enough  to  pick  up  flue  and  dust.  But,  however  it  is  cleaned, 
be  sure  that  it  is  done  often  and  effectually,  for  the  sake  of 
health. 

Polished  floors,  well  varnished,  with  a mere  strip  of  carpet 
by  the  side  of  the  bed  (in  bedrooms),  is  better  and  healthier 
than  our  present  carpeted  rooms. 

For  Removing  Grease  from  Carpets— Half  a wineglassful 
of  fuller’s  earth,  half  a wineglassful  of  magnesia.  Mix  the 
above  in  a basin  with  boiling  water;  put  it  hot  on  the  grease 
spot,  or  spots,  and  leave  it  on  till  it  is  dry,  then  brush  it  off, 
and  you  will  find  the  spots  are  gone.  Or,  if  the  grease  is 
recent,  lay  a sheet  of  blotting-paper  over  it  and  iron  over  the 
spot  with  a hot  flat-iron;  it  will  come  out  in  the  blotting-paper, 
but  you  must  keep  moving  the  paper  and  applying  fresh  parts 
of  it  till  the  heat  has  absorbed  the  whole  of  the  grease. 

To  Remove  Ink  from  Carpets. — If  the  ink  is  just  spilled, 
take  up  as  much  as  you  can  with  a spoon  and  with  blotting 
paper.  When  you  have  taken  off  all  that  is  possible,  wash  well 
with  skim  milk  (London  milk  does  as  it  is),  then  wash  again 


HOUSEHOLD. 


683 


with  hot  water.  As  soon  as  the  accident  happens,  wet  the 
place  with  juice  of  sorrel,  or  lemon,  or  vinegar,  and  the  best 
hard  white  soap.  Old  ink-stains  are  hard  to  get  out;  but  they 
can  be  removed  by  first  wetting  the  spot  and  then  applying 
salts  of  sorrel.  Wash  off  immediately,  however. 

Fuller’s  earth,  mixed  with  lemon  juice,  will  also  take  other 
stains  out  of  carpets. 

Carpets  should  not  be  swept  with  a whisk-brush  above  once 
a week.  It  wears  them  out  if  it  is  used  oftener. 

To  Clean  Floor  Cloths. — Sweep  them  and  wash  them  now 
and  then  with  milk;  never  scour  them  with  a brush,  or  use 
s'oap  or  hot  water  on  them,  as  it  would  take  off  the  paint.  A 
soft  cloth  and  lukewarm  water  are  all  that  is  required  to  clean 
them. 

Oil-cloths  are  washed,  when  they  require  it,  with  a soft 
flannel  wetted  with  milk;  or,  with  a mixture  of  salad-oil  and 
weak  table  beer.  Never  use  soda  or  soap  to  them. 

To  Clean  Greasy  Cocoanut  Matting. — Thoroughly  scrub  it 
all  over  with  hot  water  and  soap,  then  loosely  fold  it  and  put 
it  into  a large  washing-tub.  Pour  a quantity  of  cold  water 
over  it,  then  hang  it  out  on  a line  in  the  sun  to  dry. 

To  Clean  Straw  Matting. — Wash  as  seldom  as  possible;  but 
when  it  becomes  imperatively  necessary  to  do  so,  use  salt  and 
water.  Salt  will  prevent  the  matting  from  turning  yellow. 
Dry  as  fast  as  you  wash,  and  wash  only  a small  space  at  a 
time. 

Stained  boards  are  dusted  and  polished  as  stained  furni- 
ture would  be. 

To  Clean  Glass. — Tumblers  and  wineglasses  should  be 
washed  in  cold  water  in  which  a little  soda  is  dissolved,  then 
turned  up  to  drain,  dried  with  a soft,  clean,  and  dry  cloth,  and 
finally  polished  with  a leather  or  an  old  silk  handkerchief. 
Chandelier  or  lustre  glasses  are  washed  in  the  same  way.  De- 
canters require  careful  cleaning.  First  have  ready  some  strong 
suds  of  white  soap  and  water  and  a little  pearlash.  Mash  up 
an  egg-shell  well,  drop  it  into  the  bottle,  pour  in  some  of  the 
soap-suds,  and  shake  it  well  about  till  the  bottle  is  clean,  then 
empty  it;  put  in  fresh  suds  and  clean  inside  with  a small  sponge 
on  the  end  of  a glass-stick;  rinse  out  twice  with  clean  cold 
water.  Next  put  them  into  the  soap-suds,  and  if  they  are  cut 
wash  them  with  a regular  glass-brush;  next  rinse  the  outside. 
Dry  the  inside  with  a clean  piece  of  linen  on  the  end  of  your 
glass-stick.  Wipe  the  outside  with  a dry  glass-cloth,  and  pol- 
ish off  with  a leather  or  silk  handerchief. 

To  Remove  Rust. — To  remove  rust  from  steel,  cover  with 

42 


684 


HOUSEHOLD. 


sweet  oil,  well  rubbed  on  it;  in  forty-eight  hours  use  unslacked 
lime,  powdered  very  fine.  Rub  it  till  the  rust  disappears.  To 
prevent  the  rust,  mix  with  fat  oil  varnish  four-fifths  of  well- 
rectified  spirits  of  turpentine.  The  varnish  is  to  be  applied  by 
means  of  a sponge;  and  articles  varnished  in  this  manner  will 
retain  their  brilliancy  and  never  contract  any  spots  of  rust.  It 
may  be  applied  to  copper,  philosophical  instruments,  etc. 

To  Distinguish  Iron  from  Steel. — Let  a drop  of  diluted 
nitric  acid  fall  on  the  metal,  and,  after  a few  minutes,  wash  it 
off  with  water.  If  the  metal  be  steel,  a black  spot  will  be  left 
on  it;  if  it  be  iron,  a whitish  spot  will  remain.  The  reason  is 
that  the  nitric  acid  dissolves  the  iron  in  both  cases,  but  the 
charcoal  that  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  steel  remains 
undissolved,  and  constitutes  the  blackness. 

To  Clean  Marble. — One  ounce  of  potash,  two  ounces"  of 
whitening,  and  a square  of  yellow  soap,  cut  into  small  pieces; 
boil  altogether  in  a saucepan,  until  it  begins  to  thicken;  apply 
this  with  a large  brush  to  the  marble.  If  the  marble  is  very 
dirty,  let  it  remain  all  night;  if  not,  one  hour  will  be  sufficient. 
Then  wash  it  carefully  off  with  plenty  of  cold  water  and  a 
sponge.  Take  care  the  mixture  is  not  applied  too  hot.  Or: 

Equal  quantities  of  soft  soap  and  pearlash. 

Put  the  soap  and  pearlash  on  the  chimney-piece  with  a soft 
flannel;  let  it  lie  on  for  a few  minutes.  Wash  it  off  with  warm 
water,  not  too  hot;  wash  it  over  a second  time  with  cold  spring 
water.  Acids  act  on  marble.  Marble  is  itself  composed  of 
carbonate  of  lime — that  is,  it  is  a compound  of  carbonic  acid 
and  lime.  Now  the  carbonic  acid  has  a comparatively  weak 
affinity  for  lime,  and  most  other  acids  will  prevail  over  it  and 
take  its  place  when  brought  into  contact  with  it;  thus  destroy- 
ing the  texture  of  the  stone,  liberating  the  carbonic  acid,  and 
leaving  some  salt  of  lime,  in  the  form  of  a white  powder,  in  its 
place. 

When  marble  has  had  its  polished  surface  eroded  by  acids 
— and  even  lemon  juice  or  vinegar  will  do  this  readily — the 
only  mode  of  reparation  is  to  have  the  marble  again  polished 
by  the  use  of  polishing  powders,  such  as  emery. 

Neither  spirits  nor  water  produce  any  permanent  effect  on 
marble,  but  fixed  oils  and  grease  soak  into  its  substance,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  remove  them,  as  any  agent  potent  enough 
to  act  on  the  grease  will  also  destroy  the  texture  of  the  marble. 
A portion  of  the  grease  may  be  extracted  by  covering  with 
fuller’s  earth  or  pipeclay.  But  marble  should  be  carefully  pre- 
served from  contact  with  grease  or  oil. 

To  Clean  Brass. — Rub  it  with  a little  sal  ammoniac  finely 
powdered  and  wet.  Warm  the  brass  first;  polish  with  wash 
leather.  Or: 


HOUSEHOLD. 


685 


Rub  with  a soft  wash-leather  dipped  in  sweet  oil;  then  with 
finely  powdered  rotten-stone.  Polish  with  wash-leather.  The 
Americans  use  powdered  rotten-stone,  well  mixed  with  a pint 
of  water.  Then  a teaspoonful  of  sulphuric  acid  is  added. 
This  mixture  is  applied  gently,  then  rubbed  off,  and  the  brass 
polished  with  powdered  whiting  which  has  been  sifted  through 
muslin.  Use  wash  leather  in  all  cases.  Some  persons  wash 
the  brass  with  the  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  and  then  polish 
with  rotten- stone,  etc.,  etc. 

To  Clean  Real  Bronze. — Wash  the  ornaments  gently  (with 
a sponge)  with  soap  and  water,  then  rinse  them  in  beer.  Do 
not  wipe  it  off  or  rub  the  ornaments  at  all,  but  place  them  in 
a spot  at  a little  distance  from  the  fire,  until  they  are  quite 
dry.  Use  very  little  soap. 

Bronzed  chandeliers,  lamps,  etc.,  should  be  only  dusted 
with  a feather  brush  or  soft  cloth.  Washing  takes  off  the 
bronzing. 

To  Clean  Gilt  Lamp  and  Chandeliers. — Wipe  off  the  dust 
With  a soft  cloth,  and  wash  gently  with  fine  soap-suds  and  soft 
lukewarm  water.  Any  wrought  work  may  be  carefully  cleaned 
out  with  a very  soft  tooth-brush. 

To  Clean  Steel  and  Iron. — One  ounce  of  soft  soap,  two 
ounces  of  emery,  make  it  into  a' paste;  then  rub  the  article  for 
cleaning  with  wash-leather,  and  it  will  give  a brilliant  polish. 

For  Removing  Paint  from  Wood. — Mix  one  pound  of  soda, 
such  as  is  used  for  washing,  two  pounds  of  lime,  unslacked.  If 
the  paint  is  very  strong  on  the  wood,  add  one-half  pound  of 
potash. 

Mix  these  ingredients  together,  and  dilute  with  water  until 
the  mixture  becomes  rather  thicker  than  whitewash,  and  then 
rub  it  on  the  paint  with  a piece  of  wood  folded  up  in  rag.  The 
person  who  uses  this  preparation  must  be  careful  not  to  touch 
it  with  his  hand. 

To  Clean  Japanned  Waiters,  Urns,  Etc. — Rub  on  with  a 
sponge  a little  white  soap  and  some  lukewarm  water,  and  wash 
the  water  or  urn  quite  clean.  Never  use  hot  water,  as  it  will 
cause  the  japan  to  scale  off.  Having  wiped  it  dry,  sprinkle  a 
little  flour  over  it;  let  it  rest  awhile,  and  then  rub  it  with  a soft 
dry  cloth,  and  finish  with  a silk  handerchief.  If  there  are  white 
heat  marks  on  the  waiters,  they  will  be  difficult  to  remove.  But 
you  may  try  rubbing  them  with  a’flannel  dipped  in  sweet  oil, 
and  afterwards  in  spirits  of  wine.  Waiters  and  other  articles 
of  papier  mache  should  be  washed  with  a sponge  and  cold 
water,  without  soap,  dredged  with  flour  while  damp;  and  after 
a while  wiped  off,  and  then  polished  with  a silk  handkerchief. 


686 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Wood  Furniture. — The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  furniture  fresh  and  clean.  If  the  house-wife  is  neat  and 
careful  her  property  will  last  much  longer  than  otherwise,  and 
her  dwelling  will  always  possess  a charm  too  often  wanting  in 
more  pretentious  dwellings. 

Furniture  which  is  French  polished  should  be  carefully 
dusted  every  day,  and  polished  once  a week,  with  the  furniture 
polish  to  be  bought  at  any  good  chemist’s.  Generally  these 
polishes  are  better  and  really  cheaper  than  any  that  the  house- 
keeper can  make  herself.  The  chemical  and  mechanical  ac- 
tion of  different  substances  on  articles  of  furniture  is  very  little 
understood  by  persons  in  general,  and  consequently  the  most 
absurd  directions  are  frequently  issued  for  the  preparation  of 
cleaning  materials,  and  also  for  preventing  injury  from  certain 
agents.  The  substances  from  which  furniture  is  chiefly  ex- 
posed to  injury  are  water,  oils,  spirits  of  various  kinds,  such  as 
brandy,  eau-de-Cologne,  benzine,  etc.,  and  acids. 

Varnishes,  or  polished  surfaces  of  wood,  are  easily  injured 
by  volatile  mineral  spirits,  such  as  those  used  for  lamps,  or  by 
any  alcoholic  spirit,  as  brandy  or  wine.  The  polish  is  com- 
posed of  gums  and  resins  which  are  soluble  in  spirits.  Many 
of  these  polishes  or  varnishes  are  made  by  dissolving  the  ma- 
terials in  alcohol,  then  when  they  are  applied  the  spirit  evapo- 
rates and  the  gum  or  resin  is  left  in  a thin  polish  or  varnish  on 
the  wood.  Of  course,  if  wine,  brandy,  or  spirits  of  wine  fall 
on  it,  a portion  of  it  is  again  dissolved,  and  the  brilliancy  of 
the  surface  is  destroyed.  The  only  remedy  for  these  kinds  of 
stains  or  marks  is  to  have  the  table,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  re- 
polished. 

Heat  has  the  same  effect  on  French  polish.  A hot  plate,  or 
dish,  or  cup,  or  mug,  placed  on  it,  leaves  its  shape  as  a dull 
mark  on  the  table.  Therefore  dining  tables  are  better  not 
French  polished,  but  well  rubbed  with  oil.  When  furniture  is 
not  French  polished,  it  is  well  to  mbit  ,~ith  linseed  oil,  slightly 
colored  with  alkanet  root.  Every  time  the  dinner  table  is 
rubbed  all  the  leaves  should  be  put  in,  so  that  the  portions  of 
the  table  may  be  of  the  same  color,  for  oil  darkens  mahogany, 
and  if  the  leaves  are  not  rubbed  every  time  there  will  soon  be 
a great  difference  of  shade  between  them  and  the  table. 

A Capital  Recipe  for  Polishing  Tables. — Cold-drawn  lin- 
seed oil,  one  pint;  spirits  of  wine,  one  ounce;  white  tonic  vine- 
gar, one  pint;  spirits  of  turpentine,  one  ounce;  powdered  gum 
arabic,  one-half  once;  butter  of  antimony,  one  and  one-half 
ounce;  spirits  of  salt,  one  ounce. 

The  above  ngredients  to  be  well  mixed  together  and  shaken 
previous  to  being  used. 

Family  Recipe  for  Polish  for  Furniture  not  French  Poh 


HOUSEHOLD. 


687 


ished. — Three  ounces  of  beeswax;  three  ounces  of  hard  white 
soap;  one  ounce  of  spermeceti,  cut  up  small  and  simmered  in 
a pint  of  water,  keeping  it  stirred  all  the  time.  Pour  it  into  a 
jar  and  keep  it  well  covered. 

French  Polish. — We  give  the  following  excellent  recipe, 
which  proves  experimentally  to  be  good  for  those  who  may 
wish  to  polish  a table  or  box  for  themselves,  premising  that  the 
surface  to  which  it  is  applied  must  be  perfectly  cleaned  first: 

Shellac,  one  ounce  and  a half;  mastic,  half  an  ounce;  san- 
darac,  half  an  ounce;  rectified  spirits  of  wine,  two  ounces. 
Pound  the  gums  very  finely  in  a mortar,  and  put  them  in  a 
bottle  which  will  rather  more  than  hold  the  whole  quantity; 
stand  the  bottle  in  a kettle  of  cold  water,  which  bring  slowly 
to  a boil;  let  it  boil  for  some  time,  until  the  contents  of  the  bot- 
tle become  like  treacle  (this  requires  great  care),  stirring  the 
while  with  a wire  rod.  Roll  several  yards  of  flannel  list  into 
a flat  coil,  put  a little  sweet  oil  on  it,  and  cover  with  a piece  of 
old  linen;  on  this  apply  the  polish. 

Furniture  Polish. — Half  a pint  of  spirits  of  wine;  one-half 
ounce  of  gum  shellac;  one-half  once  of  gum  benzoin;  one-half 
ounce  of  gum  sandarac. 

Put  the  whole  into  a bottle  for  a day  or  two,  and  shake  it  a 
few  times.  When  the  gums  are  dissolved  it  is  fit  for  use. 
When  you  think  the  polish  is  laid  on  thick  enough,  take  a clean 
wad  and  cloth,  put  a little  clean  spirits  of  wine  on  the  wad,  the 
same  as  you  did  the  polish,  and  rub  it  up  the  same  way,  but 
rub  very  lightly,  and  rub  until  quite  dry.  You  must  put  a lit- 
tle oil  on  the  cloth,  the  same  as  in  laying  on  the  polish. 

For  Polishing  Furniture. — Half  a pint  of  vinegar;  half  a 
pint  of  linseed  oil;  two  pennyworth  of  butter  of  antimony. 

To  Clean  the  Face  of  Soft  Mahogany  or  other  Wood. — After 
scraping  and  sand-papering  in  the  usual  manner,  take  a sponge 
and  well  wet  the  surface  to  raise  the  grain;  then  with  a piece 
of  fine  pumice-stone,  free  from  stony  particles, rub  the  way  of  the 
fibres;  rub  the  wood  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  keeping  it 
moist  with  water;  let  the  wood  dry  then;  if  you  wet  it  again  you 
will  find  the  grain  much  smoother,  and  it  will  not  rise  so  much; 
repeat  the  process,  and  you  will  find  the  surface  perfectly 
smooth,  and  the  texture  of  the  wood  much  hardened.  By  this 
means  common  soft  Honduras  mahogany  will  have  a face  equal 
to  Hispaniola.  If  this  does  not  succeed  to  your  satisfaction, 
you  may  improve  the  surface  by  using  the  pumice-stone  with 
cold  drawn  linseed  oil,  in  the  same  manner  as  you  proceeded 
with  water;  this  will  be  found  to  put  a most  beautiful,  as  well 
as  durable,  face  to  the  wood,  which  must  then  be  polished  or 
varnished. 


688 


HOUSEHOLD. 


To  Clean  and  Lay  by  Curtains. — In  summer  it  is  usual  to 
lay  by  curtains  of  rep,  damask,  or  chintz,  and  replace  them 
with  lace  or  muslin  curtains,  which  look  much  cooler,  and  the 
more  expensive  rep  and  chintz  are  preserved  by  it.  Rep  cur- 
tains should  be  well  brushed  and  shaken;  wrapped  in  linen 
cloths,  and  put  away  (protected  by  bags  of  pepper,  cedar 
•shavings,  or  camphor,  from  the  chance  of  moths)  in  a dry 
closet  or  a deep  drawer.  Chintz  should  be  spread  on  a long 
table  and  rubbed  all  over  with  clean  bran  and  flannel,  which 
cleans  the  glaze  nicely.  Then  fold  and  lay  them  by.  If  chintz 
curtains  have  the  dust  blown  off  them  once  a week  by  a pair  of 
bellows,  and  are  taken  down  and  well  shaken  once  a quarter, 
they  will  last  seven  years  without  requiring  cleaning.  The 
writer  speaks  from  experience  in  this  matter.  It  is  wiser  to 
have  lace  and  muslin  curtains  cleaned  than  washed,  and  quite 
as  cheap.  Chintz  should  also  be  sent  to  be  cleaned  and 
re-glazed  when  dirty. 

To  Clean  Covers  which  are  not  Silver. — Put  a piece  of 
mottled  soap  (about  two  ounces)  and  about  the  same  quantity  of 
whiting  into  a jug  and  pour  boiling  water  on  it;  mix  till  it 
becomes  a thick  paste,  quite  smooth.  Then  rub  it  on  the 
covers,  let  it  dry,  and  rub  off  with  dry  whiting  and  a leather. 
This  preserves  the  cover  from  being  scratched.  The  insides 
and  outsides  of  covers  should  be  carefully  wiped  the  moment 
they  are  brought  from  the  table. 

There  are  also  pastes  sold  for  cleaning  covers,  about  the 
best  of  which  is  Graham’s  paste;  but  the  old  fashioned  mode 
of  using  soap  and  whiting  for  the  purpose  does  very  well,  and 
preserves  the  covers  longer. 

When  they  are  plated,  they  are  best  cleaned  like  other  plate, 
with  gin  and  whiting  mixed,  or  with  rouge  powder. 

To  Clean  Tins. — Clean  tins  as  you  would  clean  covers, 
with  soap  and  whiting  mixed  to  a cream  in  boiling  water.  Lay 
it  on  with  a piece  of  leather;  let  it  dry,  and  then  rub  it  off 
with  dry  whiting  and  a clean  leather. 

To  Clean  Copper  and  Brass. — Mix  oil  and  brickdust,  or 
oil  and  finely  powdered  rotten-stone  (sifted  through  muslin) 
together;  rub  it  on  with  a piece  of  leather;  let  it  rest  a little 
while  on,  and  then  rub  off  with  a dry  soft  leather. 

Many  people  use  oil  of  turpentine  and  rotten-stone,  but  the 
copper  very  soon  tarnishes  after  its  use;  others  use  oxalic  acid, 
but  this  is  so  dangerous  a poison,  and  so  painful  if  it  chance  to 
get  into  the  servant’s  eyes,  that  we  strongly  object  to  its  use. 

To  Clean  Lacquered  Brass. — Wash  with  a stiff  lather  of 
soap  and  water;  let  the  brass  lie  in  it  for  three  days,  taking  it 


HOUSEHOLD. 


689 


out  every  day  and  brushing  it  with  a hard  brush;  let  it  dry, 
and  then  rub  it  with  a leather. 

To  Clean  Stair-rods. — Mix  finely  powdered  rotten-stone 
and  sweet  oil  to  a paste,  then  rub  it  on  each  rod  with  a piece 
of  flannel  or  woolen.  Polish  with  the  dry  powder  of  the  rotten- 
stone  and  a nice  leather. 

The  same  mixture,  carefully  applied  to  inlaid  brass  or  brass 
handles  of  furniture,  answers  very  well;  but  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  let  it  lodge  in  any  network  or  hollows  of  the  brass. 

To  Clean  Candlesticks. — Melt  all  the  wax  or  grease  off 
with  boiling  water;  but  on  no  account  melt  it  by  putting  the 
candlesticks  before  the  fire,  as  it  melts  the  solder.  Tin  candle- 
sticks must  be  cleaned  as  other  tins  are.  Plated  candlesticks 
should  be  cleaned  with  plate-powder. 

To  Clean  the  Insides  of  Pots,  Pans  and  Kettles. — Boil 
in  the  kettle  or  pot  a little  sal-ammoniac  for  the  space  of  one 
hour,  to  remove  the  fur.  Be  sure  to  wash  out  a dirty  saucepan 
with  boiling  water  the  moment  you  finish  using  it. 

To  Clean  Steel  or  Iron. — Make  a paste  of  two  ounces  of 
soft  soap  and  four  of  emery-powder — that  is,  two  ounces  of 
coarse  emery -powder  and  two  of  fine.  Put  this  paste  on  fire- 
irons,  fenders,  etc.,  and  afterwards  rub  off  with  dry  wash 
leather.  Some  people  use  crocus  powder  moistened  with  sweet 
oil.  This  is  best  for  polished  steel. 

To  Take  Rust  out  of  steel. — The  steel  must  be  covered 
with  sweet  oil,  and  left  for  48  hours,  then  rubbed  with  leather, 
and  this  must  be  lepeated  till  the  rust  is  removed.  Or,  you 
may  rub  it  with  the  finest  emery-paper. 

To  Clean  Cast  Iron  and  Black  Hearths —Mix  together 
black  lead  and  whites  of  eggs  to  a liquid  consistency;  paint 
the  stove,  etc.,  all  over  with  it,  and  rub  bright  with  a hard 
brush. 

To  Clean  Looking-Glasses. — Wash  them  with  spirits  of 
wine;  dry  them;  powder  slightly  with  whiting,  and  rub  off  with 
a leather.  Take  care  that  the  whiting  does  not  get  into  the 
edge  of  the  frame. 

Polish  the  mahogany  frames  with  furniture  paste.  Beware 
of  spilling  scents  on  polished  looking-glass  frames,  as  it  removes 
the  polish. 

To  Clean  Plate. — Plate  should  be  treated  with  great  care. 
Never  put  it  into  a basket  or  tray  with  knives,  nor  mix 
spoons  with  forks,  for  fear  of  making  scratches  which  nothing 
will  remove.  Wash  it  directly  it  comes  from  table  with  warm 

42 


690 


HOUSEHOLD. 


water  and  soap,  rinse  it  in  cold  water,  wipe  it,  rub  it  well  with 
a leather.  Never  suffer  mercurial  preparations  to  be  used  for 
silver.  It  is  a really  saving  plan  to  boil  it  for  half  an  hour 
in  soft  water,  with  whiting  and  yellow  soap  enough  to  make  a 
lather.  Rinse  it  with  cold  water,  wipe  with  a soft  towel,  and 
rub  with  a leather. 

Gas  blackens  silver  sadly,  and  the  deep  stain  can  only  be 
removed  by  a plate-powder.  Rouge  (which  is  made  by  the 
precipitation  of  sulphate  of  iron  by  carbonate  of  potash),  is 
most  generally  used,  and  does  very  well.  In  our  own  house- 
hold the  plate  is  cleaned  by  first  being  nicely  washed  in  warm 
water  and  wiped  dry.  Then  a mixture  is  made  of  whiting  and 
gin,  or  spirits  of  wine  (which  is  in  many  respects  better),  and  it 
is  rubbed  wet  on  the  silver.  A sponge  is  used  to  rub  this  mix- 
ture on,  as  it  is  soft.  It  is  let  dry  very  thoroughly,  so  that  it 
will  rub  off  like  powder  with  a piece  of  flannel;  then  it  is 
polished  with  a chamois  leather.  Be  sure  that  the  whiting  is 
reduced  to  the  finest  possible  powder.  It  should  be  ground 
quite  fine  and  even,  then  sifted  through  coarse  book-muslin,  as 
any  rough  bits  will  scratch. 

To  Take  Stains  out  of  Silver. — Steep  the  plate  in  soap, 
let  it  lie  for  four  hours,  then  cover  it  with  whiting  wet  with 
vinegar,  so  that  it  may  stick  upon  the  silver,  and  dry  it  by  the 
fire;  after  which  rub  off  the  whiting,  rub  it  over  with  dry  bran, 
and  the  spots  will  disappear,  and  the  plate  look  bright. 

To  Remove  Ink  Stains  from  Silver. — The  tops  and  other 
portions  of  silver  ink-stands  frequently  become  deeply  dis- 
colored with  ink,  which  is  difficult  to  remove  by  ordinary 
means.  It  may,  however,  be  completely  eradicated  by  making 
a little  chloride  of  lime  into  a paste  with  water,  and  rubbing  it 
upon  the  stains. 

An  Old  Family  Recipe  to  Make  Old  Plate  Look  Like  New. 

— Take  of  unslaked  lime  and  alum  a pound  each;  of  aqua  vitae 
and  vinegar  each  a pint;  and  of  beer  grounds  two  quarts; 
boil  the  plate  in  these  ingredients,  and  it  will  receive  a beau- 
tiful polish  from  them. 

Plate  is  best  polished  by  the  naked  hand,  but  the  operation 
gives  some  pain  to  the  rubber.  Jewelers  thus  polish  plate,  but 
it  requires  the  thick-skinned,  yet  soft  palm  of  a practiced  hand 
to  do  it. 

Egg-spoons  get  discolo  red  and  tarnished  by  the  sulphur  in 
the  egg  uniting  with  the  silver  as  soon  as  it  is  moistened  by 
saliva.  This  tarnish  is  a sulphuret  of  silver,  and  may  easily 
be  removed  by  rubbing  it  with  table  salt  or  a little  hartshorn. 

Let  the  plate  in  use  be  counted  over  every  night — a card 


HOUSEHOLD. 


691 


with  a list  being  kept  in  the  plate-basket — and  the  basket  car- 
ried to  the  master’s  or  lady's  room. 

To  Clean  Britannia  Metal. — Finely  powdered  whiting,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  sweet  oil,  and  a little  yellow  soap  melted  to 
some  thickness;  mix,  with  a little  spirits  of  wine.  Rub  this 
cream  on  with  a sponge  or  soft  flannel,  wipe  it  off  with  a soft 
cloth,  and  polish  with  a leather. 

To  Clean  a Metal  Teapot. — Pour  into  it  a solution  of  com- 
mon soda  boiling  hot;  let  it  stand  twelve  hours  near  the  fire; 
then  pour  it  away,  and  wipe  with  a clean  cloth. 

To  Clean  Gilding. — Brush  off  dust  with  a feather  brush. 
Never  wipe  with  linen,  it  takes  oft  and  deadens  the  gilding. 

To  Clean  Steel  Knives  and  Forks— The  moment  used 
knives  are  taken  into  the  kitchen,  they  should  be  dipped  in 
warm  water  and  wiped,  taking  care  not  to  wet  the  handles. 

Knives  are  cleaned  on  a board  covered  with  India-rubber, 
with  brick-dust  sold  for  the  purpose.  In  some  large  families 
Kent’s  knife-cleaner  is  used.  This  machine  saves  labor,  but 
requires  care  in  putting  the  knives  in.  Printed  directions  and 
a powder  for  it  are  sold  with  the  machine. 

Knives  are  cleaned  on  the  board  by  being  rubbed  smartly 
on  it,  with  brick-dust  spread  on  the  surface.  Steel  forks  are 
washed,  dried  and  also  rubbed  on  the  board  with  brick-dust. 
The  intervals  between  the  prongs  are  cleaned  with  a small  bit 
of  stick  wrapped  in  leather  and  rubbed  in  brick-dust. 

Knives  are  often  stained  by  fruit  or  vinegar.  The  stains 
can  be  removed  by  rubbing  them  with  a piece  of  raw  potato 
before  they  are  cleaned  on  the  board. 

To  make  Windows  like  Ground  Glass.— Make  a hot  solu- 
tion of  sal-ammoniac.  Brush  the  solution  over  the  pane  or 
panes;  the  moisture  will  instantly  evaporate  and  leave  a beau- 
tiful radiated  deposit 

Flies. — House-flies  are  very  destructive  to  furniture.  They 
may  be  effectually  destroyed  by  mixing  half  a spoonful  of 
ground  black  pepper,  a teaspoonful  of  brown  sugar,  and  a tea- 
spoonful of  cream.  Place  the  mixture  in  a room  where'  flies 
are  troublesome. 

Or: — Put  saucers  of  strong  green  tea,  sweetened,  about  the 
room.  This  will  poison  flies. 

They  also  dislike  elder  leaves,  and  will  keep  away  from 
them. 

To  Kill  Beetles  or  Crickets. — Parings  of  cucumber  strewn 

near  their  holes,  or  strong  snuff, 


G92 


HOUSEHOLD. 


To  Get  Rid  of  Ants. — A little  green  sage  placed  in  their 
haunts  will  drive  them  away.  Quick-lime  scattered  over  their 
hills  and  watered  will  destroy  them. 

How  to  take  Ink  out  of  Boards. — Strong  muriatic  acid  or 
spirits  of  salts,  applied  with  a piece  of  cloth;  afterwards  well 
washed  with  water. 

To  take  out  Spots  of  Ink. — As  soon  as  the  accident  hap- 
pens, wet  the  place  with  juice  of  sorrel  or  lemon,  or  with 
vinegar,  and  then  rub  with  best  hard  soap. 

Cement  for  Glass. — Equal  parts  of  flour,  powdered  chalk, 
and  finely  pulverized  glass;  half  the  quantity  of  brick-dust, 
scraped  lint,  and  white  of  egg. 

To  Preserve  Water  Fresh. — Put  into  the  barrel  or  cistern 
3 lbs.  of  black  oxide  of  maganese,  powdered;  stir  it  well,  and 
the  water  will  keep  good  an  indefinite  time. 

To  Wash  Flannel  Without  Shrinking  it.— Have  plenty  of 

hot  soft  water,  make  a suds  with  good  soap,  rub  the  clothes 
clean  and  rinse  out  all  the  soap.  Do  not  let  the  clothes  cool 
from  the  time  they  are  wet  till  they  are  ready  to  put  on  the 
line.  Put  them  into  the  next  suds,  or  the  rinsing  water,  as  fast 
as  wrung  out,  and  let  them  cool  in  the  basket  before  you  hang 
them  up.  Wash  them  in  the  morning,  on  a sunshiny  day,  if 
possible,  so  they  will  have  a good  chance  to  dry. 

To  Wash  Colored  Flannels. — Make  a suds  of  cold  water 
and  ordinary  bar  soup;  wash  the  garment  and  rinse  in  cold 
water.  Press  while  it  is  still -damp.  In  this  way  children’s 
fancy  sacques  and  bright  dresses  may  be  kept  looking  like 
new,  neither  shrinking  nor  changing  color.  Don’t  be  afraid  to 
try  it. 

To  Remove  Grass  Stains. — Pour  boiling  hot  water  on  the 

stains  before  washing  the  garments. 

Nice  Glossy  starch. — To  three  cupfuls  of  water  take  three 
rounded  teaspoonfuls  of  starch,  a pinch  of  salt,  and  one  tea- 
poonful  of  powdered  borax.  Dissolve  your  borax  in  part  of 
the  water;  then  add  starch  and  salt;  dip  your  collars,  cuffs  and 
bosoms  into  the  starch.  Your  irons  must  be  good;  rub  them 
with  bees-wax,  and  we  promise  you  a stiff,  glossy  surface  with 
never  a failure. 

To  Remove  Iron  Rust  Stains. — Moisten  the  spot  with  a 
solution  of  Epsom  salts  in  a few  drops  of  hot  water,  and  iub 
in  well  once  or  twice;  then  fill  a tin  vessel  with  boiling 'water 
and  set  it  on  the  stain;  rinse  in  cold  water, 


HOUSEHOLD. 


G93 


To  Remove  Mildew. — Rub  common  brown  soap  on  the 
spot,  and  scrape  white  chalk  in  it.  Keep  wet  and  lay  in  the 
sun. 

To  Remove  Scorches. — Scorches  made  by  over-heated  flat 
irons  can  be  removed  from  linen  by  spreading  over  the 
scorched  cloth  a paste  made  of  the  juice  pressed  from  two 
onions,  one-half  ounce  of  white  soap,  two  ounces  of  fuller's 
earth,  and  half  a pint  of  vinegar.  Mix,  boil  well  and  cool 
before  using. 

To  Prevent  Blue  Fabrics  from  Fading.— Dissolve  two  tea- 
spoonfuls of  sugar  of  lead  in  one  gallon  of  water,  soak  the 
stockings  or  cloth  in  this  solution  from  half  to  one  hour, 
according  to  material.  Delicate  fabrics  need  to  soak  only 
until  saturated;  rinse  before  washing  and  wash  quickly. 

Blueing. — One  ounce  of  best  Prussian  blue,  half  an  ounce 
of  oxolic  acid,  one  quart  of  soft  water.  Heat  enough  of  the 
water  to  dissolve  the  acid,  then  stir  in  the  blue,  add  cold  water 
and  bottle  for  use;  keep  in  the  cellar. 

To  Clean  Silk  Dresses. — Equal  quantities  of  alcohol,  molas- 
ses and  soft  soap;  one  pint  of  each  will  do  two  dresses;  beat 
well  together,  and  after  spreading  a breadth  of  silk  on  a 
clean  kitchen  table,  scour  it  with  an  old  but  clean  clothes 
brush;  have  three  tubs  or  pails  of  water,  take  up  the  breadth 
of  silk  by  the  top  and  dip  it  up  and  down  in  first  one  pail, 
then  the  second,  and  then  the  third.  When  there  is  no  color 
left  in  the  water  the  rinsing  is  complete.  Pin  the  breadths 
to  the  clothes-line  without  wringing.  When  a little  damp  press 
out  with  a cold  iron.  Before  cleaning  rub  the  grease  spots 
with  pure  naptha  or  gasoline.  We  have  used  this  horrid- 
looking  mixture  with  the  best  success  on  even  light  silks  and 
silk  with  white  stripes. 

Paint  Spots. — When  neither  turpentine  nor  benzine  will 
remove  paint  spots  from  garments,  try  chloroform.  It  will 
absorb  and  remove  paint  which  has  been  on  for  six  months. 

A Cure  for  Bedbugs. — Gosoline  or  a strong  solution  of 
ammonia  are  both  good  remedies. 

The  only  sure  remedy  that,  in  the  course  of  seventeen 
years,  we  have  invariably  found  efficacious,  is  a preparation  of 
copperas,  one  pound  to  one  gallon  of  boiling  water.  The 
most  infected  house  we  ever  saw  was  cleared  by  filling  a syringe 
with  this  fluid  and  shooting  it  into  the  cracks  and  crevices  ol 
the  rooms  and  walls.  Sponging  or  painting  the  bedstead  with 
this  solution  will  keep  them  away  for  months  and  forever. 
The  only  drawback  to  this  is  that  it  leaves  a stain  like  iron  rus*. 


694 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Oil  of  cedar  is  an  excellent  and  cleanly  remedy.  ‘Salt  and 
kerosene  oil  in  cracks  and  under  base  boards  is  good. 

To  Drive  Away  Mice. — Moisten  chloride  of  lime,  and  stop 
their  holes  of  ingress  with  the  paste.  If  the  holes  are  inacces- 
sible, set  the  chloride  around  on  small  plates.  Mice  do  not 
like  it. 

To  Get  Rid  of  Black  Ants. — Get  five  cents  worth  of  tartar 
emetic;  mix  in  an  old  saucer  with  sugar  and  water,  and  set  in 
your  pantry  or  cupboard,  where  the  ants  trouble  you.  In 
twenty-four  hours  every  ant  will  have  left  the  premises.  With 
me  the  same  dish  of  tartar  emetic  answered  as  well  the  second 
year  as  the  first;  as  the  water  dries  out  add  more. 

Dyeing1. — It  may  be  necessary  to  remark,  once  for  all,  that 
every  article  to  be  dyed,  as  well  as  everything  used  about  dye- 
ing, should  be  perfectly  clean. 

In  the  next  place,  the  article  to  be  dyed  should  be  well 
scoured  in  soap,  and  then  the  soap  rinsed  out.  It  is  also  an 
advantage  to  dip  the  article  you  wish  to  dye  into  warm  water, 
just  before  putting  it  into  the  alum  or  other  preparation;  for 
the  neglect  of  this  precaution  it  is  nothing  uncommon  to  have 
the  goods  or  yarn  spotted.  Soft  water  should  always  be  used 
if  possible,  and  sufficient  to  cover  the  goods  handsomely. 

As  soon  as  an  article  is  dyed  it  should  be  aired  a little, 
then  well  rinsed,  and  afterwards  hung  up  to  dry. 

When  dyeing  or  scouring  silk  or  merino  dresses,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  wring  them;  for  this  has  a tendency  to  wrinkle 
and  break  the  silk. 

In  putting  the  dresses  and  shawls  out  to  dry,  that  have 
been  dyed,  they  should  be  hung  up  by  the  edge  so  as  to  dry 
evenly. 

Chrome  Black. — For  Woolen  Goods. — For  five  pounds 
of  goods,  blue  vitriol,  six  ounces;  boil  it  a few  minutes;  then 
dip  the  goods  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  airing  often;  take  out 
the  goods,  and  make  a dye, with  logwood,  three  pounds;  boil  one- 
half  hour;  dip  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  and  air  the  goods, 
and  dip  three-quarters  of  an  hour  more.  Wash  in  strong  suds. 
This  will  not  impart  any  of  its  color  in  fulling,  nor  fade  by 
exposure  to  the  sun. 

Black  on  Wool. — For  Mixtures. — For  ten  pounds  of 
wool,  bichromate  of  potash,  four  ounces;  ground  argal,  hr -e 
ounces;  boil  together,  and  put  in  wool;  stir  well,  and  let  it 
remain  in  the  dye  four  hours.  Then  take  out  the  wool,  rinse 
it  slightly  in  clear  water;  then  make  a new  dye,  into  which  put 
logwood,  three  and  one-half  pounds.  Boil  one  hour,  and  add 
chamber  lye,  one  pint,  and  let  the  wool  lie  in  all  night,  Wash 
in  clean  water, 


HOUSEHOLD. 


695 


Snuff  Brown. — Dark,  for  Cloth  or  Wool. — For  five 
pounds  of  goods,  camwood,  one  pound;  boil  it  fifteen  minutes, 
then  dip  the  goods  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour;  take  out  the 
goods,  and  add  to  the  dye,  fustic,  two  and  one-half  pounds; 
boil  ten  minutes,  and  dip  the  goods  three-quarters  of  an  hour; 
then  add  blue  vitriol,  one  ounce;  copperas,  four  ounces;  dip 
again  one-half  hour;  if  not  dark  enough,  add  more  copperas. 
It  is  dark  and  permanent. 

Wine  Color. — For  five  pounds  of  goods,  camwood,  two 
pounds;  boil  fifteen  minutes;  then  dip  the  goods  for  one-half 
hour;  boil  again,  and  dip  one-halt  hour;  then  darken  with  blue 
vitriol,  one  and  one-half  ounce;  if  not  dark  enough,  add  cop- 
peras, one-half  ounce. 

Madder  Red. — To  each  pound  of  goods,  alum,  five  ounces; 
red,  or  cream  of  tarter,  one  ounce;  put  in  the  goods,  and  bring 
your  kettle  to  a boil  for  one- half  an  hour;  then  air  them,  and 
boil  one-half  hour  longer;  then  empty  your  kettle,  and  fill 
with  clean  water;  put  in  bran,  one  peck;  make  it  milk  warm, 
and  let  it  stand  until  the  bran  rises;  then  skim  off  the  bran, 
and  put  in  madder,  one  half  pound;  put  in  your  goods,  and 
heat  slowly  until  it  boils  and  is  done.  Wash  in  strong  suds. 

Green. — On  Wool  or  Silk,  with  Oak  Bark. — Make  a 
strong  yellow  dye  of  yellow  oak  and  hickory  bark  in  equal 
quantities.  Add  the  extract  of  indigo,  or  chemic,  one  table- 
spoonful at  a time,  until  you  get  the  shade  or  color  desired. 

Blue. — Quick  Process. — For  two  pounds  of  goods,  alum, 
five  ounces;  cream  of  tartar,  three  ounces;  boil  the  goods  in 
this  for  one  hour;  then  throw  the  goods  into  warm  water, 
which  has  more  or  less  of  the  extract  of  indigo  in  it,  according 
to  the  depth  desired,  and  boil  again  until  it  suits,  adding  more 
of  the  blue  if  needed.  It  is  quick  and  permanent. 

Stocking  Yarn,  or  Wool,  to  Color. — Between  a Blue 
and  Purple. — For  five  pounds  of  wool,  bichromate  of  potash, 
one  ounce;  alum,  two  ounce;  dissolve  them,  and  bring  the  water 
to  a boil,  putting  in  the  wool,  and  boiling  one  hour;  then  throw 
away  the  dye,  and  make  another  dye  with  logwood  chips,  one 
pound;  or,  extract  of  logwood,  two  and  one-half  ounces;  and 
boil  one  hour.  This  also  works  very  prettily  on  silk. 

Whenever  you  make  a dye  with  logwood  chips,  either  boil 
the  chips  one-half  hour,  and  pour  off  the  dye,  or  tie  up  the 
chips  in  a bag,  and  boil  with  the  wool  or  other  goods;  or,  take 
two  and  one-half  ounces  of  the  extract  in  place  of  one  pound 
of  the  chips  is  less  trouble  and  generally  the  better  plan.  In 
the  above  recipe,  the  more  logwood  that  is  used,  the  darker 
will  be  the  shade. 


696 


HOUSEHOLD. 


Scarlet,  with  Cochineal. — For  Yarn  or  Cloth. — 
For  one  pound  of  goods,  cream  of  tartar,  one-half  ounce;  cochi- 
neal, well  pulverized,  one-quarter  ounce;  muriate  of  tin,  two 
and  one-half  ounces;  then  boil  up  the  dye,  and  enter  the 
goods;  work  them  briskly  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  after 
which  boil  for  one  and  one-half  hours,  stirring  the  goods 
slowly  while  boiling;  wash  in  clear  water  and  dry  in  the  shade. 

Pink. — For  three  pounds  of  goods,  alum,  three  ounces; 
boil,  and  dip  the  goods  one  hour;  then  add  to  the  dye,  cream 
of  tartar,  four  ounces;  cochineal,  well  pulverized,  one  ounce; 
boil  well,  and  dip  the  goods  while  boiling,  until  the  color  suits. 

Orange. — For  five  pounds  of  goods,  muriate  of  tin,  six 
tablespoonfuls;  argal,  four  ounces;  boil,  and  dip  one  hour; 
then  add  to  the  dye,  fustic,  two  and  one-half  pounds;  boil  ten 
minutes,  and  dip  one-half  hour;  and  add  again  to  the  dye, 
madder,  one  teacupful;  dip  again  one-half  hour. 

Cochineal  in  place  of  madder  makes  a much  brighter  color, 
which  should  be  added  in  small  quantities  until  pleased. 
About  two  ounces. 

Purple. — For  five  pounds  goods,  cream  of  tartar,  four 
ounces;  alum,  six  ounces;  cochineal,  well  pulverized  two 
ounces;  muriate  of  tin,  one-half  teacupful.  Boil  the  cream  of 
tartar,  alum,  and  tin  fifteen  minutes;  then  put  in  the  cochineal 
and  boil  five  minutes;  dip  the  goods  two  hours;  then  make  a 
new  dye  with  alum,  four  ounces;  Brazil  wood,  six  ounces; 
logwood,  fourteen  ounces;  muriate  of  tin,  one  teacupful,  with 
a little  chemic;  work  again  until  pleased. 

Silver  Drab. — Light. — For  five  pounds  of  goods,  alum, 
one  small  teaspoonful,  and  logwood  about  the  same  amount; 
boil  well  together,  then  dip  the  goods  one  hour;  if  not  dark 
enough,  add  in  equal  quantities  alum  and  logwood  until 
suited. 

Dark  Colors. — To  Extract  and  Insert  Light. — This 
recipe  is  calculated  for  carpet-rags.  In  the  first  place  let  the 
rags  be  washed  clean;  the  black  or  brown  rags  can  be  colored 
red,  or  purple,  at  the  option  of  the  dyer;  to  do  this,  take,  for 
every  five  pounds  of  black  or  brown  rags,  muriate  of  tin,  three- 
quarters  of  a pound,  and  the  lac,  one-half  pound,  mixed  with 
the  same  as  for  the  lac  red;  dip  the  goods  in  this  dye  two 
hours,  boiling  one  half  of  the  time.  If  not  red  enough  add 
more  tin  and  lac.  The  goods  can  then  be  made  a purple  by 
adding  a little  logwood;  be  careful  and  not  get  in  but  a small 
handful,  as  more  can  be  added  if  not  enough.  White  rags 
make  a beautiful  appearance  in  a carpet,  by  tying  them  in  the 
skein,  and  coloring  them  red,  green,  or  purple;  gray  rags  will 


HOUSEHOLD. 


69? 


take  a very  good  green;  the  coloring  will  be  in  proportion  to 
the  darkness  of  mix. 

Black. — For  five  pounds  of  goods,  sumach,  wood  and 
bark  together,  three  pounds;  boil  one-half  hour,  and  let  the 
goods  steep  twelve  hours;  then  dip  in  lime  water  one-half  hour; 
then  take  out  the  goods,  and  let  them  drip  an  hour;  now  add 
to  the  sumach  liquor,  copperas,  eight  ounces,  and  dip  another 
hour;  then  run  them  through  the  tub  of  lime-water  again  for 
fifteen  minutes;  now  make  a new  dye  with  logwood,  two  and 
one-half  pounds;  by  boiling  one  hour,  and  dip  again  three 
hoftrs;  now  add  bichromate  of  potash,  two  ounces  to  the  log- 
wood dye,  and  dip  one  hour.  Wash  in  clear,  cold  water  and 
dry  in  the  shade.  You  may  say  this  is  doing  too  much.  You 
cannot  get  a permanent  black  on  cotton  with  less  labor. 

Blue  on  Cotton  or  Linen. — With  Logwood.— In  all 
cases,  if  new,  they  should  be  boiled  in  a strong  soap-suds  or 
weak  lye,  and  rinsed  clean;  then  for  cotton,  five  pounds,  or 
linen,  three  pounds,  take  bichromate  of  potash,  three-quarters 
of  a pound;  put  in  the  goods  and  dip  two  hours;  then  take 
out  and  rinse;  make  a dye  with  logwood,  four  pounds;  dip  in 
this  one  hour,  air,  and  let  stand  in  the  dye  three  or  four  hours, 
or  till  the  dye  is  almost  cold;  wash  out,  and  dry. 

Green. — If  the  cotton  is  new,  boil  in  weak  lye  or  strong 
suds;  then  wash  and  dry;  give  the  cotton  a dip  in  the  home- 
made dye-tub,  until  blue  enough  is  obtained  to  make  the  green 
as  dark  as  required;  take  out,  dry,  and  rinse  the  goods  a little; 
then  make  a dye  with  fustic,  three-quarters  pound;  logwood, 
three  ounces  to  each  one  pound  of  goods,  by  boiling  the  dye 
one  hour;  when  cooled  so  as  to  bear  the  hand,  put  in  the  cot- 
ton, move  briskly  a few  minutes,  and  let  it  lie  in  one  hour;  take 
out,  and  let  it  thoroughly  drain;  dissolve  and  add  to  the  dye, 
for  each  pound  of  cotton,  blue  vitriol,  one-half  ounce;  and  dip 
another  hour;  wring  out  and  let  dry  in  the  shade.  By  adding 
or  diminishing  the  logwood  and  fustic,  any  shade  of  green  may 
be  obtained. 

Yellow. — For  five  pounds  of  goods,  sugar  of  lead,  seven 
ounces;  dip  the  goods  two  hours;  make  a new  dye  with  bichro- 
mate of  potash,  four  ounces;  dip  until  the  color  suits,  wring 
out,  and  dry;  if  not  yellow  enough,  repeat  the  operation. 

Red. — Take  muriate  of  tin,  one-half  of  a teacupful;  add 
sufficient  water  to  cover  the  goods  well,  bring  it  to  a boiling 
heat,  putting  in  the  goods  one  hour,  stirring  often;  take  out 
the  goods  and  empty  the  kettle,  and  put  in  clean  water,  with 
nic-wood,  one  pound,  steeping  it  for  one-half  hour,  at  hand 
heat;  then  put  in  the  goods,  and  increase  the  heat  for  one  hour, 


698 


HOUSEHOLD. 


not  bringing  to  a boil  at  all;  stir  the  goods,  and  dip  an  hour  as 
before;  wash  without  soap. 

Green. — Very  Handsome  with  Oak  Bark. — For  one 
pound  of  silk,  yellow  oak  bark,  eight  ounces;  boil  it  one-half 
hour;  turn  off  the  liquor  from  the  bark,  and  add  alum,  six 
ounces;  let  it  stand  until  cold;  while  this  dye  is  being  made, 
color  the  goods  in  the  blue  dye-tub  a light  blue;  dry  and  wash; 
then  dip  in  the  alum  and  bark  dye;  if  it  does  not. take  well, 
warm  the  dye  a little. 

Yellow. — For  one  pound  of  silk,  alum,  three  ounces; 
sugar  of  lead,  three-quarter  of  an  ounce;  immerse  the  goods  in 
the  solution  over  night;  take  out,  drain,  and  make  a new  dye 
with  fustic,  one  pound;  dip  until  the  required  color  is  obtained. 

N.  B. — The  yellow  or  green  for  wool  works  equally  well 
on  silk. 

Crimson. — For  one  pound  of  silk,  alum,  three  ounces;  dip 
at  hand  heat  one  hour;  take  out  and  drain,  while  making  a 
new  dye,  by  boiling  ten  minutes,  cochineal,  three  ounces; 
bruised  nut-galls,  two  ounces;  and  cream  of  tartar,  one-quar- 
ter ounce,  in  one  pail  of  water;  when  a little  cool,  begin  to  dip, 
raising  the  heat  to  a boil,  continuing  to  dip  one  hour;  wash 
and  dry. 


DOMESTIC  PETS 


This  is  a very  comprehensive  title,  and  might  fairly  be 
supposed  to  comprise  ponies,  donkeys,  dogs,  cats,  rabbits,  poul- 
try, and  pigeons;  but  this  article  will  be  confined  to  animals 
kept  in  the  house,  and  will  especially  relate  to  those  which  may 
be  legitimately  called  pets,  the  care  of  them  devolving  entirely 
upon  their  owners.  Out-of-door  pets  must  necessarily  be  left, 
in  a great  measure,  to  the  care  of  servants,  and  cannot  be  so 
essentially  home  friends.  The  following  remarks  are  by  a 
well  known  writer: 

Squirrels,  dormice,  and  white  mice  are  sometimes  kept  in 
captivity  by  those  whose  lives  are  chiefly  spent  in  towns,  and 
who  have  no  knowledge  of  the  wild  and  frolicsome  creatures 
in  their  native  haunts;  but  they  appear  to  lead  very  unnatural 
lives  in  confinement,  and  are  not  very  desirable  pets  for 
the  house.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  their  cages  quite  sweet  and 
clean.  All  may  be  domesticated,  however,  and  are,  we  believe, 
capable  of  attachment  to  their  owners.  We  have  never  kept 
any  ourselves,  but  our  brothers  had  dormice  from  time  to  time, 
and  several  small  families  were  born  and  brought  up  under  their 
care,  but  most  of  them  came  to  an  untimely  end. 

The  Squirrel. — The  squirrel  seems  so  delightfully  free  and 
happy,  playing  about  on  the  tops  of  the  tallest  trees  in  the 
woods,  launching  himself  boldly  into  the  air,  and  taking  tre- 
mendous leaps  from  branch  to  branch,  that,  after  seeing  the 
pretty  little  creature  at  his  ease,  one  does  not  feel  inclined  to 
deprive  him  of  the  liberty  he  seems  so  thoroughly  to  enjoy; 
but  if  he  is  captured,  his  life  ought  to  be  made  as  happy  as 

43 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


tod 

possible,  and  he  should  be  allowed  as  much  exercise  as  he 
can  have  in  the  house.  His  cage  should  be  at  least  three  or  four 
feet  long  and  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  instead  of  the  revolving 
cylinder,  which  is  very  injurious  to  the  little  prisoner,  he 
should  have  a good-sized  branch  of  a tree,  to  form  perches  for 
him,  and  be  able  to  frisk  about  at  pleasure  in  his  little  parlor. 
A little  sleeping-box  must  be  attached  to  this,  with  a door  at 
the  back,  and  the  board  forming  the  floor  should  be  drawn  out 
like  that  of  a bird  cage.  Every  part  of  the  cage  must  be  kept 
as  clean  as  possible,  and  the  moss  and  cotton  wool,  which 
must  be  put  into  the  squirrel’s  bedroom,  must  be  changed  near- 
ly every  day.  The  active  little  creature  does  not  often  live  long 
in  confinement;  but  if  taken  young,  and  very  carefully  man- 
aged, it  may  become  a very  tame  and  a very  engaging  pet,  and 
may  sometimes  be  trusted  to  frolic  about  out  of  doors  when 
tame  enough  to  return  at  his  owner’s  call.  His  cage  should, 
however,  be  lined  with  tin;  for  he  is  apt  to  gnaw  the  wood  with 
his  sharp  little  teeth  when  impatient  of  confinement.  He  should 
be  fed  on  nuts,  almonds,  filberts,  beech  masts,  walnuts,  acorns, 
wheat  in  the  ear,  and  fir  cones;  and  he  is  fond  of  milk,  cold 
tea,  and  bread  and  milk.  A little  bit  of  boiled  potato,  and 
even  a tiny  morsel  of  cooked  meat,  maybe  given  as  a treat,  and 
a stale  crust  of  bread  to  gnaw.  All  creatures  require  variety 
in  their  food,  and  in  his  wild  state  the  squirrel  gets  animal  food 
by  robbing  birds’  nests  of  their  eggs  occasionally.  He  lays  up 
a store  of  food  for  the  winter  in  various  holes  and  crevices, 
and  is  much  too  acute  ever  to  put  by  a nut  in  which  a maggot  has 
been,  or  to  miss  the  place  where  his  treasure  is  concealed,  even 
when  several  inches  depth  of  snow  covers  the  ground.  The 
female  is  a very  affectionate  mother,  and  will  remain  with  her 
young  in  the  nest  even  while  the  tree  in  which  it  is,  is  cut 
down,  or  will  carry  them,  one  after  another,  in  her  mouth,  to  a 
place  of  safety.  She  generally  builds  on  the  topmost  branches 
of  the  fir  tree,  and  the  nest  is  made  of  dry  grass  and  sticks, 
very  slightly  yet  firmly  put  together,  and  lined  with  fur,  which 
she  scratches  off  her  body  before  the  young  ones  are  born. 
This  is  generally  in  the  summer,  and  the  young  squirrels  re- 
main with  their  parents  till  the  following  spring,  when  they  are 
able  to  manage  for  themselves.  They  have  a substantial  win- 


boMEs  ric  pets. 


fol 

ter’s  nest,  to  which  they  appear  to  add  every  year  fresh  layers 
of  hay  and  moss,  to  make  their  habitation  more  and  more  warm 
and  comfortable.  It  is  said  the  best  time  to  buy  a squirrel  is  at 
the  end  of  September,  when  it  is  fat  and  vigorous  and  its  fur  is 
in  good  condition;  but  it  is  never  safe  to  purchase  those  which 
are  sold  in  the  street  as  “wonderfully  tame,”  and  which  will 
allow  themselves  to  be  handled  by  a stranger,  and  pulled  about, 
without  showing  any  disposition  to  bite.  The  probability  is 
that  the  poor  little  creatures  have  been  stupified  by  some  drug, 
and  that  they  will  either  recover  their  natural  ferocity  in  a few 
hours,  or  die — poisoned  by  the  narcotic  which  has  been  given 
them.  * 

The  Dormouse. — The  dormouse  is  very  like  the  squirrel  in 
many  of  its  habits;  it  lives  upon  much  the  same  food,  and  is  a 
hybernating  animal  too,  laying  up  a store  of  eatables  for  the 
winter,  and  passing  the  greater  parts  of  the  cold  months  in  sleep. 
In  a cage  it  is  not  seen  to  advantage;  throughout  the  day  it  is 
generally  rolled  up  into  a little  soft  ball  of  fur,  fast  asleep,  and 
its  architectural  talents  are  quite  thrown  away.  It  is,  in  its 
wild  state,  a very  clever  nest-builder.  A writer  gives  a most 
fascinating  description  of  a dormouse’s  nest,  which  he  found  in 
a hedge  four  feet  from  the  ground,  in  the  forking  of  a hazel 
branch,  the  smaller  twigs  of  which  formed  a palisade  round  it. 
The  nest  itself  was  six  inches  long  and  three  wide,  and  construct- 
ed of  grass  blades  and  leaves  of  trees.  The  blades  of  the  sword- 
grass  were  chiefly  used,  and  these  were  twisted  round  and  be- 
tween the  twigs  so  as  to  form  a hollow  oval  nest.  Finer  sorts 
of  grass  and  the  slender  stems  (not  bigger  than  thread)  of  deli- 
cate climbing  weeds,  interwoven  with  the  leaves  of  hazel  and 
maple  trees,  were  used  for  the  bottom  of  the  nest;  the  entrance 
to  which  was  most  ingeniously  concealed  by  long  blades  of 
grass  placed  across  it  in  such  a manner  as  to  spring  back  to 
their  places,  after  having  been  pushed  aside  to  admit  the  dor- 
mouse into  the  nest.  This  was  never  used  as  a storehouse;  the 
little  creature  had  its  winter  provisions  carefully  hidden  under 
a thick  branch  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  nest.  While  hyber- 
nating, the  dormouse  does  not  seem  to  require  food;  but  it 
wakes  up  occasionally  during  the  winter,  perhaps  when  a warm 
sunny  day  calls  it  into  life  for  the  time,  and  then  it  takes  food 


702 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


before  it  rolls  itself  up  and  sleeps  again.  It  requires  a good 
deal  of  warmth,  and  must  have  soft  hay,  moss,  and  wool,  given 
it  to  form  its  bed,  and  it  does  its  best  with  these,  but  cannot 
construct  anything  very  beautiful  out  of  them. 

If  we  had  a tame  dormouse,  we  think  we  should  try  and 
provide  it  with  materials  which  it  might  be  induced  to  use  for 
the  construction  of  a nest  like  that  described.  The  dormice 
we  once  had  were  kept  in  a cage  made  for  dormice,  wired  at 
one  end,  with  a little  compartment  at  the  other  boarded  in, 
the  door  of  which  was  pulled  up  and  pushed  down  at  pleasure, 
so  that  the  little  creatures  could  be  shut  into  their  bedroom 
when  the  outer  room  was  cleaned  out.  Even  with  this  precau- 
tion they  were  continually  getting  out  of  the  cage,  they  were 
such  nimble  little  animals,  and  the  whole  house  was  often 
searched  in  vain  for  the  truants.  At  last,  perhaps,  they  would 
be  found  in  the  fold  of  a curtain  or  underneath  the  cushion  of 
a sofa.  Sometimes  a worse  fate  befell  them,  and  they  would 
creep  under  the  cushion  of  an  arm-chair,  and  get  crushed  to 
death,  or  be  trodden  under  foot,  or  be  squeezed  under  a door 
in  trying  to  escape.  They  sleep  during  the  day  and  come  out 
in  the  evening,  so  that  they  must  be  provided  with  food  as  soon 
as  it  grows  dusk;  and,  if  they  have  a large  cage  with  sticks 
placed  across  it,  they  will  gambol  about  very  merrily  in  the 
open  part  of  it  as  soon  as  night  approaches.  Their  food  should 
be  varied  as  much  as  possible;  they  will  eat  nuts  and  almonds, 
peas  and  beans,  canary  seed,  and  various  other  grains;  and 
they  are  very  fond  of  the  milky  juice  of  a dandelion  or  sow- 
thistle. We  used  always  to  put  a little  tin  pan  of  milk  into 
the  cage  every  night,  and  they  would  often  drink  it  all,  espec- 
ially when  they  had  young  ones.  It  is  said  that  rabbits  will  be 
hindered  from  devouring  their  young  by  providing  them  with 
water,  and  that  they  would  not  eat  them  unless  maddened  by 
thirst  or  suffering  from  extreme  hunger.  Some  dormice  have 
the  same  propensity  to  cannibalism;  and,  if  this  theory  about 
the  rabbits  be  correct,  it  may  apply  also  to  the  mother  dor- 
mouse which  devours  her  young.  We  thought  she  did  so  when 
alarmed  for  their  safety,  not  being  able  to  conceal  them  else- 
where; but  it  would  be  well  to  provide  her  with  a constant  sup- 
ply of  water  or  milk  when  nursing.  The  milk  is  useful  too  in 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


703 


furnishing  the  dormouse  with  animal  food;  out  of  doors  it  eats 
insects.  There  are  generally  four  or  five  young  ones  in  a litter, 
born  blind,  but  able  to  see  in  a few  days,  and  they  are  soon 
capable  of  taking  care  of  themselves.  The  cage  must,  of 
course,  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  the  floor  of  the  open  part 
should  be  sanded  like  a bird  cage. 

Mice. — White,  grey-and-white,  and  brown-and-white  mice 
are  sometimes  kept  in  cages  like  those  of  the  dormouse,  and 
they  must  be  treated  in  the  same  manner.  The  common  brown 
mouse  is  said  to  be  a more  tractable  and  intelligent  pet,  and 
to  be  easily  tamed  by  patient  kindness.  We  never  heard  a 
mouse  sing,  but  several  instances  are  recorded  of  mice  who 
have  learned  to  imitate  the  chirp  and  even  the  song  of  a 
canary  kept  in  the  room  in  which  they  were;  so  that 
it  might  be  worth  while  to  try  to  give  such  pets  the  bene- 
fit of  a musical  education  for  the  chance  of  their  acquiring 
so  curious  an  accomplishment.  The  little  harvest  mouse,  the 
tiniest  of  British  quadrpueds,  has  sometimes  been  kept  in  a 
cage,  and  will  grow  tame  enough  to  take  its  favorite  food,  flies 
and  other  insects,  from  the  hand.  It  is  a most  beautiful  little 
creature,  very  active  and  agile,  climbing  about  by  means  of  its 
long  tail  and  flexible  toes,  and  leaping  like  a little  Jerboa.  It 
should  have  grains  of  wheat  and  maize,  and  canary  seed,  and 
plenty  of  water  always  in  the  cage;  and  wool  or  flannel  and 
grass  for  its  nest,  which  in  its  wild  state  is  the  most  beautiful 
and  elaborate  construction  of  leaves  and  grass  woven  together 
into  a round  ball  and  suspended  from  strong  grass-stems, 
wheat-stalks,  or  thistle-heads.  In  the  winter  it  takes  refuge  in 
corn  ricks,  or  burrows  deeply  in  the  earth,  and  makes  a warm 
bed  of  grass.  Even  in  confinement  the  harvest  mouse  will 
show  its  instinctive  propensity  to  store  up  food  for  the  winter, 
and  if  a number  of  grains  of  wheat  or  seed  are  given  to  it,  will 
carry  them  off  and  hide  them  in  its  nest. 

Birds. — None  of  these  little  creatures,  however  pretty  and 
intelligent  they  may  be,  seem  to  us  to  be  such  desirable  pets  to 
be  kept  in  the  house  as  birds,  to  which  the  remainder  of  this 
article  will  be  devoted.  We  can  make  them  so  happy,  and  they 
can  tell  us  when  anything  is  amiss  with  them  so  plainly— so 

thoroughly  eujoyiug  our  petting,  ^nd  becoming  so  attached 


704 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


to  us — that  no  trouble  is  thrown  away  upon  our  feathered 

pets. 

On  the  whole,  canaries  flourish  best  in  imprisonment.  All 
the  English  finches  do  well  in  aviaries  or  cages;  but  one  does 
not  like  to  see  them  imprisoned  while  their  brothers  and  sisters 
are  flying  about  at  large  close  by — one  thinks  they  must  envy 
them  their  liberty,  and  long  to  join  them;  while  canaries  would 
suffer  extremly  exposed  to  the  cold  of  winter,  if,  indeed,  they 
survived  it.  As  regards  other  birds — robins,  wrens,  titmice, 
sparrows,  &c. — it  is  much  pleasanter  to  have  them  visiting  us 
from  the  garden  than  to  keep  them  shut  up  all  the  year  round; 
and  larks  and  nightingales  are  so  completely  out  of  their  natu- 
ral element  in  cages,  that  one  cannot  feel  happy  in  keeping 
them.  Any  one  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  feed  the  birds 
that  congregate  round  the  house  in  winter,  may  soon  have  a 
family  of  pensioners. 

The  robins  will  become  our  very  familiar  friends,  hopping 
about  at  their  ease  on  the  breakfast-table,  examining  every  arti- 
cle in  the  room  with  the  utmost  self-possession;  will  visit  us 
regularly  through  the  cold  months,  and,  if  they  leave  us  in 
spring,  will  bring  their  young  ones  to  make  our  acquaintance 
when  they  leave  their  nests.  Crumbs  of  bread,  potatoes, -and 
scraps  of  fat  will  make  a feast  for  the  poor  little  hungry  birds, 
driven  by  frost  and  snow  to  our  doors;  and  the  saucy  tomtits 
and  sparrows  will  afford  us  much  amusement  in  return  for  our 
hospitality. 

We  may  get  much  insight  into  the  special  characteristics  of 
die  birds  by  watching  them  when  they  are  at  their  ease,  and  a 
hard  winter  will  sometimes  make  them  so  tame,  and  so  accus- 
tom them  to  our  care,  that  they  will  hover  about  us  out  of 
doors,  and  peck  at  the  windows  for  admittance  at  their  usual 
feeding  hours. 

Although  we  do  not  advocate  keeping  English  birds  in  con- 
finement as  a rule,  it  will  sometimes  happen  that  nestlings  will 
be  thrown  upon  our  compassion,  which  have  either  fallen  out 
of  their  nest,  lost  their  parents,  or  have  been  taken  captive  by 
village  boys,  and  are  likely  to  come  to  a miserable  end  if  not 
taken  care  of.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is  as  well  to  know 
how  to  bring  them  up  by  hand.  We  once  had  several  nests  to 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


705 


take  care  of,  and  all  the  young  birds  were  reared  and  sent  out 
into  the  world  when  able  to  take  care  of  themselves;  all  but 
two  bullfinches,  which  were  given  to  a neighbor,  who  fed  them 
upon  hemp-seed — the  consequence  of  which  was  that  nearly 
all  of  their  feathers  fell  off,  and  they  were  the  most  miserable 
little  objects  that  can  be  conceived,  and  their  little  red-hot 
bodies  were  quite  uncomfortable  to  touch.  A course  of  warm 
baths  and  plenty  of  cooling  green  food,  however,  restored  them 
to  health  and  beauty,  and  they  were  returned  to  their  owner 
with  a warning  against  hemp-seed.  It  is  said  that  a bullfinch 
fed  entirely  upon  this  heating  feed  will  become  blind. 

Nestlings. — Nestlings  should  be  fed  upon  bread  soaked  in 
water,  squeezed  nearly  dry,  and  chopped  up  finely  with  rape- 
seed  which  has  been  scalded  by  pouring  boiling  water  upon  it, 
and  leaving  it  till  quite  cold.  Of  course  this  food  must  be 
made  fresh  every  day;  if  it  grew  sour  it  would  kill  the  birds  at 
once.  About  four  quills  full  of  it  is  enough  for  a meal  for  one 
young  bird;  but  they  generally  clamor  for  food  till  they  have 
enough,  and  then  settle  down  to  sleep  again.  They  must  be 
fed  as  soon  as  possible  in  the  morning  after  sunrise,  and  will 
require  food  at  intervals  of  from  one  hour  and  three-quarters 
to  two  hours  throughout  the  day,  the  last  meal  being  given 
about  sunset,  when  they  must  be  covered  up  for  the  night. 
The  best  plan  is  to  keep  the  nest  in  a shallow  box,  over  which 
a board  can  be  laid  to  darken  it,  otherwise  the  birds  will  be 
asking  for  food  every  quarter  of  an  hour.  As  soon  as  they 
hear  a step  in  the  room  they  begin  to  chirp;  and  when  the  box 
is  uncovered  they  will  stretch  out  their  necks,  and  as  they  grow 
older  jump  out  of  the  nest,  and  fly  upon  the  hand  or  shoulder 
in  their  impatience  for  food.  In  time  they  will  learn  to  feed 
themselves  with  the  soft  food,  and  by  degrees  pick  up  and 
shell  the  seed  put  into  their  cage;  for,  of  course,  they  must  be 
put  into  a cage  as  soon  as  they  are  fledged  sufficiently  to  en- 
able them  to  fly.  It  is  best  to  crush  the  hemp-seed  for  them 
at  first,  but  they  soon  learn  to  shell  the  canary  and  rape-seed. 

The  linnets  and  greenfinches  we  brought  up  by  hand  were 
very  tame,  and,  although  seed  and  water  were  always  within 
their  reach,  we  accustomed  them  to  be  fed  by  hand,  and  kept 
any  food  of  which  they  were  particularly  fond; — hemp^seed. 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


706 

plantain,  or  chickweed,  for  instance,  which  all  birds  love — to 
be  given  them  as  dainties;  so  they  always  expected  something 
nice,  and  would  fly  out  of  their  cages  and  all  round  the  room 
in  their  joy  as  soon  as  we  opened  the  doors,  returning  to  perch 
on  the  hand,  shoulder  or  head  when  they  wanted  their  food. 
The  greenfinches  were  very  bold  birds,  and  as  familiar  as  pos- 
sible. They  were  great  eaters,  and  very  eager  for  their  favor- 
ite food,  so  they  always  welcomed  us  very  heartily;  but  we  did 
not  prize  their  affection  so  much  as  that  of  the  linnets,  which 
were  naturally  more  shy  and  retiring,  and  required  more  court- 
ing and  petting.  They  are  very  nice  pets,  and  become  very 
much  attached  to  their  owner,  and  their  song  is  very  sweet; 
but  if  kept  in  confinement  they  never  acquire  the  red  poll  and 
breast  which  ought  to  distinguish  the  male  bird  in  full  plum- 
age. They  are  fond  of  flax  or  linseed,  but  they  must  not  have 
much  of  it  or  they  will  grow  very  fat.  Canary  and  rape-seed 
should  be  the  principal  food  both  of  linnets  and  greenfinches. 

Goldfinch. — The  goldfinch  is  a universal  favorite,  both  from 
its  beauty  and  sprightliness;  it  is  very  restless  in  a cage,  and 
therefore,  it  hardly  appears  as  contented  as  some  less  active 
birds;  but  it  will  live  many  years  in  confinement,  and  in  an 
aviary  is  as  happy  as  possible.  It  ought  not  to  have  a bell- 
shaped cage,  as  it  is  apt  to  grow  giddy,  twirling  its  beak  along 
the  wires.  It  is  very  easily  tamed,  and  is  capable  of  great  at- 
tachment to  its  owner,  and  may  generally  be  safely  allowed  a 
flight  round  the  room  while  its  cage  is  being  cleaned.  We  had 
one  which  would  fly  across  the  room  as  soon  as  its  cage  door 
was  opened,  and  perch  on  our  shoulder  for  its  favorite  food  of 
hemp-seed.  It  is  rather  fond  of  eating,  and  takes  so  much  ex- 
ercise that  it  requires  plenty  of  food.  It  will  not  sing  without 
a few  hemp-seeds  in  the  day,but  it  must  not  be  fed  solely  upon 
this  heating  seed.  Canary,  rape,  and  poppy-seed  should  be  the 
ordinary  food  of  goldfinches.  Lettuce,  groundsel,  chickweed, 
and  water-cress,  they  should  have  frequently,  and  plantain  in 
the  winter;  in  the  wild  state  they  feed  much  on  thistle-seed, 
and  they  should  often  have  a thistle-head  given  to  them,  to 
pick  the  seeds  out  of  it  for  themselves.  They  ought  not  to  have 
sugar  or  sweet  cakes,  but  they  exceedingly  enjoy  a treat  of  bis- 
puit,  and  Reading  cracknels  are  very  wfcolesQme  for  thepb  and 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


707 

thoroughly  appreciated  by  goldfinches,  bullfinches,  and  cana- 
ries. 

The  goldfinch  is  a very  tractable  bird,  and  there  are  many 
accomplishments  which  he  will  learn,  and  seems  to  exhibit  with 
pleasure.  He  may  be  taught  to  fire  off  a small  cannon,  to 
feign  death,  and  stand  unmoved  while  fireworks  are  let  off 
close  to  him,  to  mount  a ladder,  &c.;  but  when  these  tricks  are 
made  use  of  by  his  master  to  exhibit  in  public  for  pay,  he  is 
often  treated  with  cruelty  to  make  him  a proficient  in  them. 
Many  very  harmless  accomplishments  he  will  learn,  however, 
merely  by  patience  and  kindness  on  the  part  of  his  master — to 
open  a box  for  his  seed,  to  ring  a bell  when  he  wants  food,  to 
drag  a little  wagon  up  an  inclined  plane  into  his  cage,  and  to 
draw  up  water  from  a little  well  underneath  it.  All  these  are 
easily  taught,  and  the  bird  really  seems  to  find  pleasure  in  such 
little  tasks.  “One  of  my  birds  who  lived  in  a cage  so  con- 
structed as  to  have  the  seed  always  in  a box  of  which  he  had 
to  lift  up  the  lid,  and  the  water  in  a well  to  be  drawn  up  in  a 
bucket,  was  quite  unhappy  when  his  home  was  undergoing  re- 
pair, and  he  had  to  live  for  a time  in  an  ordinary  cage,  and 
sang  his  merriest  song  when  he  had  to  go  to  work  with  his 
little  chain  and  pail  again.  I taught  him  to  lift  the  lid  of  the 
box  by  having  it  open  for  one  day,  and  then  gradually  lower- 
ing it  by  means  of  a piece  of  silk  put  round  it,  fastened  at  the 
back  of  the  cage,  till  it  was  quite  shut.  He  very  soon  found 
out  that  he  must  lift  it  up  with  his  beak  in  order  to  reach  the 
seed;  and  at  last  he  became  so  crafty  about  it,  that  he  would 
take  out  two  or  three  seeds  at  once,  and  put  a reserve  by  his 
side  between  the  wires  while  he  ate  one.  The  cage  was  made 
with  a wooden  back,  and  the  box  was  let  into  this  above  the 
door,  and  the  lid  fastened  to  the  inside  with  two  little  hinges 
(care  should  be  taken  that  the  lid  is  not  too  heavy  for  the  bird 
to  lift  easily,  and  that  it  should  fall  at  once  when  not  held  up) ; 
a little  bow  window  was  constructed  in  the  front  of  the  cage, 
in  the  floor  of  which  was  a little  hole  with  a wire  across  it,  to 
which  was  attached  a light  silver  chain  fastened  to  a silver 
bucket  about  the  size  of  a thimble.  A small  colored  glass 
tumbler  was  fixed  below  the  bow  window,  by  means  of  four 
strong  wires  and  a ring.  This  was  filled  with  water  and  the 
bucket  dropped  into  the  well,  and  the  bird  hauled  up  the  chain 


708 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


with  his  beak,  holding  each  fresh  haul  with  his  feet  till  the 
bucket  came  to  the  hole,  and  he  could  drink  out  of  it.  I taught 
him  this  accomplishment  by  filling  the  bucket  with  water,  and 
putting  it  on  the  floor  of  the  bow  window  to  accustom  him  to 
look  for  water  there;  then  I let  it  down  by  means  of  the  chain 
pushed  through  two  of  the  side  wires  by  degrees,  lowering  it  a 
little  more  every  day.  At  first  the  bird  pulled  up  the  short 
bit  of  chain  with  his  beak,  and  let  it  go  before  he  could  drink 
out  of  the  bucket,  but  he  gradually  found  out  that  he  must 
hold  the  chain  when  he  had  drawn  it  up,  and  when  he  had 
once  succeeded  in  doing  this  his  education  was  finished;  he 
never  forgot  the  art,  and  often  showed  his  delight  in  his  task 
by  singing  when  he  had  drawn  up  the  bucket  while  his  chain 
was  under  his  feet,  before  he  quenched  his  thirst.  Of  course 
it  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  machinery  of  the  bucket,  chain, 
and  well  is  always  in  order;  any  hitch  preventing  the  bucket 
from  falling  into  the  well  and  getting  refilled  with  water  would 
cause  the  poor  little  bird  to  die  of  thirst.  The  bullfinch  and 
siskin  will  readily  learn  this  accomplishment,  and  I had  a mule 
bird  (whose  parents  were  a goldfinch  and  canary)  who  learned 
it  very  quickly;  but  I never  succeeded  in  teaching  a canary  to 
put  his  foot  on  the  chain,  though  he  would  pull  it  up  with  his 
beak  readily  enough — of  course,  always  to  be  disappointed  by 
the  falling  down  of  the  bucket.  A goldfinch  will  learn  to  pull 
a little  wagon  up  an  inclined  plane  in  the  same  way,  and 
to  take  his  seed  out  of  it,  the  chain  attached  to  the  wagon 
having  to  be  hauled  in  and  held  in  the  same  manner.  The 
way  to  teach  him  to  ring  for  his  food,  is  to  suspend  a little  bell 
in  a corner  of  his  cage,  and  when  he  has  been  an  hour  or  two 
without  food,  to  ring  it  by  means  of  a string  attached  to  it,  and 
immediately  to  place  some  of  his  favorite  seed  in  the  glass.  In 
a few  days  he  will  discover  that  whenever  the  bell  rings  he  gets 
a meal,  and  will  seize  the  string,  and  peal  away  merrily  when- 
ever he  is  hungry.” 

The  goldfinch  is  rather  subject  to  epileptic  fits,  and,  when- 
ever he  is  seized  with  one,  he  should  be  plunged  head  down- 
wards into  cold  water,  and  one  or  two  dips  will  restore  him  at 
once.  He  is  a large  eater,  and  in  all  probability  has  indulged 
his  appetite  too  much,  so  that  he  must  be  kept  upon  a low  diet 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


709 


of  lettuce  seed  and  thistles,  and  have  no  hemp-seed  for  a few 
days  after  he  has  had  one  of  these  fits. 

He  is  fond  of  bathing,  and  should  have  a bath  every  day. 
The  goldfinch  will  sometimes  mate  with  the  canary,  and  the 
mules  are  very  pretty.  He  must,  however,  be  taken  away  from 
his  wife  as  soon  as  she  begins  to  lay,  as  he  has  a mischievous 
propensity  for  breaking  the  eggs.  After  the  young  birds  are 
hatched  he  may  be  put  back  into  the  cage,  and  will  help  in 
feeding  them. 

Canaries. — If  our  readers  desire  to  have  a nursery  of  young 
birds,  they  will  find  canaries  the  best  in  every  respect  to  rear. 
There  is  no  doubt  about  their  happiness  in  a cage,  if  proper 
attention  be  paid  to  them ; and  we  would  fain  believe  that  no  one 
who  reads  these  pages  would  willingly  cause  them  suffering  from 
want  of  care,  or  would  attempt  to  keep  pets  upon  whom  they 
are  not  ready  to  bestow  all  the  time  and  trouble  necessary  to 
keep  them  in  health  and  comfort.  People  are  not  worthy  of 
their  birds  if  they  neglect  them,  and  leave  them  to  the  care  of 
servants,  to  whom  they  are  either  troublesome  dr  indifferent. 
And  their  attention  will  be  received  with  such  expressive  grati- 
tude and  delight — their  feathered  pets  will  welcome  them  so 
gladly,  and  show  so  plainly  how  much  their  happiness  depends 
upon  their  care — that  they  will  be  sufficiently  rewarded  for  its 
bestowal.  They  should  become  intimately  acquainted  with  their 
birds’  dispositions,  too,  and  learn  their  language  thoroughly, 
and  they  will  find  a fund  of  amusement  in  their  society.  This 
is  more  easily  accomplished  when  one  or  two  pet  birds  are  kept 
in  a cage  alone,  than  when  there  are  a number  of  canaries 
together  in  a very  large  cage  or  aviary,  but  we  always  like  best 
to  see  them  under  such  circumstances — they  seem  so  thor- 
oughly happy  when  they  have  room  for  flying  and  frolicing 
about;  some  birds,  too,  will  sing  best  when  they  are  excited  by 
emulation  with  others,  but  occasionally  a good  songster  is 
sulky  when  in  company,  and  prefers  being  alone.  One  of  our 
birds  who  had  been  accustomed  to  a small  single  cage,  never 
seemed  at  ease  when  in  a large  one,  and  resented  being  jostled 
by  others.  He  was  an  old  bird,  too,  and  did  not  like  his  saucy 
young  companions,  and  showed  his  displeasure  by  total  silence 
whenever  he  was  placed  with  them;  so  we  had  to  restore  him 
to  solitary  grandeur. 


710 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


All  through  the  autumn  and  winter  months,  about  twenty 
or  thirty  birds  will  live  very  happily  together,  in  a cage  from 
three  to  four  feet  long,  and  two  feet  high  and  wide.  This 
should  be  made  of  tin  wire,  as  brass  is  apt  to  corrode,  and 
communicate  its  poisoned  green  rust  to  the  birds,  when  they 
rub  their  beaks  against  it;  the  iron  rust  is  very  good  for  them. 
The  wood  may  be  either  mahogany  or  varnished  deal.  The 
arrangements  for  seed  and  water  should  be  carefully  attended 
to.  If  the  former  is  put  into  the  cage,  the  bird-hoppers  are 
best  to  use,  because  the  seed  is  kept  clean,  and  only  falls  down 
as  the  birds  peck  and  scatter  away  the  husks  beneath.  A good 
plan  is  to  have  the  seed  and  water  in  long,  covered  boxes  out- 
side the  cage,  with  china  or  glass  trays  to  take  in  and  out  of 
them.  These  can  be  kept  perfectly  sweet  and  clean,  and  the 
birds  cannot  make  the  seed  or  water  dirty.  Objections  are 
made  to  the  old-fashioned  bird-glasses,  because  they  are  some- 
times carelessly  put  into  the  wires  which  hold  them,  so  that 
they  slip  aside,  and  the  poor  little  birds  cannot  get  at  the 
water;  but  no  provision  for  their  comfort  can  succeed  if  care- 
lessness be  allowed  at  all.  We  do  not  advocate  their  use, 
however,  for  if  they  are  very  full  the  seed  or  water  often  gets 
spilt  into  the  cage,  and,  if  not,  the  birds  have  to  stretch  their 
little  necks  painfully  to  reach  their  food.  Sometimes,  too,  a 
young  bird  will  contrive  in  some  mysterious  fashion  to  get  into 
the  glass,  and,  having  got  in,  cannot  extricate  itself.  Nothing 
looks  prettier  at  first  than  a fountain  in  the  middle  of  the  cage; 
but  it  becomes  so  dirty  in  a few  hours  that  it  is  not  well  to  use 
it.  A bath,  wired  round  like  the  cage,  should  be  made  to 
hang  on  the  doorway,  and  the  birds  will  go  in  and  out  and 
splash  about  in  this,  with  the  greatest  delight.  It  must  be 
taken  away  when  they  have  all  had  a good  washing,  in  cold 
weather  especially,  as  some  of  them  will  go  into  the  bath  again 
and  again,  and  get  completely  chilled.  In  winter  the  water 
must  have  the  chill  taken  off,  and  whenever  the  sun  shines  they 
may  have  a bath  safely.  They  must  always  have  sand  spread 
on  the  board  at  the  bottom  of  the  cage;  and  the  coarse  gravelly 
sand  is  best  for  them.  It  is  a good  plan  to  have  a second  board 
and  two  sets  of  perches  for  a large  cage;  this  gives  opportunity 
for  washing  and  drying  them  thoroughly,  and  when  the  board 


Domestic  pets. 


rn 

gets  wetted  by  the  splashing  of  the  birds,  it  can  be  dried 
before  it  is  returned  to  the  cage.  Of  course  the  perches  must 
be  made  to  take  in  and  out  of  the  cage;  they  should  be  round 
and  smooth  like  a bamboo.  A swing  suspended  from  the  cen- 
tre is  a source  of  pleasure  to  the  birds,  and  if  the  cage  has  a 
domed  top,  looks  very  pretty  underneath  it.  They  much  enjoy 
having  a pot  of  mignonette  or  of  chickweed  put  in;  and  all 
perch  eagerly  about  it,  and  soon  devour  every'  leaf  and  flower. 
No  plant  that  would  be  injurious  to  them  must  be  put  either 
in  or  close  to  the  cage,  for  they  are  sure  to  eat  the  leaves,  and 
the  beauty  of  the  plant  is  destroyed  in  a few  hours.  A fir 
branch  put  into  the  cage  occasionally  gives  them  a good  deal 
of  amusement,  and  seems  to  do  them  no  harm;  but  it  is  very 
soon  reduced  to  a bare  pole.  Plantain  is  very  good  winter 
food  for  them,  and  they  enjoy  picking  it  from  the  stalk.  Their 
food  should  have  plenty  of  variety,  to  keep  them  in  health  and 
good  humor.  They  must  not  have  sugar  or  sweet  cakes,  but 
plain  biscuits — cracknels  for  instance — are  good  for  them. 
Their  staple  food  should  be  canary  and  bird  turnip  (the  small, 
brown  summer  rape)  seed,  a small  quantity  of  hemp-seed  each 
day,  and  occasionally,  in  cold  weather,  a pinch  of  maw,  or 
poppy-seed,  always  to  be  given  while  the  birds  are  moulting. 
When  they  are  building  they  must  have  a mixture  of  hard- 
boiled  egg  and  finely-crumbled  stale  bread,  with  a pinch  of  the 
same  seed  mixed  with  it  every  morning.  It  must  always  be 
made  and  given  freshly,  or  it  will  turn  sour  and  kill  the  birds. 
This  food  may  be  dispensed  with  while  the  hen  is  sitting;  but 
as  soon  as  she  is  about  to  hatch,  it  must  be  put  in  the  cage  for 
the  young  to  feed  upon. 

Canaries  ought  to  have  green  food  three  or  four  times  a 
week,  chickweed,  groundsel,  or  lettuce.  It  is  better  for  them 
to  have  a little  constantly  than  a great  quantity  now  and  then, 
when  they  are  apt  to  eat  over-eagerly  of  it.  They  should  have 
some  whole  oatmeal  or  grits  every  day;  sometimes  a little 
piece  of  bread  soaked  in  milk,  not  boiled,  unless  it  is  given  as 
medicine;  a little  lump  of  basalt  to  peck  at,  or  a bit  of  apple, 
or  pear,  or  potato,  or  rice  pudding.  All  these  tit-bits  are,  of 
course,  to  be  considered  as  delicacies,  to  be  given  by  the  birds’ 
owner,  and  they  will  help  very  much  to  win  their  affection. 


7U 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


They  require  warmth  and  nourishing  food  during  moulting; 
if  they  seem  weak,  a rusty  nail  in  the  water  gives  them  a little 
tonic,  and  a small  piece  of  Spanish  licorice  is  good  for  hoarse- 
ness. By  way  of  physic,  we  have  rarely  found  any  of  the 
many  nostrums  recommended  as  specifics  of  much  use,  except- 
ing boiled  milk.  If  they  have  been  eating  too  freely  of  green 
food,  a lump  of  chalk  may  be  useful.  Some  bird-fanciers  give 
ants’  eggs  and  a spider  occasionally,  and  it  is  likely  that  this 
animal  food  would  be  good  for  them  now  and  then.  Most 
birds  are,  to  a certain  extent,  insectivorous  in  their  wild  state. 
Variety  in  their  food  is  necessary  for  all  birds;  and  if  they  have 
this,  and  the  seed  is  good  and  sound,  and  they  are  not  exposed 
to  draughts  or  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  they  will  rarely 
have  anything  amiss  with  them  which  a warm  bath  will  not 
cure.  Whenever  birds  look  moping,  or  when  the  hen  is  “egg- 
bound,”  and  cannot  lay  her  eggs,  we  give  them  a bath  at  96  ° , 
holding  the  bird  in  hand  while  immersing  all  but  the  head  in 
the  water  for  three  or  four  minutes,  then  taking  it  out  and 
drying  the  feet,  put  it  in  the  sunshine,  or  at  a little  distance 
from  the  fire  to  get  dry.  Sometimes,  if  a bird  is  not  fond  of 
bathing,  the  feet  will  get  clogged,  especially  during  nesting, 
when  the  claws  get  a bit  of  hair  or  cotton  twisted  around  them 
occasionally,  and  the  feet  should  be  cleansed  in  warm  water, 
and  gently  freed  from  their  troublesome  encumbrance. 

An  old  bird’s  claws  will  sometimes  grow  too  long,  so  that 
it  cannot  perch  comfortably,  and  they  must  be  very  carefully 
cut,  taking  care  not  to  draw  blood,  or  to  injure  the  bird  in  any 
way.  Whenever  possible,  it  is  best  to  avoid  catching  the  bird, 
especially  if  they  are  wild  and  fly  about  in  alarm;  but  if  taught 
to  consider  their  owner  as  their  friend,  they  will  gradually  sub- 
mit; without  much  fluttering,  to  be  taken  hold  of;  and  illness 
generally  tames  them  sufficiently  to  make  them  quiet  when 
they  require  to  be  taken  out  of  the  cage  to  be  put  into  a bath. 

Early  in  the  spring,  when  the  cock  birds  begin  to  fight,  th  e 
hens  should  be  taken  away,  and  kept  apart  in  another  cage  till 
the  pairs  are  put  together  in  March.  Some  people  allow  their 
birds  to  choose  their  own  mates;  but  a great  deal  of  quarrel- 
ling takes  place  before  this,  and  two  or  three  gentlemen  will 
sometimes  fix  their  affections  on  the  same  lady,  and  they  will 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


713 


get  injured  in  the  combats  that  ensue;  besides  which,  if  it  be 
an  object  to  secure  good  colored  birds,  it  is  necessary  to  put 
those  together  whose  colors  contrast  well:  a mealy  cock  with  a 
jonque  hen,  ora  green  bird  with  a yellow  partner.  Handsomer 
birds  are  obtained  by  these  selections  than  when  two  birds  of 
the  same  color  are  paired;  and  two  crested  birds  should  never 
be  put  together,  the  young  will  probably  be  bald-headed.  It 
is  best  to  give  an  old  wife  to  a young  cock,  and  vice  versa ; and 
the  birds  of  a family  should  never  be  mated  together;  the  pro- 
geny will  infallibly  be  weak  and  unhealthy  if  this  is  permitted. 
Two  of  our  birds  were  accidentally  paired,  a brother  and  sis- 
ter, and  the  result  was  that  one  of  their  children  was  blind  and 
another  deformed.  For  these  reasons  it  is  best  not  to  leave 
the  birds  to  choose  for  themselves,  but  to  separate  them  before 
any  attachment  springs  up  between  them.  Cages  sold  as 
“breeding  cages”  have  a wooden  compartment  at  the  top  of 
one  end  for  nest-boxes,  and  a wired-off  partition  underneath, 
into  which  the  young  birds  may  be  put  when  it  is  desirable  to 
separate  them  from  their  parents.  There  are  some  advantages 
in  these  cages,  and  the  birds  which  are  shy  and  like  retirement 
prefer  them  to  the  open  cages;  the  only  objection  to  them  is 
that  they  are  inconveniently  small  when  a large  family  is 
hatched,  and  that  the  nest-boxes  are  necessarily  so  high  that 
the  young  birds  sometimes  fall,  when  they  come  out  of  the 
nest  before  they  are  fully  fledged,  and  are  injured  thus.  On 
this  account  we  put  nest-baskets  into  our  cages,  at  a little  dis- 
tance from  the  floor,  so  that  the  young  birds  hop  in  and  out 
easily;  and  if  the  old  birds  should  entangle  their  feet  in  the 
nest  (which  they  sometimes  do  if  the  claws  are  long  and  they 
fly  out  in  a hurry),  and  the  young  birds  are  thrown  out  of  it, 
they  are  not  likely  to  be  so  much  hurt  as  if  they  fell  from 
the  greater  height.  Breeding  cages  have  compartments 
for  the  separate  pairs,  three  in  each,  the  centre  space  being 
kept  for  the  young  birds  of  each  family,  that  they  may  be  fed 
through  the  wires  by  the  old  birds,  when  they  have  left  the 
nest,  but  cannot  feed  themselves.  This  space  is  necessary,  too, 
to  prevent  quarrels,  as  the  birds  on  each  side  of  the  wire  par- 
tition will  sometimes  try  to  fight,  and  make  furious  assaults  on 
their  neighbors  through  the  bars,  or  jealousies  will  arise  to 


714 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


break  their  domestic  peace,  if,  while  the  hen  is  sitting,  her  hus- 
band chooses  to  feed  his  neighbor’s  wife  through  the  wires. 
The  pairs  should  be  kept  as  retired  and  out  of  sight  of  each 
other  as  possible.  The  materials  for  the  nest  should  be  hung 
up  in  the  cage  in  a little  net;  fine  moss  and  cow-hair  are  best; 
if  cotton  wadding  is  given  it  is  apt  to  get  matted  and  clogged 
round  the  bird’s  claws.  The  hen  will  generally  make  the  nest 
herself;  but  some  birds  are  idle  about  it,  and  do  not  take  the 
trouble  to  do  more  than  to  put  a little  moss  or  wool  into  the 
basket,  and  then  it  is  as  well  to  make  a nest  for  her;  but  it 
is  not  at  all  certain  that  she  will  allow  it  to  remain  in  the  bas- 
ket. Some  birds  seem  to  prefer  sitting  on  their  eggs  without 
a nest,  or  are  very  capricious  about  its  formation,  and  will 
undo  one  day  the  work  of  the  previous  day.  It  is  as  well  to 
leave  them  to  their  own  devices  till  the  young  are  hatched,  and 
then  they  may  have  a little  moss  or  cow-hair  put  in  under 
them  to  make  their  bed  softer.  The  hen  generally  lays  four  or 
five  eggs,  and  sits  thirteen  or  fourteen  days,  unless  she  or  her 
mate  have  a bad  habit  of  eating  the  eggs.  They  should  be  left 
in  the  nest,  and  not  touched  or  interfered  with  at  all,  until  a 
fortnight  has  elapsed  after  the  laying  of  the  last  egg;  then,  if 
there  are  no  signs  of  hatching,  the  eggs  may  be  put  into  warm 
water;  if  they  float  the  probability  is  that  they  are  addled,  and 
no  young  bird  in  the  egg;  if  they  sink,  they  may  be  replaced 
for  a day  or  two,  but  if  not  hatched  then,  they  should  be  taken 
away,  or  the  hen  will  go  on  sitting  uselessly  (on  dead  birds 
probably).  Sometimes  a violent  jar,  caused  by  the  shutting  of 
a door  near  the  cage,  or  the  fall  of  the  cage  itseltj  will  kill  the 
birds  in  the  eggs,  or  the  mother  bird  will  cause  their  death  by 
allowing  the  eggs  to  get  cold,  if  sitting  irregularly.  The  egg 
food  must  be  provided  in  readiness  for  the  hatching;  and  it  is 
necessary  to  watch  the  birds’  proceedings  at  first,  lest  they 
should  not  feed  the  young  ones;  but  very  few  canaries  are  un- 
natural enough  to  leave  them  unfed,  although  they  do  not  like 
to  be  overlooked,  and,  if  they  are  shy  birds,  will  refuse  to  feed 
their  little  ones  when  they  are  in  sight,  so  that  one  has  to 
watch  them  without  appearing  to  do  so.  If  they  feed  them 
once  they  will  continue  to  do  so;  if  not,  it  will  be  needful  to 
bring  them  up  by  hand,  giving  them  the  soft  egg  food  with  ? 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


m 

quill,  as  with  the  nestlings  before  mentioned.  A fresh  nest 
must  be  given  if  the  first  nest  becomes  dirty,  and  the  young 
birds  carefully  transferred  to  it  with  no  more  touching  than  is 
necessary.  Some  parent  birds  will  resent  any  interference  with 
their  young,  and  will  desert  if  they  are  meddled  with;  others 
will  appear  pleased  at  any  notice  bestowed  on  them,  and  will 
call  our  attention  to  their  children  with  great  exultation,  chirp- 
ing and  flying  up  to  the  nest,  looking  in,  and  then  looking  up 
in  our  faces  as  if  to  say,  “Pray  admire  my  lovely  infants.” 

If  our  birds  are  as  familiar  with  us  as  they  ought  to  be, 
they  will  exhibit  their  confidence  in  our  sympathy  and  make 
their  wants  known  to  us  in  a very  pleasant  and  expressive  man- 
ner: if  they  want  fresh  food  or  water  they  will  go  down  to  the 
glasses  and  look  into  them,  and  then  look  up  at  us  and  chirp; 
or  if  anything  is  amiss  with  their  nestlings,  they  will  attract  our 
attention  to  the  nest  by  signals  that  cannot  be  mistaken.  One 
bird  who  wanted  materials  for  her  nest  went  about  the  cage 
picking  up  stalks,  and  another  pulled  the  hair  of  any  human 
head  that  came  within  her  reach,  to  show  what  she  wanted. 

The  young  birds  will  generally  be  out  of  the  nest  in  about 
a fortnight  during  the  day,  returning  to  it  at  night  for  warmth. 
The  mother  bird  will  often  begin  to  lay  again  about  this  time, 
and  must  have  a fresh  nest  given  her;  and  the  young  ones 
should  be  put  into  the  nursery  partition,  so  as  to  be  fed  through 
the  wires  (or  in  a small  cage  tied  on  to  the  larger  one).  They 
are  apt  to  tease  their  mother,  or  to  break  the  eggs,  by  jump- 
ing in  and  out  of  the  nest  while  she  is  sitting.  We  have  some- 
times seen  three  or  four  little  heads  peeping  out  under  her 
wings  at  once,  and  occasionally  they  will  sit  upon  her,  which  in 
hot  weather  is  almost  too  much  to  endure.  The  cock  bird  will 
feed  them  while  she  is  sitting,  and  show  them  how  to  feed 
themselves.  They  must  have  a supply  of  egg  food,  crushed 
seed,  and  water  in  their  compartment,  and  by  degrees  they  will 
become  independent  of  their  parents.  The  first  moulting  tries 
the  young  birds’  strength  much,  and  till  it  is  over  they  must 
have  the  same  kind  of  food — egg  food  and  crushed  hemp-seed, 
in  addition  to  their  usual  provisions.  The  hen  should  not  be 
allowed  to  have  more  than  two  broods  in  the  year,  for  her 
health’s  sake.  If  she  goes  on  laying  or  sitting,  the  nest  should 


716 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


be  taken  away  from  her;  and  if  that  hint  is  not  sufficient,  she 
must  be  seperated  from  the  cock  till  she  begins  to  moult.  The 
young  birds  should  be  within  hearing  of  a good  songster  till 
after  their  moulting  is  over,  when  they  will  begin  to  warble 
feebly.  If  a nightingale  or  woodlark  were  to  be  had  as  music 
master,  they  would  learn  his  notes;  but  we  do  not  advise  any 
one  to  keep  these  birds  in  confinement;  they  are  not  fitted  for 
it  by  temperament  or  constitution,  and  their  song  is  much  more 
glad  and  sweet  in  their  native  woods.  We  had  one  canary  who 
had  learned  several  nightingale  notes,  and  used  to  repeat  the 
“jug,  jug,”  continually;  he  would  not  sing  in  company  with 
others,  but  taught  the  young  birds  very  well  from  a little  dis- 
tance. They  will  often  learn  best  when  their  singing-master  is 
out  of  sight. 

Cross-breeding  has  changed  the  canary  of  the  present  day 
from  the  original  wild  green  bird  of  Teneriffe  and  the  Canary 
Isles,  and  the  varieties  of  shape  and  plumage  are  endless. 
There  are  canary  societies  and  bird-shows  now,  and  prizes  are 
given  for  birds  which  excel  in  beauty  or  song.  They  are 
arranged  in  different  divisions,  and  connoisseurs  talk  know- 
ingly of  “jonques,”  “spangles,”  “mealy  birds,”  “flaxen,” 
“ grey,”  “ cinnamon,”  and  “ agate-colored  ” canaries,  all  of 
which  have  their  distinguishing  merits.  Then  there  is  the 
German  canary,  a small,  compact,  smooth  bird,  with  a sweet 
hut  not  very  powerful  voice;  and  the  Belgian,  its  opposite  in 
every  respect,  very  long  and  slender,  with  exceedingly  high 
shoulders  and  long  legs,  standing  so  uprightly  on  its  perch  as 
to  give  one  the  idea  that  it  would  fall  backwards.  The  Nor- 
wich, or  London  fancy,  prize  canary,  is  a large  square  bird, 
with  a massive  head,  deep  orange  in  plumage  all  over  the  body, 
excepting  the  wings  and  tail,  which  should  be  black.  This,  at 
least,  used  to  be  the  prize  bird,  but  every  season  has  its  fashion 
in  birds  as  well  as  in  dress.  To  our  mind  it  is  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  all  the  canaries  when  perfect,  but  it  is  very  difficult  to 
get  one  without  white  or  green  feathers,  or  irregularly  marked; 
and  a perfect  bird  will  become  imperfect  after  its  first  two 
moults.  This  is  the  case  also  with  the  lizard  canary,  which 
should  be  of  a greenish  bronze  throughout,  excepting  the  crown 
of  the  head,  which  is  yellow  in  the  gold-spangled,  and  white  in 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


717 


the  silver-spangled  lizard.  The  markings  or  spangles  on  the 
back  are  very  uniform  and  regular,  and  there  ought  to  be  no 
yellow  or  white  feathers  in  the  wings  or  tail;  but  these  gener 
ally  come  when  the  bird  is  two  years  old. 

Virginian  Nightingale.— The  cardinal  grosbeak,  or  Virginian 
nightingale,  is  a very  beautiful  red  bird,  with  glossy  black 
feathers  about  the  head  and  neck.  It  is  about  eight  inches 
long,  of  which  the  tail  measures  three.  The  song  is  varied 
and  constant,  and  continues  all  through  the  year,  except  while 
it  is  moulting.  The  hen,  which  is  of  a reddish-brown  color,  is 
said  to  sing  nearly  as  well  as  the  cock;  and  perhaps  that  is  the 
reason  why  these  birds  are  better  apart — the  cock  is  jealous  of 
his  mate's  rivalry  of  voice.  Bird  dealers  have  so  often  pro- 
nounced an  unfavorable  opinion  of  the  cardinal  grosbeak  as 
regards  its  capabilities  as  a domestic  pet,  that  we  were  sur- 
prised to  hear  of  one  which  was  so  exceedingly  tame  that  he 
would  carry  his  favorite  tit-bits  to  his  mistress,  and  try  to  make 
her  eat  crushed  hemp  and  caterpillars  ! The  bird  is  naturally 
very  nervous  and  sensitive,  so  that  it  would  fret  and  chafe  in  a 
shop  surrounded  by  other  birds,  and  its  wild  fluttering  would 
give  the  idea  that  it  could  never  be  tamed;  but  patient  kind- 
ness and  gentleness  will  make  it  most  attractive  and  pleasant 
pet.  It  should  be  fed  chiefly  on  canary-seed,  but  should  have 
a few  hemp-seeds  every  day,  and  four  or  five  meal-worms,  or 
spiders,  grubs,  or  caterpillars — some  animal  food,  in  short,  to 
keep  it  well  and  vigorous.  Spanish  nuts,  almonds,  walnuts,  and 
Indian  corn,  may  be  given  as  a treat;  and  a lump  of  basalt  and 
a little  piece  of  chalk  should  be  put  in  the  cage,  and  the  bird 
should  always  be  allowed  a bath,  and  should  be  kept  out  of 
draughts.  We  give  the  directions  which  have  been  given  to  us 
by  a lady  whose  Virginian  nightingale  has  flourished  under  her 
judicious  care  many  years. 

Parrots. — An  article  on  domestic  pets  seems  scarcely  com- 
plete without  some  notice  of  parrots  and  parakeets;  but 
there  are  so  many  varieties  of  this  tribe  of  bird,  and  they 
come  from  so  many  parts  of  the  world,  that  they  require  a book 
to  themselves.  We  can  only  make  a few  suggestions  for  their 
treatment  generally.  Those  which  are  natives  of  tropical  cli- 
mates require  warmth  and  abundance  of  farinaceous  food  and 


718  DOMESTIC  PETS. 

fruit.  Bread  and  milk  should  be  the  staple  prison  diet  of  par- 
rots (the  bread  should  be  soaked  first  in  boiling  water,  squeezed 
as  dry  as  possible,  and  then  allowed  to  absorb  as  much  fresh 
boiled  milk  as  it  will  hold),  adding  Indian  corn,  biscuits,  nuts, 
almonds  (not  bitter  almonds),  fruit  (hard  and  soft),  peach  and 
plum  kernels,  cherries,  grapes,  pears,  & c.,  grain  and  seeds  for 
the  larger  birds;  and  the  smaller  kinds  should  have  hemp, 
canary,  and  millet  seeds,  with  fruit.  All  should  have  water  for 
drinking  and  bathing  within  reach;  and  if  the  birds  will  not  go 
into  water,  it  is  well  to  sprinkle  a little  warm  water  on  them 
occasionally,  and  put  them  into  the  sunshine  that  they  may 
plume  themselves  and  clean  their  feathers.  Great  cleanliness 
is  necessary  to  keep  parrots  in  health,  and  their  feet  must  be 
frequently  washed  if  they  get  dirty  and  they  will  not  bathe 
themselves.  They  are  subject  to  diseased  feet,  and  their 
perches  should  be  covered  with  flannel,  and  the  bottom  of 
the  cage  should  have  a grating  with  a drawer  underneath  it 
always  covered  with  sand.  Lettuce  or  water-cress  is  given 
to  these  birds  occasionally;  and  it  is  said  that  a chili-pod  given 
from  time  to  time  is  useful — when  they  are  moulting  they  may 
have  one  or  two  cut  up  small  once  a week.  If  they  have  an 
attack  of  asthma  they  should  have  a few  grains  of  cayenne 
pepper  mixed  with  their  bread  and  milk.  Meat,  sugar,  and 
sweetmeats,  are  all  unwholesome  for  parrots. 

Doves. — Doves  are  pretty,  gentle,  quiet  birds,  and  easily 
tamed.  The  stock  dove,  ring  dove,  turtle  dove,  and  collared 
turtle,  are  all  kept  in  confinement,  but  they  should  all 
have  a great  deal  of  air.  If  kept  in  a wicker  cage,  it  should  be 
carried  indoors  at  night  (for,  being  natives  of  hot  countries, 
they  do  not  bear  cold  well),  and  taken  out  of  doors  early  in  the 
morning.  The  German  peasants  keep  doves  constantly  in  their 
cottages,  from  a fancy  that  they  cure  colds  and  rheumatism  by 
taking  the  complaints  themselves;  and  we  believe  it  is  true  that 
doves  are  subject  to  the  diseases  which  people  shut  up  in  the 
same  room  with  them  have,  such  as  small-pox,  swollen  legs, 
and  tumors  in  the  feet;  but  this  is  probably  due  to  the  close, 
unwholesome  condition  and  bad  air  of  the  room,  which  affects 
birds  and  human  beings  alike.  They  are  best  kept  in  a con- 
servatory or  aviary,  unless  they  are  tame  enough  to  fly  in  and 


DOMESTIC  PETS. 


719 


out  of  the  house,  and  return  to  their  cages  at  night  or  when  they 
want  food,  in  which  case  they  may  be  allowed  their  liberty. 
They  must  have  plenty  of  fine,  dry  gravel  and  conveniences 
for  bathing,  and  their  food  should  be  barley,  wheat,  peas, 
vetches,  hemp,  and  canary  seed.  They  like  variety  in  it,  and 
are  fond  of  bread  dry  or  soaked,  the  seeds  of  pines  and  firs, 
and  linseed  and  myrtle  berries.  They  ought  to  have  bay  salt 
mixed  with  old  mortar  or  gravel.  The  salt  is  good  for  their 
throats,  which  often  become  diseased.  Doves  generally  have 
two  broods  in  the  year,  two  young  ones  at  a time,  which  they 
feed  from  their  crops.  We  have  been  told  that  they  are  often 
unnatural  enough  to  neglect  this  duty;  but  we  do  not  think 
this  is  generally  the  case.  The  young  are  so  dependent  upon 
their  parents,  that  they  could  hardly  be  reared  by  hand.  They 
are  not  very  interesting  birds,  but  have  great  beauty  of  plumage, 
and  no  disagreeable  characteristics  to  detract  from  their  merits 
as  domestic  pets. 


TYPICAL  PLYMOUTH  ROCKS. 


LEGAL  POINTS 


Articles  of  Agreement. — An  agreement  is  a contract,  by  which  a cer- 
tain person  or  persons,  agrees  or  contracts  to  perform  certain  duties 
within  a specified  time.  It  is  of  much  importance,  in  all  matters,  upon 
which  may  arise  a difference  of  opinion,  or  misunderstanding,  that  con- 
tracts be  reduced  very  explicitly  to  writing.  Agreements  should  show 
that  they  arc  made  for  a reasonable  consideration,  otherwiso  they  are 
void  in  law.  The  contract  expires  at  the  end  of  a year,  unless  it  is  ex- 
pressly stipulated  that  the  agreement  is  binding  for  a longer  time.  A 
signature  should  always  be  written  with  pen  and  ink,  for  safety,  although 
a pencil  signature  is  legal.  Misrepresentation,  or  discovery  of  fraud, 
or  changing  of  date  by  one  party  to  the  agreement,  renders  the  con- 
tract void.  Agreements  should  state  explicitly,  within  what  time  its 
conditions  are  to  be  complied  with.  Always  duplicate  copies  of  an 
agreement,  that  each  party  may  retain  a copy. 

Bills  of  Sale. — A written  agreement,  by  which  one  party  transfers  to 
another,  for  a consideration  on  delivery,  all  his  right,  title,  and  interest^ 
in  personal  property,  is  a bill  of  sale. 

The  ownership  of  personal  property,  in  law,  is  not  changed  until  the 
delivery,  and  the  purchaser  takes  actual  possession  of  such  property, 
though  in  some  States  a bill  of  sale  is  prima  facie  evidence  of  owner- 
ship, even  against  creditors,  unless  the  sale  was  fraudulently  made,  for 
the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  payment  of  debts. 

Deeds. — A deed  is  an  instrument  in  writing,  by  which  lands  and  ap- 
purtenances thereon  are  conveyed  from  one  person  to  another,  signed, 
sealed,  and  properly  subscribed.  A deed  may  be  written  or  printed  on 
parchment  or  paper,  and  must  be  executed  by  parties  competent  to 
contract. 

One  witness  is  required  in  New  York,  and  two  witnesses  are  re- 
quired in  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  Georgia  and  Indiana.  Should  the  deed  be  proven  by 
witnesses,  two  are  also  required  in  Tennessee,  Delaware  and  South 
Carolina.  In  the  other  States  no  witnesses  are  necessary,  the  deed  be- 


m 


LEGAL  POINTS, 


ing  acknowledged  by  a person  duly  authorized  by  law.  There  must  be 
a realty  to  grant,  and  a sufficient  consideration,  to  render  a deed  valid. 

The  following  requisites  are  necessary  to  enable  a person  to  legally 
convey  property  to  another:  1st,  He  or  she  must  be  of  sane  mind;  2d, 
of  age;  and  3d,  he  or  she  must  be  the  rightful  owner  of  the  property. 

The  grantor  is  the  person  who  makes  the  deed,  and  the  grantee,  the 
person  who  receives  the  deed.  The  wife  of  the  grantor,  in  the  absence 
of  any  statue  regulating  the  same,  must  acknowledge  the  deed,  or  else, 
after  the  death  of  her  husband,  she  will  be  entitled  to  a one-third  inter- 
est in  the  property,  as  dower  during  her  life.  Her  acknowledgment  of 
the  deed  must  be  of  her  own  free  will  and  accord,  and  the  officer,  before 
whom  the  acknowledgment  is  taken,  must  sign  his  name  as  a witness  to 
the  fact  that  her  consent  was  without  compulsion.  Special  care  should 
be  taken  to  have  the  deed  properly  acknowledged  and  witnessed,  and 
the  proper  seal  attached.  The  deed  takes  effect  upon  its  delivery  to  the 
proper  authorized  person.  Any  alterations  or  interlineations  in  the 
deed  should  be  noted  at  the  bottom  of  the  instrument,  and  properly 
witnessed.  After  the  acknowledgment  of  a deed,  the  parties  have  no 
right  to  make  the  slightest  alteration.  An  alteration  after  the  acknowl- 
edgmant,  in  favor  of  the  grantee,  vitiates  the  deed. 

By  a general  warranty  deed,  the  grantor  agrees  to  warrant  and  de- 
fend the  property  conveyed  against  all  persons  whatsoever.  A quit 
claim  deed  releases  what  interest  the  grantor  may  have  in  the  land,  but 
does  not  warrant  and  defend  against  others.  Deeds,  upon  their  deliv- 
ery, should  be  recorded  in  the  Recorder’s  office  without  delay. 

Chattel  Mortgages. — A mortgage  on  personal  property,  given  by  a 
debtor  to  a creditor,  as  security  for  the  payment  of  a sum  that  may  be 
due,  is  a chattel  mortgage. 

The  property  mortgaged  may  remain  in  the  possession  of  either 
party,  while  the  mortgage  is  in  force.  In  order  to  hold  the  property 
secure  against  other  creditors,  the  mortgagee,  or  person  holding  the 
mortgage,  must  have  a true  copy  filed  in  the  Clerk’s  or  Recorder’s  office 
of  the  place  where  the  mortgagor,  or  person  giving  the  mortgage,  re 
sides,  and  where  the  property  is  when  mortgaged. 

A justice  of  the  peace,  according  to  the  laws  of  some  States,  in  the 
voting  precinct  where  such  property  mortgaged  is  located,  must  ac- 
knowledge and  sign  the  mortgage,  taking  a transcript  of  the  same  upon 
his  court  docket,  while  the  mortgage  itself  should  be  recorded,  the  same 
as  real  estate  transfers. 

When  the  person  giving  the  mortgage  retains  possession  of  the  prop- 
erty, he  may  empower  the  party  holding  the  mortgage  with  authority  to 
take  the  goods  and  chattels  mortgaged  into  his  possession  at  any  time 
he  may  deem  the  same  insufficient  security  for  his  claims;  or  if  he  shall 
be  convinced  that  an  effort  is  being  made  to  remove  such  property, 
whereby  he  would  be  defrauded  of  his  claim,  or  for  other  reasons,  when, 
he  may  deem  it  necessary  to  secure  his  olaim,  he  can  prooeed  to  take 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


723 


possession  of  it;  and  said  property,  after  having  given  legal  notice  of 
sale,  according  to  the  law  of  the  State  governing  the  same,  he  is  allowed 
to  sell  at  public  sale,  to  the  highest  bidder.  Out  of  the  money  obtained 
therefrom,  he  can  retain  sufficient  to  liquidate  his  demand  and  defray 
the  necessary  expenses,  turning  over  any  moneys  remaining  to  the 
mortgagor. 

Landlord  and  Tenant. — No  particular  form  of  wording  a lease  is  nec- 
essary. It  is  important,  however,  that  the  lease  state,  in  a plain,  straight 
forward  manner,  the  terms  and  conditions  of  the  agreement,  so  that 
there  may  be  no  misunderstanding  between  the  landlord  and  tenant. 

The  lease  must  state  all  the  conditions,  as  additional  verbal  promises 
avail  nothing  in  law.  It  is  held,  generally,  that  a written  instrument 
contains  the  details,  and  states  the  bargain  entire,  as  the  contracting 
parties  intended. 

The  tenant  can  sublet  a part,  or  all,  of  his  premises,  unless  prohibited 
by  the  terms  of  his  lease. 

A lease  by  a married  woman,  even  if  it  be  upon  her  own  property,  at 
common  law,  is  not  valid;  but,  by  recent  statues,  she,  in  many  States, 
may  lease  her  own  property  and  have  full  control  of  the  same;  neither 
oan  the  husband  effect  a lease  that  will  bind  her  after  his  death.  His 
oontrol  over  her  property  continues  only  so  long  as  he  lives. 

Neither  a guardian  or  minor  can  give  a lease,  extending  beyond  the 
ward’s  majority,  which  can  be  enforced  by  the  lessee;  yet  the  latter  is 
bound  unless  the  lease  is  annulled. 

If  no  time  is  specified  in  a lease,  it  is  generally  held  that  the  lessee 
can  retain  possession  of  the  real  estate  for  one  year.  A tenancy  at  will, 
however,  may  be  terminated  in  the  Eastern  States  by  giving  three 
month’s  notice  in  writing;  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States,  six 
months;  and  in  the  Western  States,  one  month;  though  recent  statutes 
in  some  States  have  modified  the  above  somewhat. 

The  lease  that  specifies  a term  of  years,  without  giving  the  definite 
number,  is  without  effect  at  the  expiration  of  two  years.  A lease  for 
three  or  more  years,  being  signed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Deeds,  and 
recorded  in  the  Recorder’s  office,  is  an  effectual  bar  to  the  secret  or 
fraudulent  conveyance  of  such  leased  property;  and  it  further  obviates 
the  necessity  of  procuring  witnesses  to  authenticate  the  validity  of  the 
lease. 

Duplicate  copies  of  a lease  should  always  be  made,  and  each  party 
retain  a copy  of  the  same. 

A new  lease  invalidates  an  old  one. 

A landlord  misrepresenting  property  that  is  leased,  thereby  subject- 
ing the  tenant  to  inconvenience  and  loss,  such  damages  can  be  recovered 
from  the  landlord  by  deduction  from  the  rent. 

A lease  on  property  that  is  mortgaged  ceases  to  exist  when  the  per- 
son holding  such  mortgage  forcloses  the  same. 

A landlord  consenting  to  take  a substitute,  releases  the  first  tenant. 


724 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


Where  there  is  nothing  but  a verbal  agreement,  the  tenancy  is 
understood  to  commence  at  time  of  taking  possession.  Where  there  is 
no  time  specified  in  the  lease,  tenancy  is  regarded  as  commencing  at 
the  time  of  delivering  the  writings.  If  it  is  understood  that  the  tenant 
is  to  pay  the  taxes  on  the  property  he  occupies,  such  fact  must  be  dis- 
tinctly stated  in  the  lease,  as  a verbal  promise  is  of  no  effect. 

Partnerships. — An  agreement  between  two  or  more  persons  to  invest 
their  labor,  time,  and  means  together,  sharing  in  the  loss  or  profit  that 
may  arise  from  such  investment,  is  termed  a partnership. 

This  partnership  may  consist  in  the  contribution  of  skill,  extra 
labor,  or  acknowledged  reputation  upon  the  part  of  one  partner,  while 
the  other,  or  others,  contribute  money,  each  sharing  alike  equally,  or  in 
fixed  proportion,  in  the  profits,  or  an  equal  amount  of  time,  labor,  and 
money  may  be  invested  by  the  partners,  and  the  profits  equally  divided; 
the  test  of  partnership  being  the  joint  participation  in  profit,  and  joint 
liability  to  loss. 

A partnership  formed  without  limitation  is  termed  a general  part- 
nership. An  agreement  entered  into  for  the  performance  of  only  a 
particular  work,  is  termed  a special  partnership;  while  the  partner  put- 
ting in  a limited  amount  of  capital,  upon  which  he  receives  a corres- 
ponding amount  of  profit,  and  is  held  correspondingly  responsible  for 
the  contracts  of  the  firm,  is  termed  a limited  partnership,  the  condi- 
tions of  which  are  regulated  by  statute  in  different  States. 

A partner  signing  his  individual  name  to  negotiable  paper,  which  is 
for  the  use  of  the  partnership  firm,  binds  all  the  partners  thereby. 
Negotiable  paper  of  the  firm,  even  though  given  on  private  account  by 
one  of  the  partners,  will  hold  all  the  partners  of  the  firm  when  it  passes 
into  the  hands  of  holders  who  are  ignorant  of  the  facts  attending  its 
creation. 

Partnership  effects  may  be  bought  and  sold  by  a partner;  he  may 
make  contracts;  may  receive  money;  endorse,  draw,  and  accept  bills 
and  notes;  and  while  this  may  be  for  his  own  private  account,  if  it  ap- 
parently be  for  the  use  of  the  firm,  his  partners  will  be  bound  by  his 
action,  provided  the  parties  dealing  with  him  were  ignorant  of  the 
transaction  being  on  his  private  account;  and  thus  representation  or 
misrepresention  of  a partner,  having  relation  to  business  of  the  firm, 
will  bind  the  members  in  the  partnership. 

An  individual  lending  his  name  to  a firm,  or  allowing  the  same  to  be 
nsed  after  he  has  withdrawn  from  the  same,  is  still  responsible  to  third 
persons  as  a partner. 

A partnership  is  presumed  to  commence  at  the  time  articles  of  co- 
partnership are  drawn,  if  no  stipulation  is  made  to  the  contrary,  and 
the  same  can  be  discontinued  at  any  time,  unless  a specified  period  of 
partnership  is  designated  in  the  agreement;  and  even  then  he  may  with- 
draw by  giving  previous  notice  of  such  withdrawal  from  the  same,  being 
liable,  however,  in  damages,  if  such  are  caused  by  his  withdrawal. 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


725 


Should  it  be  desired  that  the  executors  and  representatives  of  the 
partner  continue  the  business  in  the  event  of  his  death,  it  should  be  so 
specified  in  the  articles,  otherwise  the  partnership  ceases  at  death. 
Should  administrators  and  executors  continue  the  business  under  such 
circumstances,  they  are  personally  responsible  for  the  debts  contracted 
by  the  firm. 

If  it  is  desired  that  a majority  of  the  partners  in  a firm  have  the 
privilege  of  closing  the  affairs  of  the  company,  or  in  any  way  regulating 
the  same,  such  fact  should  be  designated  in  the  agreement;  otherwise 
such  right  will  not  be  presumed. 

Partners  may  mutually  agree  to  dissolve  a partnership,  or  a disso- 
lution may  be  effected  by  a decree  of  a Court  of  Equity.  Dissolute  con- 
duct, dishonesty,  habits  calculated  to  imperil  the  business  of  a firm,  in- 
capacity, or  the  necessity  of  partnership  no  longer  continuing,  shall  be 
deemed  sufficient  causes  to  invoke  the  law  in  securing  a dissolution  of 
partnership,  in  case  the  same  cannot  be  effected  by  mutual  agreement. 

After  dissolution  of  partnership,  immediate  notice  of  the  same 
should  be  given  in  the  most  public  newspapers,  and  a notice  likewise 
should  be  sent  to  every  person  having  special  dealings  with  the  firm. 
These  precautions  not  being  taken,  each  partner  continues  liable  for  the 
acts  of  the  others  to  all  persons  who  have  no  knowledge  of  the  dissolu- 
tion. 

Wills. — The  legal  declaration  of  what  a person  determines  to  have 
done  with  his  property  after  death,  is  termed  a will. 

All  persons  of  sufficient  age,  possessed  of  sound  mind,  excepting 
married  women  in  certain  States,  are  entitled  to  dispose  of  their  prop- 
erty by  will.  Children  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  if  males,  and  females  at 
the  age  of  twelve,  can  thus  dispose  of  personal  property. 

No  exact  form  of  words  is  necessary  in  order  to  make  a will  good  at 
law;  though  much  care  should  be  exercised  to  state  the  provisions  of 
the  will  so  plainly  that  its  language  may  not  be  misunderstood.  The 
person  making  the  will  is  termed  the  testator;  if  a female,  a testatrix. 

A will  is  of  no  force  until  the  death  of  the  testator,  and  can  be  can- 
celled or  modified  at  any  date  by  the  maker.  The  last  will  made  annuls 
the  force  of  all  preceding  wills. 

The  law  regards  marriage  and  offspring  resulting,  as  a prima  facie 
evidence  of  revocation  of  a will  made  prior  to  such  marriage,  unless  the 
wife  and  children  are  provided  for  by  the  husband  in  some  other  way, 
in  which  case  the  will  remains  in  full  force. 

To  convey  real  estate  by  will,  it  must  be  done  in  accordance  with  the 
law  of  the  State  where  such  land  is  located;  but  personal  property  is 
conveyed  in  harmony  with  the  law  that  obtains  at  the  place  of  the 
testator’s  residence. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  wills,  namely,  written  or  verbal,  or  noncupa- 
tive.  The  latter  or  spoken  wills,  depending  upon  proof  of  persons 
hearing  the  same,  generally  relate  to  personal  property  only,  and  are 


726 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


not  recognized  in  all  the  States,  unless  made  within  ten  days  previous  to 
the  death.  Verbal  or  unwritten  wills  are  usually  unsafe,  and,  even  when 
well  authenticated,  often  make  expensive  litigation;  hence  the  necessity 
of  having  the  wishes  of  the  testator  fully  and  clearly  defined  in  a written 
will. 

To  give  or  make  a devise  of  property  by  will,  and  subsequently  dis- 
pose of  the  same,  without  altering  the  will  to  conform  to  such  sale,  de- 
stroys the  validity  of  the  entire  will. 

A will  made  by  an  unmarried  woman  is  legally  revoked  by  marriage; 
but  she  can  take  such  legal  steps  in  the  settlement  of  her  property,  be- 
fore marriage,  as  will  empower  her  to  dispose  of  the  same  as  she  may 
choose,  after  marriage. 

No  husband  can  make  a will  that  will  deprive  the  wife  of  her  right  of 
dower  in  the  property ; but  the  husband  can  will  the  wife  a certain  amount 
in  lieu  of  her  dower,  stating  it  to  be  in  lieu  thereof.  Such  bequest,  how- 
ever, will  not  exclude  her  from  her  dower,  provided  she  prefers  it  to  the 
bequest  made  in  the  will.  Unless  the  husband  states  distinctly  that  the 
bequest  is  in  lieu  of  dower,  she  is  entitled  to  both. 

Property  bequeathed  must  pay  debts  and  encumbrances  upon  the 
same  before  its  distribution  can  be  made  to  the  legatees  of  the  estate. 

Though  property  may  be  willed  to  a corporation,  the  corporation 
cannot  accept  such  gift  unless  provision  is  made  for  so  doing  in  its 
charter.  A will  may  be  revoked  by  marriage,  codicil,  destruction  of  the 
will,  disposing  of  property  devised  in  a will,  or  by  the  execution  of 
another  will. 

The  person  making  a will  may  appoint  his  executors,  but  no  person 
can  serve  as  such  executor  if  he  or  she  be  an  alien  at  the  time  of  prov- 
ing of  the  will;  if  he  be  under  twenty-one  years  of  age,  a convict,  a 
drunkard,  a lunatic,  or  an  imbecile.  No  person  appointed  as  an  execu- 
tor is  obliged  to  serve,  but  may  renounce  his  appointment  by  legal 
written  notice,  signed  before  two  witnesses,  which  notice  must  be  re- 
corded by  the  officer  before  whom  the  will  is  proved. 

In  case  a married  woman  possesses  property,  and  dies  without  e 
will,  her  husband  is  entitled  to  administer  upon  such  property  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  one  else,  provided  he  be  of  sound  mind. 

Any  devise  of  property  made  to  a subscribing  witness  is  invalid,  al- 
though the  integrity  of  the  will  in  other  respects  is  not  affected. 

In  all  wills  the  testator’s  full  name  should  be  made  at  the  end  of 
such.  If  he  be  unable  to  write,  he  may  have  his  hand  guided  in  making 
a mark  against  the  same.  If  he  possesses  a sound  mind,  and  is  con- 
scious at  the  time  of  the  import  of  this  action,  such  mark  renders  the 
will  valid. 

Witnesses  should  always  write  their  respective  places  of  residence 
after  their  names,  their  signatures  being  written  in  the  presence  of  each 
other,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  testator. 

It  should  be  stated  also,  that  these  names  are  signed  at  the  request 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


m 


of,  and  in  tke  presence  of,  the  testator,  and  in  the  presence  of  each 
other. 

The  following  States  require  two  subscribing  witnesses:  Missouri, 
Illinois,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Iowa, 
Utah,  Texas,  California,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Indiana,  Virginia,  and 
New  York.  Three  witnesses  are  required  to  authenticate  a will  in  the 
following  States:  Florida,  Mississippi,  Maryland,  Louisiana,  Georgia, 
South  Carolina,  Wisconsin , Oregon,  Minnesota,  Michigan,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont. 
Proof  of  signature  of  the  testator,  by  the  oath  of  two  reputable  witnesses, 
is  sufficient  to  establish  the  validity  of  a will  in  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, no  subscribing  witnesses  being  absolutely  necessary. 

Witnesses  are  not  required  to  know  the  contents  of  a will.  They 
have  simply  to  know  that  the  document  is  a will,  and  witness  the  sign- 
ing of  the  same  by  the  testator. 

Codicils. — An  addition  to  a will,  which  should  be  in  writing,  is 
termed  a codicil.  A codicil  is  designed  to  explain,  modify,  or  change 
former  bequests  made  in  the  body  of  the  will.  It  should  be  done  with 
the  same  care  and  precision  as  was  exercised  in  the  making  of  the  will 
itself. 

Exemptions  from  Forctd  Sales. — Showing  property  exempt  from 
attachment,  or  levy  and  sale  on  execution,  according  to  the  laws  of 
different  States: 

Alabama. — Home  worth  $2,000,  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of 

$1,000. 

Arkansas. — Home  worth  $2,500,  said  home  being  the  residence  of  a 
householder,  or  head  of  family,  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of 
$500. 

California. — Home  worth  $5,000,  if  declaration  of  homestead  is 
properly  filed  in  the  Recorder’s  office  of  the  county  where  situate,  by  a 
husband  or  wife,  or  other  head  of  a family,  except  in  the  following 
oases:  1st.  Where  the  judgment  was  obtained  before  the  declaration  of 
homestead.  2d.  On  judgments  for  liens  of  mechanics,  laborers,  or 
vendors  of  the  land.  3d.  On  debts  secured  by  mortgage  on  the  land, 
executed  by  husband  and  wife,  or  an  unmarried  claimant.  4th.  On 
debts  secured  by  mortgage  on  the  land  before  the  declaration  of  the 
homestead.  The  other  exemptions  are  necessary  household,  table  and 
kitchen  furniture,  including  one  sewing  machine  and  piano,  in  use,  or 
belonging  to  a woman;  provisions  sufficient  for  one  month;  farming 
utensils  or  implements  of  husbandry;  also,  two  oxen,  or  horses,  or 
mules,  with  harness;  one  wagon  and  food  for  said  cattle  for  one  month; 
all  seed,  grain,  or  vegetables,  actually  prepared  for  planting  or  sowing 
within  the  ensuing  six  months,  not  exceeding  $100  in  value;  tools  of  a 
mechanic  necessary  to  his  trade ; instruments  and  libraries  of  a profes- 
sional man  necessary  to  his  profession ; the  cabin  or  dwelling  of  a miner 


728 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


not  exceeding  $500  in  value,  together  -with  all  his  tools,  implements  or 
appliances  necessary  for  mining  operations,  not  exceeding  $500  in  value, 
and  two  horses  or  cattle,  with  food  for  same  for  one  month,  when 
used  for  mining  purposes;  two  horses  or  other  cattle,  with  harness,  and 
hack,  carriage  or  cart,  with  which  a man  earns  his  living;  and  the  horse, 
vehicle  and  harness,  of  a physician  or  minister  of  the  gospel,  with  food 
for  one  month;  four  cows,  with  their  sucking  calves,  and  four  hogs,  with 
their  sucking  pigs;  poultry  to  the  value  of  $50;  earnings  of  debtor  for 
services  rendered  within  thirty  days  before  levy,  necessary  for  the  use  of 
his  family  residing  in  the  State,  supported  by  his  labor;  shares  in  a 
homestead  corporation  not  exceeding  $1,000  in  value,  when  the  holder 
does  not  own  a homestead. 

Colorado  —Home  worth  $2,000,  and  to  the  head  of  a family  owning 
and  occupying  the  same,  various  articles  of  personal  property.  The 
tools,  working  animals,  books  and  stock  in  trade,  not  exceeding  $300  in 
value,  is  exempted  to  any  person  not  the  head  of  a family,  when  used 
and  kept  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  a business  or  trade,  and  per- 
sonal property,  $1,000. 

Connecticut. — No  home  exempted.  The  following  personal  property 
is  exempt:  Necessary  apparel,  bedding,  and  household  furniture;  imple- 
ments of  the  debtor’s  trade;  one  cow  and  ten  sheep,  value  not  to  exceed 
$150;  specified  amounts  of  family  stores,  one  stove,  one  horse,  saddle 
and  bridle,  buggy  and  harness,  to  the  value  of  $200,  of  any  practicing 
physician  or  surgeon;  one  sewing  machine  in  use,  pew  in  church,  and  a 
library  to  the  value  of  $500;  one  boat  used  in  fishing  to  the  value 
of  $200. 

Dakota. — Home  of  160  acres  with  buildings,  or  one  acre  and  house  in 
village  or  city,  and  personal  property,  defined  by  statute,  to  the  value 
of  $1,500. 

Delaware. — No  home  exempted.  Personal  property  to  the  value  of 
$275;  family  library,  pictures,  pew  in  church,  lot  in  cemetery,  wearing 
apparel  of  debtor  and  family,  and  tools,  implements  and  fixtures  neces- 
sary to  carry  on  business,  worth  not  over  $75.  Head  of  family  in 
addition,  is  allowed  on  other  personal  property,  not  enumerated  above, 
$200. 

District  of  Columbia. — No  home  exempted.  Personal  property  of  the 
following  value,  except  for  servant’s  or  laborer’s  wages  due,  are  exempted: 
Wearing  apparel:  household  furniture  to  the  value  of  $300;  fuel  and 
provisions  for  three  months;  mechanic’s  tools  or  implements  of  trade 
to  value  of  $200,  with  stock  to  same  amount;  library  and  instruments 
of  a professional  man  to  value  of  $300;  a farmer’s  team  and  other  uten- 
sils to  value  of  $100;  family  pictures  and  library  to  value  of  $400. 

Florida. — Farm,  or  house  and  lot  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


729 


$1,000;  and  additional  $1,000  worth  of  property  is  exempt  from  all 
debts  incurred  prior  to  May  10,  1865. 

Georgia. — Home  worth  $1,600,  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of 
$1,000,  to  be  valued  at  the  time  they  are  set  apart. 

Idaho. — Home  worth  $5,000  to  the  head  of  a family,  and  furniture, 
teams,  tools,  stock,  and  other  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $300,  is 
exempt,  except  upon  a judgment  recovered  for  its  price,  or  upon  a 
mortgage  thereon. 

Illinois. — Home  worth  $1,000  to  a householder,  having  a family. 
There  is  no  exemption  from  sales  for  taxes,  assessments,  debt  or  liabil- 
ity incurred  for  the  purchase  or  improvements  of  said  home.  Ho 
release  or  waiver  of  exception  is  valid  unless  in  writing,  and  subscribed 
by  said  householder  and  wife,  if  he  have  one,  and  acknowledged  as  con- 
veyances of  real  estate  are  acknowledged.  The  following  personal 
property  is  exempt  from  execution:  Writ  of  attachment  and  distress  for 
rent;  necessary  wearing  apparel;  one  sewing  machine;  furniture,  tools, 
and  implements  necessary  to  carry  on  his  trade  or  business,  to  value  of 
$100;  implements  or  library  of  any  professional  man  to  value  of  $100; 
materials  and  stock  designed  and  procured  for  carrying  on  his  trade  or 
business  to  value  of  $100;  and  also  when  debtor  is  the  head  of  a family, 
and  resides  with  the  same,  necessary  beds,  bedding,  and  household  fur- 
niture to  value  of  $100;  one  cow,  calf,  two  swine,  one  yoke  of  oxen,  or 
two  horses,  value  not  exceeding  $200,  with  the  harness  therefor,  neces- 
sary provisions  and  fuel  for  the  use  of  family  three  months,  and  food 
for  herein  mentioned  stock  for  same  time;  the  family  pictures,  library, 
cemetery  lots  and  tombs;  $100  worth  of  other  property  adapted  to  his 
condition  in  life,  selected  by  the  debtor.  No  personal  property  is 
exempt  from  sale  for  the  wages  of  laborers  or  servants.  Wages  of  a 
laborer,  who  is  the  head  of  a family,  cannot  be  garnisheed,  except  the 
sum  due  him  be  in  excess  of  $25. 

Indiana. — Home  to  the  amount  of  $300,  and  personal  property  to  like 
amount.  No  property  shall  be  sold  by  virtue  of  an  execution  for  less 
than  two  thirds  its  appraised  cash  value,  unless  this  provision  is  waived 
in  contract. 

Iowa. — Farm  of  40  acres,  or  house  and  lot  in  city,  provided  the  same 
is  used  for  a home,  and  to  value  of  $500.  All  wearing  apparel  kept  for 
actual  use  and  suitable  to  the  condition  of  the  party,  trunks  and  other  re- 
ceptacles to  hold  the  same;  one  musket  or  rifle;  the  proper  tools,  instru- 
ments, or  books,  of  any  farmer,  mechanic,  surveyor,  clergyman,  lawyer, 
physician,  teacher,  or  professor;  the  horse  or  the  team,  consisting  of  not 
more  than  two  horses  or  mules,  or  two  yoke  of  cattle,  and  the  wagon  or 
other  vehicle,  with  the  proper  harness  or  tackle,  by  use  of  which  any 
physician,  public  officer,  farmer,  teamster  or  other  laborer  habitually 
earns  his  living;  private  library,  pictures,  and  paintings.  If  the  debtor 


730 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


is  the  head  of  a family,  there  is  further  exempt:  One  cow,  one  calf,  horse, 
fifty  sheep  and  the  wool  therefrom,  five  hogs  and  all  pigs  under  six 
months;  the  necessary  food  for  animals  exempt  for  sixty  days;  all  flax 
raised  by  the  defendant  and  the  manufactures  therefrom;  bed  and  bed- 
ding necessary;  all  cloth  manufactured  by  the  defendant  not  exceeding 
100  yards  in  quantity;  household  and  kitchen  furniture  to  the  value  of 
$200;  all  spinning  wheels  and  looms,  and  other  instruments  of  domestic 
labor  kept  for  actual  use;  the  necessary  provisions  and  fuel  for  family 
use  for  six  months.  The  word  family  does  not  include  strangers  or 
boarders;  the  earnings  of  such  debtor  for  personal  services,  or  those  of 
his  family  at  any  time  within  ninety  days  next  preceding  the  levy . None 
of  the  foregoing  exemptions  are  for  the  benefit  of  a single  man  not  the 
head  of  a family,  or  of  a non-resident,  nor  of  those  who  have  started  to 
leave  the  State,  but  their  property  is  liable  to  execution,  with  the 
exemption  in  the  two  former  cases  of  ordinary  wearing  apparel  and 
trunks;  and  in  the  latter  case  of  such  wearing  apparel  and  property  as 
the  defendant  may  select,  not  to  exceed  $75,  to  be  selected  by  the  debtor 
and  appraised;  but  any  person  coming  to  the  State  with  the  intention 
of  remaining,  is  a resident. 

Kansas. — Home  of  160  acres  of  farm  land,  or  house  and  one  acre  in 
city  or  town,  provided  it  is  used  as  a residence  by  the  family  of  the 
owner,  together  with  all  the  improvements.  The  value  is  not  limited. 
No  personal  property  is  exempt  for  the  wages  of  a servant,  mechanic, 
laborer,  or  clerk.  The  following  personal  property  is  exempt  to  heads 
of  families:  Library,  pictures,  and  musical  instruments  used  by  the 
family.  All  wearing  apparel,  beds  and  bedding  used  by  the  family;  one 
cooking  stove  and  appendages,  and  all  cooking  utensils,  together  with 
all  other  stoves  and  appendages  necessary  for  use  of  family;  one  sewing 
machine,  spinning  wheel,  and  all  other  household  furniture,  not  exceed- 
ing in  value  $500;  two  cows,  ten  hogs,  one  yoke  of  oxen,  and  one  horse 
or  mule,  or  in  lieu  of  one  yoke  of  oxen  and  one  horse  or  mule,  a span  of 
horses  or  mules,  and  twenty  sheep  and  their  wool;  necessary  food  for 
the  support  of  the  stock  for  one  year;  one  wagon,  two  plows,  drag  and 
other  farming  utensils,  not  exceeding  in  value  $300;  food  for  the  family 
for  one  year;  the  tools  and  implements  of  any  mechanic,  miner,  or  other 
person,  kept  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  his  business,  and  in  addition 
thereto  stock  in  trade  not  exceeding  $400  in  value;  library,  implements, 
and  office  furniture  of  any  professional  man. 

Kentucky. — Home  not  exceeding  in  value  $1,000,  and  the  following 
personal  property:  Wearing  apparel  and  the  usual  household  and 
kitchen  furniture,  to  the  value  of  $100;  one  work  beast  or  yoke  of  oxen, 
two  cows  and  calves,  and  five  sheep;  one  sewing  machine. 

Louisiana. — Home  of  160  acres  of  land,  and  personal  property  in  all 
to  the  value  of  $2,000;  must  be  occupied  as  a residence,  and  bona  fide 
owned  by  the  debtor,  having  a family,  a person  or  persons  depending 
upon  him  for  support. 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


?31 


Maine. — Home  worth  $500;  necessary  apparel  and  bed  and  bedding 
for  every  two  members  of  the  family ; one  cooking  stove,  all  stoves  used 
for  warming  buildings,  and  other  necessary  furniture  to  value  of  $50; 
one  sewing  machine;  all  tools  necessary  for  the  debtor’s  occupation; 
library  not  exceeding  in  value  $150;  one  cow,  one  heifer,  ten  sheep  and 
the  wool  and  lambs  from  same,  two  swine,  one  pair  of  working  cattle, 
or  in  lieu  there  f one  pair  of  mules,  or  two  horses,  not  exceeding  in 
value  $300;  all  produce  of  farms  until  harvested;  corn  and  grain  for  use 
of  family  not  exceeding  thirty  bushels ; all  potatoes  raised  or  purchased 
for  family  use ; one  barrel  of  flour,  and  enough  hay  to  winter  all  exempted 
stock;  all  flax  raised  on  one  half  acre  for  use;  lumber  to  the  amount  of 
$10;  twelve  cords  of  fire-wood,  five  tons  of  anthracite  coal,  fifty  bushels 
of  bituminous  coal,  and  all  charcoal  for  use  in  family;  one  church  pew; 
one  horse  sled  to  value  of  $20;  one  harness  worth  $20  for  each  horse  or 
mule;  one  cart  or  truck-wagon,  one  harrow,  one  plow,  one  yoke,  two 
chains,  and  one  mowing  machine ; for  fishermen,  one  boat  not  exceeding 
two  tons  burden. 

Maryland. — No  home  exempted.  The  personal  property  exempted  is 
that  which  is  actually  necessary  for  the  sustenance  of  the  family,  the 
tools  or  implements  that  are  necessary  to  earn  a livelihood,  and,  wearing 
apparel,  $100. 

Massachusetts. — Home  worth  $800,  to  a man  having  a family  and 
occupying  the  same  as  a home;  the  necessary  wearing  apparel,  bed  and 
bedding;  stove  to  value  of  $50;  sewing  machine  in  actual  use,  and  other 
household  furniture  necessary  for  use  of  family  to  the  value  of  $300; 
library  to  the  value  of  $50;  one  cow,  six  sheep,  one  swine,  and  two  tons 
of  hay;  implements,  tools  and  fixtures  necessary  to  the  carrying  on  of 
his  trade  or  business,  to  value  of  $100;  materials  and  stock  designed 
and  procured  by  him,  and  necessary  for  carrying  on  his  trade  or  busi- 
ness, to  value  of  $100;  necessary  provisions  for  family  to  value  of  $50; 
the  boat,  fishing  tackle,  and  nets  of  fishermen,  actually  used  iu  their 
business,  to  value  of  $100;  uniform  and  arms  of  a soldier  required 
by  law. 

Mississippi. — Home  of  80  acres  of  land  to  the  head  of  a family 
being  a housekeeper;  or  in  town  or  city,  real  estate  to  the  value  of 
$2,000,  when  used  as  a homestead:  personal  property. 

Missouri. — Homestead  to  married  men  of  160  acres  of  land,  to  value 
of  $1,500.  In  cities  of  40,000  inhabitants  and  over  homestead  shall  not 
include  more  than  eighteen  square  rods  of  ground,  nor  exceed  in  value 
$3,000.  Personal  property  to  the  value  of  not  less  than  $300  to  heads 
of  families. 

Michigan. — Homestead  in  country  not  exceeding  40  acres,  or  in  city 
or  town  not  exceeding  one  lot,  occupied  as  a residence,  and  not  exceed- 
ing in  value  $1,500;  household  furniture  to  value  of  $250;  stock  in 

46 


733 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


trade,  a team,  or  other  things  necessary  to  carry  on  a particular  business, 
to  value  of  $250;  library  to  value  of  $150;  to  a householder,  ten  sheep, 
two  cows,  five  swine,  and  some  minor  things. 

Minnesota. — Home  of  80  acres  of  farm  land,  or  house  and  lot  in  city 
or  town,  same  used  as  a homestead.  In  personal  property,  the  pictures, 
library,  and  musical  instruments;  wearing  apparel,  beds  and  bedding 
• used  by  family;  stoves  and  appendages,  cooking  utensils  and  other 
I household  furniture  used  by  family,  and  not  exceeding  in  value  $500; 
I three  cows,  two  swine,  one  yoke  of  oxen  and  a horse,  or  instead  of  oxen 
and  a horse,  a span  of  horses  or  mules,  twenty  sheep  and  the  wool  from 
the  same,  either  in  raw  material  or  manufactured;  the  necessary  food 
for  exempted  stock  for  one  year;  one  wagon,  cart  or  dray;  one  sleigh, 
two  plows,  one  drag,  and  other  farming  utensils,  including  tackle  for 
teams,  not  exceeding  in  value  $300;  necessary  fuel  and  provisions  for 
debtor  and  family  for  one  year;  the  tools  and  instruments  of  any  one, 
used  and  kept  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  his  trade,  and  in  addition 
thereto  stock  in  trade  not  exceeding  in  value  $400;  library  and  imple- 
ments of  any  professional  man;  one  sewing  machine  and  earnings  of 
minor  children.  No  articles  of  personal  property  are  exempt  from 
execution  for  the  purchase  money  thereof.  All  articles  to  be  chosen  by 
debtor  or  representative. 

Montana. — Homestead  of  80  acres,  or  if  in  city  or  town,  one-quarter 
acre,  not  to  exceed  in  value  $2,500.  The  lien  of  a mechanic,  laborer, 
or  mortgage  lawfully  obtained  upon  the  sajne,  is  not  affected  by  such 
exemption.  Personal  property  in  addition,  to  the  value  of  $1,400  or 
more,  according  to  the  value  of  articles,  enumerated  by  statute,  is 
allowed  to  the  householder,  occupying  the  same. 

Nebraska. — Homestead  of  160  acres  of  farm  land,  dwelling-house 
and  appurtenances  worth  $500,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner,  or  at  his 
option,  two  contiguous  lots  within  an  incorporated  city  or  town,  or 
twenty  contiguous  acres  of  land  within  the  limits  of  an  incorporated 
city  or  town,  when  not  laid  off  into  streets,  blocks,  or  lots,  and  when 
owned  and  occupied  by  the  owner,  being  a resident,  and  the  head  of  a 
family.  When  not  owning  houses  or  land,  the  head  of  a family  is  exempt 
in  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $500.  Other  personal  property  is 
exempt,  and  is  enumerated  by  statute. 

Nevada. — Home  worth  $5,000  to  a head  of  family,  and  a debtor  has 
exempt  in  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $1,500,  enumerated  by 
statute. 

New  Hampshire. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $500;  necessary  apparel 
bedding,  household  furniture  to  the  value  of  $100;  library  to  the  value 
of  $200;  one  cow,  one  hog,  one  pig,  and  pork  of  same  when  slaughtered; 
tools  of  occupation  to  the  value  of  $100;  six  sheep  and  their  fleece;  one 
cooking  stove  and  its  furniture;  provisions  and  fuel  to  the  amount  of 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


733 


$50;  one  sewing  machine;  beasts  of  the  plow,  not  exceeding  one  yoke 
of  oxen,  or  a horse,  and  of  hay,  four  tons. 

New  Jersey. — Home  worth  $1,000,  when  occupied  by  owner  as  a resi- 
dence, being  a householder,  and  having  a family.  Personal  property  to 
the  value  of  $200,  owned  by  a resident  head  of  family,  appraised  by 
three  persons  appointed  by  the  sheriff.  Widow  or  administrator  may 
claim  exemption  of  $200. 

New  York. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000  when  owned  and  occu- 
pied by  debtor,  being  a householder  and  having  a family.  In  addtion 
to  the  household  articles  usually  enumerated  as  exempt,  and  the  tools 
of  a mechanic  to  the  value  of  $25,  there  are  exempted  necessary  house- 
hold furniture  and  working  tools ; team,  and  food  for  same  for  a period 
of  ninety  days;  professional  instruments,  furniture  and  library,  owned 
by  any  person  being  a householder  or  having  a family  for  which  he 
provides,  to  the  value  of  $250;  one  sewing  machine.  Such  exemptions 
do  not  apply  to  any  execution  issued  on  a demand  for  purchase  money  of 
any  article  herein  enumerated  by  law;  nor  to  any  judgment  rendered  for 
a claim  accruing  for  work  and  labor,  performed  in  a family  as  a dom  estic; 
nor  to  any  judgment  obtained  in  any  court  in  the  city  of  New  York,  for 
work,  labor,  or  services  done  or  performed  by  any  female  employee, 
when  such  amount  does  not  exceed  the  sum  of  $15,  exclusive  of  costs. 

New  Mexico. — Home  to  the  value  of  $1,000  in  farm,  if  head  of  a 
family  resides  on  same;  wearing  apparel,  beds  and  bedding  necessary 
for  use  of  family,  and  firewood  sufficient  for  thirty  days,  when  intended 
to  be  used  as  such;  library,  and  family  and  religious  pictures;  provisions 
to  the  amount  of  $25;  kitchen  furniture  to  value  of  $10,  both  to  be 
selected  by  debtor;  tools  and  implements  necessary  to  c^rry  on  his 
trade  or  business,  whether  agricultural  or  mechanical,  to  be  selected  by 
him,  and  not  to  exceed  in  value  $20.  Real  estate  when  sold  must  first 
be  appraised  by  two  freeholders  of  the  vicinity  and  must  bring  two- 
thirds  of  the  appraised  value. 

North  Carolina. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000,  when  used  as 
such,  and  to  be  selected  by  the  owner;  or  instead,  on©  lot  and  houses 
thereon  in  a city  or  town,  owned  and  occupied  by  any  resident  of  the 
State.  Personal  property  to  the  value  of  $500. 

Ohio. — Family  homestead,  $1,000  in  value;  wearing  apparel,  beds 
and  bedding  necessary  for  the  use  of  family;  stove,  pipe,  and  fuel 
sufficient  for  sixty  days.  If  debtor  owns  no  homestead,  he  is  entitled  to 
exemption  on  personal  property  to  value  of  $500,  in  addition  to  the 
\bove. 

Oregon. — Books,  pictures,  and  musical  instruments  to  the  value  of 
$75;  wearing  apparel  to  $100  in  value,  and  if  a householder,  $50  worth 
of  wearing  apparel  for  each  member  of  the  family;  tools,  implements, 


734 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


team,  vehicle,  harness,  library,  or  apparatus,  when  necessary  in  his  occu 
pation  or  profession,  to  the  value  of  $400;  if  a householder,  ten  sheep, 
with  one  year’s  fleece,  two  cows,  five  swine,  household  goods,  furniture, 
and  utensils  to  value  of  $300.  No  article  of  property  is  exempt  from 
execution  issued  upon  judgment  for  purchase  price. 

Pennsylvania. — Property,  either  real  or  personal,  to  $300  in  value. 
The  exemption  may  be  waived  in  contract  or  note. 

Rhode  Island. — Home  not  exempted.  Household  furniture  and  stores 
of  a housekeeper  to  the  value  of  $300;  wearing  apparel  necessary  for 
the  use  of  family;  necessary  books,  etc.,  to  $200;  one  cow,  one  hog,  and 
tools  or  implements  necessary  for  debtor’s  profession  to  the  value 
of  $50. 

South  Carolina. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000.  Household  fur- 
niture, beds,  bedding,  family  library,  arms,  carts,  wagons,  farming 
implements,  tools,  cattle,  work  animals,  swine,  goats  and  sheep,  to  the 
aggregate  value  of  $500;  wearing  apparel  necessary. 

Tennessee. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000,  and  personal  pro- 
perty. 

Texas. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $5,000,  when  used  as  such,  and 
any  subsequent  increase  in  value  of  same,  either  in  city  or  country. 
Household  and  kitchen  furniture.  To  every  citizen  not  the  head  of  a 
family,  one  horse,  saddle,  and  bridle;  all  wearing  apparel,  and  tools, 
books,  and  apparatus  of  his  trade  or  profession;  also,  five  cows,  twenty 
hogs,  one  year’s  provisions,  and  in  case  of  death  of  husband  there  is  set 
aside  by  the  court,  for  the  benefit  of  the  widow  and  children,  other 
money  or  property  to  the  value  of  the  foregoing  exemptions,  if  the 
specified  articles  are  not  already  exempted. 

Utih. — Home  worth  $1,000  to  head  of  family,  same  to  be  selected  by 
him,  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $700  or  more,  according  to 
the  value  of  articles  exempt  by  statute;  each  member  of  the  family  is 
allowed  $250  aside  from  the  homestead.  No  property  shall  be  exempt 
from  sale  on  a judgment  received  from  its  price,  on  a mechanic’s  lien, 
or  a mortgage  thereon. 

Vermont. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $500  and  products;  suitable 
wearing  apparel,  bedding,  tools,  arms,  and  articles  of  furniture  as  may 
be  necessary  for  upholding  life;  one  sewing  machine,  one  cow,  the  best 
swine,  or  the  meat  of  one  swine;  ten  sheep  and  one  year’s  product  of 
said  sheep,  in  wool,  yarn,  or  cloth;  forage  sufficient  for  keeping  exempted 
cattle  through  one  winter;  ten  cords  of  firewood,  twenty  bushels  of 
potatoes;  military  arms  required  by  law;  all  growing  crops,  ten  bushels 
of  grain,  one  barrel  of  flour,  three  swarms  of  bees,  and  hives,  together 
with  their  produce  in  honey;  two  hundred  pounds  of  sugar,  and  all  let- 
tered gravestones;  all  books  used  in  a family;  one  pew  in  church;  live 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


736 


poultry  to  value  of  $10;  professional  books  and  instruments  of  physi- 
cians, clergymen,  and  attorneys  at  law,  to  value  of  $200;  one  yoke  of 
oxen,  or  steers,  or  two  horses,  as  the  owner  may  choose,  kept  and  used 
for  team  work,  to  the  value  of  $300,  with  sufficient  forage  for  the  same 

through  winter . 

Virginia. — Home  and  personal  property,  including  money  and  debts 
due  him,  to  the  value  of  $2,000,  to  a head  of  family,  same  to  be  selected 
by  himself.  Personal  property  exempted  is  defined  by  statute. 

Washington  Territory. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000  and  per- 
sonal property. 

West  Virginia. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000,  where  the  property 
of  that  value  is  devised  or  granted  by  debtor,  being  a husband  or  parent, 
and  resident  in  the  State  ; and  when  he,  previous  to  contracting  the 
debt  or  liability,  has  placed  a declaration  of  his  intention  to  keep  the 
property  as  a homestead  on  the  land  records  of  the  county  in  which  the 
real  estate  is  situate.  Also  personal  property  to  value  of  $500,  provided 
debtor  is  a resident  and  parent. 

Wisconsin. — Farm  of  40  acres,  used  for  agricultural  purposes, 
and  the  house  and  appurtenances,  to  be  selected  by  owner,  and  not 
included  in  any  village,  town  or  city;  or  instead,  one-fourth  acre  of 
land  in  a village,  town,  or  city,  with  dwelling  house  thereon,  when  owned 
and  occupied  by  a resident  of  the  State.  Family  library  and  pictures; 
wearing  apparel  of  debtor  and  family;  all  stoves,  cooking  utensils,  and 
household  furniture  to  value  of  $200;  two  cows,  ten  swine,  one  yoke  of 
oxen  and  one  horse,  or  a span  of  horses  or  mules;  ten  sheep  and  the 
wool  from  the  same,  either  raw  or  manufactured;  necessary  food  for 
exempted  stock  for  one  year’s  support;  one  wagon,  cart  or  dray,  one 
sleigh,  one  plow,  one  drag,  and  other  farming  utensils,  including  tackle 
for  teams,  to  value  of  $50;  provisions  and  fuel  for  one  year;  tools  and 
implements,  or  stock  in  trade  of  a mechanic  or  miner,  or  other  person, 
to  value  of  $200  ; library  or  implements  of  any  professional  man  to  the 
value  of  $200;  all  moneys  from  insurance  of  exempt  property;  earnings 
of  all  persons  for  sixty  days  next  proceeding  the  issuing  of  any  process; 
all  sewing  machines  kept  for  use ; any  articles  presented  by  Congress  or 
the  members  thereof. 

Wyoming. — Homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,500  and  personal  property. 

Forms  of  Notes. 

Negotiable  Without  Indorsement. 

$100.  New  York,  Sept.  2,  1883. 

Ninety  days  after  date  I promise  to  pay  Leonard  Smith,  or  bearer, 
One  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received.  H.  B.  McIntvbe. 


736 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


Negotiable  only  by  Indorsement. 

$100.  New  York,  Sept.  2,  1883. 

Ninety  days  after  date  I promise  to  pay  Leonard  Smith,  or  order, 
One  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received.  H.  B.  McIntyre. 

Not  Negotiable. 

$100.  New  York,  Sept.  2,  1883. 

Ninety  days  after  date  I promise  to  pay  Leonard  Smith  One  Hun- 
dred Dollars,  value  received.  H.  B.  McIntyre. 

Payable  on  Demand. 

$100.  New  York,  Sept.  2,  If  83. 

On  demand  I promise  to  pay  H.  C.  Spencer,  or  bearer,  One  Hundred 
Dollars,  value  received.  John  Thomas. 


Principal  and  Surety. 

$345.40.  Flint,  Mich.,  Dec.  4,  1883. 

Three  months  after  date  I promise  to  pay  L.  L Walker,  or  order. 
Three  Hundred,  Forty-five  and  40-100  Dollars,  with  interest,  value 
received.  Frank  Stone,  Principal. 

Jay  C.  Worcester,  Surety. 

Payable  at  Bank. 

$200.  New  York,  Oct  8,  1883. 

Ninety  days  after  date  I promise  to  pay  H.  W.  Fairbanks,  or  order, 
at  the  Park  National  Bank,  Two  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 

Wheat  Howard. 

• Receipts — On  Account. 

$500.  Chicago,  April  25,  1883. 

Received  of  H.  B.  McIntyre,  Five  Hundred  Dollars  on  account. 

Field,  Leiter  & Co. 


In  Full  of  all  Demands. 

$300.  New  York,  April  15,  1883. 

Received  of  S.  S.  Pierce,  Three  Hundred  Dollars  in  full  cf  all 
demands  to  date.  Chas.  Fellows. 

Receipt  for  Rent. 

$300.  Detroit,  Aug.  8,  1883. 

Received  from  John  D.  Brown,  Three  Hundred  Dollars,  being 
amount  in  full  for  one  quarter’s  rent  of  store,  No.  65  Woodward  ave- 
nue, for  quarter  ending  Sept.  30.  A.  H.  Stevens- 


LEGAL  POINTS 


737 


A Short  Building  Contract. 

Contract  for  building  made  this day  of one  thousand 

eight  hundred  and by  and  between of in  the  County  of 

and of in  the  County  of builder. . 

The  said covenant  and  agrees  to  and  with  the  said 

to  make,  erect,  build,  and  finish,  in  a good,  substantial,  and  workman- 
like manner upon situate said to  be 

built  agreeable  to  the  draught,  plans,  explanation,  or  specifications, 

furnished,  or  to  be  furnished  to  said .by of  good  and 

substantial  materials;  and  to  be  finished  complete  on  or  before  the 

day  of And  said covenant  and  agrees  to  pay  to 

said for  the  same dollars  as  follows  : 


Security  against  mechanics’,  or  other  lien,  is  to  be  furnished  by  said 
prior  to payment  by  said 

And  for  the  performance  of  all  and  every  the  articles  and  agree- 
ments above  mentioned,  the  said and do  hereby  bind 

themselves,  their  heirs,  executers,  and  administrators,  each  to  the  other 
in  the  penal  sum  of dollars,  firmly  by  these  presents. 

In  Witness  Wheeeof,  We,  the  said and have  hereunto 

set  our  hands  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

( Signatures. ) ( Seals.) 

Executed  and  delivered  in  the  presence  of 

Power  of  Attorney  in  a Short  Form. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  I ( name  of  principal),  have 
made,  constituted,  and  appointed,  and  by  these  presents  do  make,  con- 
stitute, and  appoint  {name  of  attorney),  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for 
me  and  in  my  name,  place,  and  stead  to  ( here  describe  the  thing  to  be 
done),  giving  and  granting  unto  my  said  attorney  full  power  and  author- 
ity to  do  and  perform  all  and  every  act  and  thing  whatsoever  requisite 
and  necessary  to  be  done  in  and  about  the  premises,  as  fully,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  as  I might  or  could  do  if  personally  present,  with 
full  power  of  substitution  and  revocation;  hereby  ratifying  and  confirm- 
ing all  that  my  said  attorney  or  his  substitute  shall  lawfully  do  or  cause 
to  be  done  by  virtue  hereof. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I have  here  unto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  the 
day  of in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 


(Signature.)  {Seal. 

Executed  and  delivered  in  the  presence  of 

Bill  of  Sale  of  Personal  Property. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  I (name  of  the  seller), 

in  the  County  of for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of 


738 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


to in  hand  well  and  truly  paid,  at  or  before  signing,  sealing, 

and  delivery  of  these  presents  by ( name  of  the  buyer)  the  receipt 

whereof  I,  the  said do  hereby  acknowledge,  have  granted,  bar- 

gained and  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant,  bargain  and  sell  unto 
the  said {nan le  of  buyer)  the  following  articles  of  personal  prop- 

erty, to  wit : ( describe  property  sold). 

To  Have  and  to  Hold  the  said  granted  and  bargained  goods  and 
chattels,  unto  the  said heir,  executors,  administrators  and 


assigns,  to only  proper  use,  benefit,  and  behoof  forever,  and 

the  said does  vouch  himself  to  be  the  true  and  lawful 


owner  of  the  goods  and  effects  hereby  sold,  and  to  have  in  himself  full 

power,  good  right,  and  lawful  authority  to  dispose  of  the  said 

in  manner  as  aforesaid,  and  I do,  for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors 
and  administrators,  hereby  covenant  and  agree  to  warrant  and  defend 

the  title  of  said  goods  and  chattels  hereby  sold  unto  the  said 

heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  and  assigns  against  the  lawful 
claims  and  demands  of  all  persons  whatsoever  : 

In  Witness  Whereof, the  said have  hereunto  set 

hand  and  seal  this day  of in  the  year  of  our 

Lord,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 

Executed  and  delivered 


in  presence  of  {Signature.)  {Seal. ) 

Mortgage  of  Personal  Property. 

I, of in  consideration  of . . . .dollars 

to  me  paid  by of , convey  to  said. . v 


the  following  personal  property,  to  wit : {or  if  the  goods  are  too  numer- 
ous to  be  recited , say  the  goods  and  chattels  mentioned  in  the  schedule  hereto 

annexed ),  and  now  in  the in  the  town  {city)  of 

aforesaid. 

To  hold  the  afore  granted  goods  and  chattels  to  the  said 

and  his  assigns  forever. 

And  I covenant,  that  I am  the  lawful  owner  of  said  goods  and  chat- 
tels, and  have  good  right  to  dispose  of  the  same  in  the  manner  afore- 
said. 

Provided,  nevertheless,  that  if  the  said pay  to  the 

said or  his  assigns  the  sum  ot dollars  in 

from  date,  with  interest  on  said  sum  at  the  rate  of per  cent,  per 

annum,  payable , then  this  deed,  as  also  a certain  note 

of  even  date  with  these  presents,  given  by  said to  said 

or  order,  to  pay  the  said  sum  and  interest  at  the  times 

aforesaid,  shall  be  void. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I hereto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this day  of 

in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred 


and 

Executed  and  delivered  [L.  S.] 

in  presence  of  [L.  &] 


LEGAL  POINTS, 


739 


A Chattel  Mortgage,  with  Power  of  Sale. 

Know  alt,  Men  by  These  Pbesents,  That  I ( name  of  mortgagor ),  of 

...  in  the  County  of and  State  of 

, in  consideration  of dollars,  to  me  paid  by  {name  of 

mortgagee)  of  the  town  {or  city)  of in  the  county  of 

and  State  of the  receipt  whereof  is 

hereby  acknowledged,  do  hereby  grant,  bargain,  and  sell  unto  the  said 
.and  his  assigns,  forever,  the  following  goods  and  chat- 
tels, to  wit : 

{Here  insert  an  accurate  list  and  full  description  of  the  articles  mort- 
gaged.) 

To  Have  and  to  Hold,  all  and  singular,  the  said  goods  and  chattels 
unto  the  mortgagee  herein,  and  his  assigns,  to  their  sole  use  and  behoof 
for  ever.  And  the  mortgagor  herein,  for  himself  and  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, and  administrators,  does  hereby  covenant  to  and  with  the  said 
mortgagee  and  his  assigns,  that  said  mortgagor  is  lawfully  possessed  of 
the  said  goods  and  chattels,  as  of  his  own  property;  that  the  same  are 
free  from  all  encumbrances,  and  that  he  will  warrant  and  defend  the 
same  to  him  the  said  mortgagee  and  his  assigns,  against  the  lawful 
claims  and  demands  of  all  persons. 

Pbovided,  Nevebtheless,  That  if  the  said  mortgagor  shall  pay  to  the 

mortgagee,  on  the day  of .in  the  year the 

sum  of dollars,  then  this  mortgage  is  to  be  void,  otherwise 

to  remain  in  full  force  and  effect. 

And  Pbovided  Fubtheb,  That  until  default  be  made  by  the  said  mort- 
gagor in  the  performance  of  the  condition  aforesaid,  it  shall  and  may 
be  lawful  for  him  to  retain  the  possession  of  the  said  goods  and  chattels 
and  to  use  and  enjoy  the  same;  but  if  the  same  or  any  part  thereof  shall 
be  attached  or  claimed  by  any  other  person  or  persons  at  any  time 
before  payment,  or  the  said  mortgagor,  or  any  other  person  or  persons 
whatever,  upon  any  pretense,  shall  attempt  to  carry  off,  conceal,  make 
way  with,  sell,  or  in  any  manner  dispose  of  the  same  or  any  part  thereof, 
without  the  authority  and  permission  of  the  said  mortgagee  or  his  execu- 
tors, administrators,  or  assigns,  in  writing  expressed,  then  it  shall  and 
may  be  lawful  for  the  said  mortgagee,  with  or  without  assistance,  or 
his  agent  or  attorney,  or  his  executors,  administrators,  or 'assigns,  to 
take  possession  of  said  goods  and  chattels,  by  entering  upon  any  prem- 
ises wherever  the  same  may  be,  whether  in  this  County  or  State,  or  else- 
where, to  and  for  the  use  of  said  mortgagee  or  his  assigns.  And  if  the 
moneys  hereby  secured,  or  the  matters  to  be  done  or  performed,  as 
above  specified,  are  not  duly  paid,  done  or  performed  at  the  time  and 
according  to  the  conditions  above  set  forth,  then  the  said  mortgagee,  or 
his  attorney  or  agent,  or  his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  may 
by  virtue  thereof,  and  without  any  suit  or  process,  immediately  enter 
and  take  possession  of  said  goods  and  chattels,  and  sell  and  dispose  of 


740 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


the  same  at  public  or  private  sale,  and  after  satisfying  the  amount  due, 
and  all  expenses,  the  surplus,  if  any  remain,  shall  be  paid  over  to  said 
mortgagor  or  his  assigns.  The  exhibition  of  this  mortgage  shall  be 
sufficient  proof  that  any  person  claiming  to  act  for  the  mortgagee  is 
duly  made,  constituted,  and  appointed  agent  and  attorney  to  do  what- 
ever is  above  authorized. 

In  Witness  Whebeof,  The  said  mortgagor  has  hereunto  set  his  hand 

and  seal  this day  of in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 

thousand  eight  hundred  and.  . . . 

Executed  and  delivered  {Signature  of  Mortgagor .)  [ Seal.  ] 


In  'presence  of  . . . * [ Seal.] 

State  of ) 

County.  $ SS’ 

This  mortgage  was  acknowledged  before  me,  by {the 


mortgagor),  this day  of A.  D.  18 

Mortgage  Deed,  with  Power  of  Sale,  and  Release  of  Dower  and  Homestead. 

This  indenture  made  the day  of , in  the  year  one 

thousand,  eight  hundred  and between of 

of  the  first  part,  and of . .,  of  the  second  par'. 

witnesseth,  that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  in  consideration  of  . . . 
dollars  to  him  paid,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  hath 
granted,  bargained,  sold,  released,  and  conveyed,  and  by  these  presents 
does  grant,  bargain,  sell,  release,  and  convey  to  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  and  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  all  that  {here  describe 
property),  with  all  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereto  appertain- 
ing. 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  premises,  with  the  appurtenances  to  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their  use 
and  behoof  forever.  Provided  always,  and  these  presents  are  upon 
condition,  that  if  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  or  assigns, 
shall  pay  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administra- 
tors, or  assigns,  the  sum  of dollars,  on  or  before  the day 

of in  the  year , with  interest,  according  to  the 

condition  of  a bond  {or  note)  of  the  said to  the  said 

bearing  even  date  herewith,  then  these  presents  shall  be  void. 

But  upon  any  default  in  the  payment  of  the  money  above  mentioned, 
or  of  the  interest  thereon,  said  grantee,  his  executors,  administrators  or 
assigns,  may  sell  the  above  granted  premises  with  all  improvements 
that  may  be  thereon,  at  public  auction  in  said first  publish- 

ing a notice  of  the  time  and  place  of  sale  once  each  week  for  three  suc- 
cessive weeks,  in  one  or  more  newspapers  published  in  said ; 

and  in  his  or  their  own  name  or  names  as  the  attorney  of  the  said 
grantor,  may  convey  the  same  by  proper  deed  or  deeds  to  the  purchaser 
or  purchasers,  absolutely  and  in  fee  simple;  and  such  sale  shall  forever 
bar  the  grantor,  and  all  persons  claiming  under  him,  from  aU  right 


LEGAL  POINTS. 


741 


interest  in  the  granted  premises,  whether  at  law  or  in  equity.  And  out 
of  the  money  arising  from  such  sale,  the  said  grantee  or  his  represen- 
tatives shall  be  entitled  to  retain  all  sums  then  secured  by  this  deed, 
whether  then  or  thereafter  payable,  including  all  costs,  charges,  and 
expenses  incurred  or  sustained  by  reason  of  any  failure  or  default,  on 
the  part  of  the  said  grantor  or  his  representatives,  to  perform  and  fulfill 
the  condition  of  this  deed,  or  any  covenants  or  agreements  herein  con- 
tained: rendering  the  surplus,  if  any,  together  with  an  account  of  such 
costs,  charges,  and  expenses,  to  the  said  grantor,  his  heirs  or  assigns. 

And  it  is  agreed,  that  said  grantee,  his  administrators,  executors,  or 
assigns,  or  any  person  or  persons  in  his  or  their  behalf,  may  purchase 
at  any  sale  made  as  aforesaid,  and  that  no  other  purchaser  shall  be 
answerable  for  the  purchase  money;  and  that,  until  default  in  the  per- 
formance of  the  condition  of  this  deed,  the  grantor  and  his  heirs  and 
assigns  may  hold  and  enjoy  the  granted  premises  and  receive  the  rents 
and  profits  thereof. 

And,  for  the  consideration  aforesaid,  I,  M.  B.,  wife  of  the  said  A*  B., 
do  hereby  release  unto  the  said  grantee  and  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all 
right  of  both  dower  and  homestead  in  the  granted  premises. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  parties  to  these  presents  have  hereunto  set 
their  hands  and  seals  this  day  and  year  above  written. 

A.  B.  [n.  s.] 

M.  B.  [n.  s.] 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered 

In  presence  of 

[Witnessed  and  acknowledged  like  any  other  deed.] 

Form  of  A Will. 

In  the  name  of  God.  Amen  I, of  the  town  of 

in  the  county  of and  State  of being  of  sound 

mind  and  memory  (blessed  be  Almighty  God  for  the  same  !)  do  make 
and  publish  this  my  last  will  and  testament . 

I give  and  bequeath  to  my  sons, eight  hundred  dol- 

lars each,  if  they  shall  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  before 
my  decease;  but  if  they  shall  be  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  at  my 
decease,  then  I give  to  them  one  thousand  dollars  each,  the  last  men- 
tioned sum  to  be  in  place  of  the  first  mentioned. 

I give  and  bequeath  to  my  beloved  wife all  my  house- 

hold furniture,  and  all  the  rest  of  my  personal  property,  after  paying 
from  the  same  the  several  legacies  already  named,  to  be  hers  forever; 
but  if  there  should  not  be  at  my  decease  sufficient  personal  property  to 
pay  the  aforesaid  legacies,  then  so  much  of  my  real  estate  shall  be  sold 
as  will  raise  sufficient  money  to  pay  the  same. 

I also  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  beloved  wife,.  . . all 

the  rest  and  residue  of  my  real  estate,  as  long  as  she  shall  remain 
u^qjarrfed,  aod  my  widow;  bqt  on  her  decease  or  marriage,  tbs 


742 


LEGAL  POINTS, 


remainder  thereof  I give  and  devise  to  my  said  children  and  their  heirs, 
respectively,  to  be  divided  in  equal  shares  between  them. 

I do  nominate  and  appoint  my  beloved  wife, to  be  the 

sole  executrix  of  this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

In  Testimony  Whebeof,  I hereunto  set  may  hand  and  seal,  and  pub- 
lish and  decree  this  to  be  my  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence  of  the 

witnesses  named  below,  this day  of in  the  year 

of  our  Lord,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and. . . . 

[l.  s.] 

Signed,  sealed,  declared  and  published  by  the  said as  and 

for  his  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence  of  us,  who,  at  his  request 
and  in  his  presence,  and  in  presence  of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our 
names  as  witnesses  hereto. 

residing  at in county. 

residing  at in county. 


USEFUL  tables 


Table  showing  the  square  feet  and  the  feet  square  of  the  frac- 
tions of  an  acre. 


Fractions  of 
an  acre. 

Square  feet. 

Feet  square. 

Fractions  of 
an  acre. 

Square  feet. 

Feet  Square. 

1-16 

272214 

52% 

X 

21780 

147i/2 

% 

5445 

73% 

1 

43560 

208^ 

M, 

10890 

104% 

2 

87120 

295J4 

X 

14520 

120% 

Table  showing  the  number  of  hills  or  plants  on  an  acre  of  land ’ 
for  any  distance  apart,  from  io  inches  to  6 feet — the  lateral 
and  longitudinal  distances  being  unequal. 


10  in. 

12  in. 

15  in 

8 in 

20  in 

2 ft. 

2%  ft 

3 ft. 

3%  ft 

4 ft. 

4%  ft 

5 ft. 

514  ft 

6 ft. 

10  in. 

62626 

12  “ 

52272 

43560 

15  “ 

41817 

34848 

27878 

18  “ 

34848 

29040 

23232 

19360 

20  “ 

31363 

261136 

20908 

17424 

15681 

• 

2 feet 

26136 

21780 

17424 

14520 

13068 

10890 

2%  “ 

20908 

16424 

13939 

11616 

10454 

8712 

6969 

3 “ 

17424 

14520 

11616 

9680 

8711 

7260 

5808 

4840 

3%  “ 

14935 

12446 

9953 

8197 

7467 

6223 

4976 

4143 

3565 

4 » 

13068 

10890 

8712 

7260 

6534 

5445 

4356 

3630 

3111 

2722 

4%  “ 

11616 

9680 

7744 

6453 

5808 

4840 

3872 

3226 

2767 

2420 

2151 

5 “ 

10454 

8712 

6069 

5808 

5227 

4356 

3484 

2904 

2489 

2178 

1936 

1742 

5%  “ 

9504 

7920 

6336 

5280 

4752 

3960 

8168 

2640 

2263 

1980 

1760 

1584 

1440 

6 « 

8712 

7260 

5808 

4840 

4356 

3630 

2904 

2420 

2074 

1865 

1613 

1452 

1320 

1210 

USEFUL  TABLES. 


7U 


Table  showing  the  number  of  plants , hills  y or  trees  contained  in 
an  acre  at  equal  distances  apart y from  3 inches  up  to  66 
feet. 


Distance  apart. 

3 inches  by  3 inches 

4 « by  4 “ 

6 « by  6 “ 

9 « by  9 “ 

1 foot  by  1 foot 

1 y%  feet  by  1U  feet., 

2 “ by  1 foot... 

2 “ by  2 feet.... 

2*4  “ by2»4feet.. 

3 “ by  1 foot... 

3 “ by  2 feet 

3 “ by  3 feet 

Zy%  “ by  3 V%  feet . 

4 “ by  1 foot... 

4 “ by  2 feet 

4 “ by  3 feet 

4 “ by  4 feet 

4}4  “ by  4>4  feet . . 

5 “ by  1 foot  . . 

5 “ by  2 feet.... 

5 “ by  3 feet 

5 “ by  4 feet 

5 “ by  5 feet  . . . 

554  “ by  5i4  feet.. 


No.  of  plants. 

696,960 

392,040 

174,240 

77,440 

43,560 

19,360 

21,780 

10,890 

6,960 

14,520 

7,260 

4,840 

3,555 

10,890 

5,445 

3,630 

2,722 

2,151 

8,712 

4,356 

2,904 

2,178 

1,742 

1,417 


Distance  apart. 

6 feet  by  6 feet.. 
6 1/2  “ by  6)4“  .. 

7 « by  7 « . . 

8 “ by  8 “ . . 

9 « by  9 “ . . 

10  « by  10  “ . 

11  “ by  11  “ .. 

12  “ by  12  « . . 

13  « by  13  « . . 

14  « by  14  “ . . 

15  “ by  15  “ .. 

16  “ by  16  “ . . 
I614  « by  16^4“  . . 

17  “ by  17  “ .. 

18  “ by  18  “ . . 

19  « by  19  “ . . 

20  “ by  20  “ . . 

25  “ by  25  « . . 

30  « by  30  “ . . 

33  « by  33  “ .. 

40  “ by  40  “ . 

50  « by  50  “ . . 

60  “ by  60  « . . 

66  “ by  66  “ ... 


No.  of  plants. 

1,210 

1,031 

881 

680 

537 


302 

257 

222 

193 

170 

160 

150 

134 

120 

108 

69 

48 

40 

27 

17 

12 

10 


Table  showing  the  quantity  of  garden  seeds  required  to  plant  a 
given  space. 


Designation. 


Space  and  quantity  of  seeds. 


Asparagus 

“ Roots.... 
Eng.  Dwarf  Beans. 
French  “ 
Beans,  pole,  large. 
“ “ small. 

Beets 

Broccoli  and  Kale. 

Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

Carrot 

Celery  . 

Cucumber 

Cress 

Egg  Plant 

Endive 

Leek 

Lettuce 

Melon 

"Nasturtium 

Onion 

Okra 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peppers 

Peas  

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Salsify 

Spinage 

Squash  

Tomato  

Turnip  

Water  Melon  . . . 


1 oz.  produces  1000  plants,  and  requires  a bed  12  feet  square. 
1000  plant  a bed  4 feet  wide,  225  feet  long. 

1 quart  plants  from  100  to  150  feet  of  row. 

1 “ “ 250  or  350  of  row. 

1 “ “ 100  hills. 

1 “ “ 300  “ or  250  feet  of  row. 

10  lbs.  to  the  acre ; 1 oz.  plants  150  feet  of  row. 

1 oz.  plants  2500  plants,  and  requires  40  square  feet  of  ground. 
Early  sorts  same  as  broccoli, and  require  60  square  feet  of  ground. 
The  same  as  cabbage. 

1 oz.  to  150  of  row. 

1 oz.  gives  7000  plants,  and  requires  8 square  feet  of  ground. 

1 oz.  for  150  hills. 

1 oz  sows  a bed  16  feet  square. 

1 oz.  gives  2000  plants. 

1 oz.  “ 3000  “ and  requires  80  feet  of  ground. 

1 oz.  “ 2000  “ “ 60  “ 

1 oz.  “ 7000  “ seed  bed  of  120  feet. 

1 oz.  for  120  hills. 

I oz.  sows  25  feet  of  row. 

1 oz.  “ 200  « “ 

loz.  “ 200  “ “ 

1 oz.  “ 200  “ “ 

1 oz.  «*  250  “ . “ 

1 oz.  gives  2500  plants. 

1 quart  sows  120  feet  of  row. 

1 oz  to  50  hills, 
loz.  to  100 feet, 
loz  to  150  “ of  row. 

1 oz.  to  200  “ 

l oz.  co  75  Hills. 

1 oz  gives  2500  plants,  requiring  seen hea  or  80  feet. 

1 oz  to  2000  feet. 

1 oz.  10  50  mils. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


?45 


Table  showing  the  quantity  of  seed  required  to  the  acre. 


Designation. 

Wheat 

Barley ... 

Oats 

Rye..  

Buckwheat.. 

Millet 

Corn 

Beans 

Peas 

Hemp 

Flax 

Rice - 


Quantity  of  seed. 


Designation. 


, 1J4  to  2 bush. 
iy3  to  2K  <' 

2 to  4 
1 to  2 4 

M to  134  1 
1 to  1%  * 

& to  1 ‘ 

1 to  2 « 

2y2  to  sy2  ‘ 

1 to  iy2  * 

y2  to  2 ‘ 

2 to  2yz  ‘ 


Broom  Corn . . 

Potatoes 

Timothy 

Mustard 

Herd  Grass... 
Flat  Turnip.. 
Red  Clover.... 
White  Clover . 

Blue  Grass 

Orchard  Grass , 

Carrots 

Parsnips 


Quantity  of  seed. 
. . 1 to  1 y2  bush. 
..5  to  10  “ 

..12  to  24  quarts. 
. . 8 to  20  “ 

..12  to  16  “ 

..  2 to  3 lbs. 
...10  to  16  “ 

. . 3 to  4 “ 

..10  to  15  « 

.20  to  30  « 

. . 4 to  5 “ 

..  6 to  8 « 


Table  showing  the  quantity  per  acre  when  planted  in  rows  or 

drills. 


Broom  Corn 

Beans 

Peas 


,1  to  \y2  bush. 
.1*4  to  2 
,1  y2  to  2 « 


Onions  .. 
Carrots.. 
Parsnips 
Beets 


.4  to  5 
.2  to  2 y2 
.4  to  5 
,4  to  6 


lbs. 

(( 

It 

it 


Table  showing  the  number  of  seeds  in  one  pound ’ and  weight  per 

bushel. 


NAME. 

No.  of 
Seeds  per  lb. 

No.  lbs. 
per  bu. 

Whftnt 

10,500 

15,400 

20,000 

23.000 
8,300 
8,200 

600  to  1,300 
1,800  to  2,000 
108,000 

155.000 

118.000 

75.000 
128,000 

24,600 

97.000 

257.000 

205.000 
249,600 
686,400 

334.000 

272.000 

923.000 

58  to  64 

Barley 

48  to  56 

38  to  42 

56  to  60 

Vetches 

60  to  63 

r.ent.ilR 

58  to  60 

Beans 

60  to  65 

60  to  65 

Flax  seed 

50  to  60 

Turnip  seed 

50  to  56 

Rape  seed 

50  to  56 

Mustard  (white) 

Cabbage  seed 

Mangel-wurzel 

57 

52 

20  to  24 

Parsnip  seed 

14 

Carrot  seed 

9 

Lucern  seed 

58  to  60 

Clover  (red) 

60  to  63 

“ (white) 

59  to  62 

Rye-grass  (perennial) 

20  to  28 

(Italian) 

13  to  18 

Sweet  vernal  grass 

8 

VALUE  OF  FOOD  FOB  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

The  figures  below  give  the  comparative  number  of  pounds  of  each 
substance  to  equal  in  effect  that  of  any  standard  food — as,  for  instance, 
that  of  hay. 


Good  Hay,  to  give  a certain  nourishment,  requires 100  pounds. 

Good  Clover  Hay  will  give  same  effect  by  the  use  of 95  “ 

Rye  Straw  “ “ « 355  « 

Oat  Straw  « « « 220  «* 

Potatoes  “ « « 195  “ 

Carrots  **  «*  «*  280  “ 


M6 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


Beets  will  give  same  effect  by  the  use  of 
Ruta  Bagas  “ “ “ 

Wheat 

Peas  “ “ “ 

Beans  “ “ “ 

Rye  “ “ “ 

Barley  “ “ “ 

Indian  Corn  “ “ “ 

Oats  “ “ “ 

Buckwheat  “ “ “ 

Oil  Cake 


.346  pounds. 
,262 


44 

46 

49  “ 

51  “ 

56 
59 

64  “ 


CONSUMPTION  OF  HAY. 


The  hay  consumed  by  different  animals  does  not  vary  greatly  from 
three  pounds  daily  for  each  hundred  pounds  weight  of  the  animals. 
The  following  table  is  the  result  of  various  experiments  by  different 
persons,  and  will  be  useful  for  farmers  who  wish  to  determine  by  cal- 
culation beforehand,  how  their  hay  will  hold  out  for  the  winter;  500 
cubic  feet  of  timothy  hay,  in  a full  bay,  being  about  one  ton : 


Working  Horses 3.08  pounds. 

Working  Oxen 2.40  “ 

Milk  Cows  (Boussingault’s). .2.25  “ 

Milk  Cows  (Lincoln’s) 2.40  “ 

Young  Growing  Cattle 3.08  “ 


Steers 

Dry  Cows  

Pigs  (estimated) 
Sheep  


,2.84  pounds. 

.2.42 

,3.00 

.3.00  « 


All  the  articles  enumerated  in  these  food  tables  are  estimated  as  of 
good  quality.  If  the  fodder  be  of  poor  quality,  more  must  be  allowed. 


WEIGHT  OF  A CUBIC  FOOT 


of  various  substances,  from  which  the  bulk  of  a load  of  one  ton  may  be 
easily  calculated: 


Cast  Iron 450  pounds. 

Water 62 

White  Pine,  seasoned,  about..  30  “ 

White  Oak,  “ “ 52 

Loose  Earth,  about 95  “ 


Common  Soil,  compact,  about  124  pounds. 

Clay,  about 135  “ 

Clay,  with  stones,  about 160  “ 

Brick,  about 125  “ 

Stone,  about 170  “ 


BULK  OF  A TON  OF  DIFFEBENT  SUBSTANCES. 


23  cubic  feet  of  Sand  make  about  a ton. 

18  cubic  feet  of  Earth  “ “ 

17  cubic  feet  of  Clay  “ “ 

18  cubic  feet  of  gravel  or  earth,  before  digging,  make  27  cubic  feet 
when  dug;  or,  the  bulk  is  increased  as  three  to  two. 


TO  MEASUBE  GBAIN  IN  THE  GBANABY. 

Divide  the  cubic  feet  by  56,  multiply  by  45,  and  the  result  will  be 
struck  measure  in  bushels. 


TO  MEASUBE  COBN  IN  THE  CBIB. 

Multiply  the  length,  breadth  and  height  together,  in  feet,  to  obtain 
the  cubic  feet;  multiply  this  product  by  4,  and  strike  off  the  right  figure; 
and  the  result  will  be  shelled  bushels,  nearly. 

UNITED  STATES  BUSHEL  AND  GALLON. 

The  United  States  bushel,  adopted  now  by  the  State  of  New  York,  is 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


747 


2150.40  cubic  inches.  The  gallon  231  cubic  inches.  The  dry  measure 
gallon,  or  one-eighth  of  the  bushel,  is  268.8  cubic  inches. 

WEIGHT  OF  GBAIN. 

The  laws  of  this  State  established  the  following  weights,  avoirdupois, 
to  the  bushel,  of  the  articles  named,  in  the  absence  of  a specific  con- 
tract: 


Pounds. 

Wheat 60 

Indian  Corn 66 

Pounds. 

Timothy 44 

Clover  Seed  60 

Rye 56 

Buckwheat 48 

Flaxseed 56 

Potatoes 60 

Barley 48 

Oats 32 

Dried  Apples  22 

Dried  Peaches  32 

Beans 62 

Peas 60 

Salt 56 

Onions 57 

CAPACITY  OF  SOILS  FOB  WATEB. 

The  following  substances  are  saturated  when  they  contain,  of  their 
own  weight: 


Sand about  24  per  cent,  of  water 

Calcareous  Sand 28  “ “ 

Loamy  Soil 38  “ “ 

Clay  Loam 47  “ “ 

Peat 80  “ “ 


Table  showing  the  number  of  rails , stakes , and  riders  required 
for  each  io  rods  of  fence . 


Length 
of  rail. 

Deflection 
from  right 
line. 

Length 

ofpanel 

No.  of 
panels. 

No.  of  rails  for  each  10  rods. 

O 

r.  m 

o • • 

® O) 
a,  0)  bfl 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

5 rails  high 

6 rails  high 

7 rails  high. 

|| 

£ 

P 3 

a *-<& 

P w 

A 

12 

6 

8 

20  % 

103 

123 

144 

42 

21 

14 

7 

10 

16*4 

83 

99 

116 

34 

17 

16*4 

8 

12 

13% 

69 

84 

95 

28 

14 

Table  showing  the  number  of  rails  and  posts  required  for 
io  rods  of  post  and  rail  fence. 


Length 
of  rail. 

Length 

ofpanel. 

*4H 

O 

,g® 

*4-4 

O 

|| 

Number  of  rails  for  each  10  rods. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

a S 

p 

A 

a| 

p ^ 

A 

5 rails  high 

6 rails  high 

7 rails  bi0h 

8 rails  high 

10 

8 

20% 

21 

103 

123 

144 

165 

12 

10 

16*4 

17 

83 

99 

118 

133 

14 

12 

13% 

14 

69 

84 

95 

109 

16>4 

li'4 

11% 

12 

57 

69 

81 

93 

46 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


748 


Table  showing  the  number  of  loads  of  manure , and  the  number 
of  heaps  to  each  load, ’ required  to  each  acre , the  heaps  at 
given  distances  apart. 


Distance  of 

NUMBER  OF  HEAPS  IN  A LOAD. 

heaps  apart,  in 

yards. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

3 

538 

269 

179 

134 

108 

89% 

77 

67 

60 

54 

3 % 

395 

168 

132 

99 

79 

66 

56% 

49% 

44 

39% 

4 

233 

151 

101 

75% 

60% 

50% 

43% 

37% 

33% 

30% 

4% 

239 

120 

79i/* 

60 

47% 

39% 

34% 

30 

26% 

24 

5 

194 

97 

64% 

48% 

38% 

32% 

27% 

24% 

21% 

19% 

% 

160 

89 

53i/2 

40 

32 

26% 

22% 

20 

17% 

16 

6 

131 

67 

44% 

33% 

27 

22% 

19% 

16% 

15 

13% 

6^ 

115 

57/* 

38% 

28% 

23 

19 

16% 

14% 

12% 

7 

99 

4914 

33 

24% 

19% 

16% 

14 

12% 

11 

10 

7 y2 

86 

43 

28% 

21% 

17% 

14% 

12% 

10% 

9% 

8% 

8 

75i/* 

37% 

25% 

19 

15% 

12% 

10% 

9%) 

8% 

7% 

8 % 

67 

33/* 

22% 

16% 

13% 

11% 

9% 

8% 

7% 

6% 

9 

60 

30 

20 

15 

12 

10 

8% 

7% 

6% 

6 

9 % 

53/* 

26% 

18 

13% 

10% 

9 

7% 

6% 

6 

5% 

10 

48/* 

24% 

16% 

12 

9% 

8 

7 

6 

5% 

m 

Table  showing  the  relative  values  of  decomposed  vegetables  as 


manures , from  the  inorganc  matter  they  contain. 


• 

Inorganic  matter, 
lbs.  lbs. 

1 ton  Wheat  Straw  made  into  manure  returns  to  the  soil  — 

70  to  136 

1 “ Oat  “ 

44 

44 

44  44 

1 “ Hay  “ 

u 

« 

1 “ Barley  ** 

it 

44 

44  44 

100  to  120 

1 “ Pea  “ 

44 

44 

44  44 

ICO  to  110 

1 “ Bean  “ 

44 

(4 

44  44 

100  to  130 

1 “ Rye  “ 

« 

44 

44  44 

50  to  100 

1 “ Dry  Potato-tops 

(4 

44 

<c  «« 

1 “ Dry  Turnip-tops 

<( 

44 

44  44 

370 

1 “ Rape  Cake 

1 “ Malt  Dust 

€( 

44 

44  44 

120 

<( 

44 

44  44 

1 “ Dried  Seaweed 

44 

44 

<t  m 

Johnston. 

Table  showing  the  relative  value  of  decomposed  vegetables  as 
manures , from  the  nitrogen  they  contain. 


100  lba.  of  farm-yard  manure  is  equal  to 


130  lbs.  Wheat  Straw  Manure. 
150  “ Oat  “ p 

180  “ Barley  “ “ 

85  “ B’wheat  “ « 

45  “ Pea  “ #* 

50  “ Wheat  Chaff  « 

80  “ Green  Grass  “ 

75  “ Potato  Tops  “ 


80  lbs.  Fresh  Seaweed 
20  “ Dried  “ 

26  “ Bran  of  Wheat  or  Corn 
13  “ Malt  Dust 
8 “ Rape  Cake 
250  “ Pine  Sawdust 
180  « Oak  « 

25  “ Coal  Soot 


Manure. 


Boussingault. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


749 


Table  showing  the  labor  one  horse  is  able  to  perform  at  different  rates  of 
speed  on  canals , railroads  and  turnpikes.  Drawing  force  83  1-3  lbs. 


Speed  per  hour. 

Duration  of 
day’s  work — 
hours. 

Useful  effect  for  1 day  in  tons, 

drawn  1 mile. 

Miles. 

On  canal — tons. 

On  a railroad- 
tons. 

On  a turnpike- 
tons. 

2 a 

nv% 

520 

115 

14 

3 

8 

243 

92 

12 

354 

6 

154 

82 

10 

4 

m 

102 

72 

9 

5 

2 9-10 

52 

57 

7.3 

6 

2 

30 

48 

6 

7 

1*4 

19 

41 

5 

8 

lVa 

12.8 

36 

4.5 

9 

9-10 

9. 

32 

4 

10 

% 

6.5 

28.8 

3.6 

Average  composition,  per  cent,  and  per  ton , of  various  kinds  of  agricul- 
tural produce,  etc. 


PER 

CENT. 

LBS.  PER  (LONG)  TON. 

Value  of  manure  in  $ and 
cts.  from  1 ton  (2000  lbs.) 

1 of  food. 

Total  dry  manure. 

| Votal  mineral  matter 

1 (Ash) 

Phosphoric  acid 
reckoned  as  phos- 
phate of  lime. 

Potash. 

Nitrogen. 

Total  dry  matter . 

Total  mineral  matter 
(Ash) 

1 Phosphoric  acid 

reckoned  as  phos- 
phate of  lime. 

Potash. 

Nitrogen. 

1.  Linseed  cake  

88-0 

7-00 

4.92 

1.65 

4.75 

1,971 

156.8 

110.2 

37.0 

106.4 

19.72 

2.  Cotton-seed 

89-0 

8-00 

7.00 

3.12 

6.50 

1,994 

179.2 

156.8 

70.0 

145.6 

27.86 

8.  Rape  cake 

89-0 

8-00 

5.75 

1.70 

5.00 

1,994 

179.2 

128.8 

39.4 

112.0 

21.01 

4.  Linseed 

90-0 

4-00 

3.38 

1.37 

3.80 

2,016 

89.6 

75.7 

30.7 

85.1 

15.65 

5.  Beans 

84-0 

3-00 

2.20 

1.27 

4.00 

1,882 

67.2 

49.3 

28.4 

89.6 

15.75 

6.  Peas  

84-0 

2-40 

1.84 

0.96 

3.40 

1,893 

53.8 

41.2 

21.5 

76.2 

13.38 

7.  Tares 

84-5 

2-00 

1.63 

0.66 

4.20 

1,892 

44.8 

36.5 

14.8 

94.1 

16.75 

8.  Lentils 

88-0 

3-00 

1.89 

0.96 

4.30 

1,971 

67.2 

42.3 

21.5 

96.3 

16.51 

9.  Malt  dust 

94-0 

8-50 

5.23 

2.12 

4.20 

2,106 

190.4 

117.1 

47.5 

94.1 

18.21 

10.  Locust  beans 

85-0 

1*75 

1.25 

1,904 

39.2 

28  0 

4.81 

11.  Indian  meal 

88-0 

1-30 

1.13 

0.35 

1.80 

1,971 

29.1 

25.3 

'7.8 

40.3 

6.65 

12.  Wheat  

85.0 

1-70 

1.87 

0.50 

1.80 

1,904 

38.1 

42  0 

11  2 

40  3 

7.08 

13.  Barley 

84-0 

2-20 

1.35 

0.55 

1.65 

1,882 

49.3 

30.2 

12.3 

37.0 

6.32 

14.  Malt 

95.0 

2-60 

1.60 

0.65 

1.70 

2,128 

58.2 

35.8 

14.6 

38.1 

6.65 

15.  Oats 

86-0 

2-85 

1.17 

0.50 

2.00 

1,926 

63.8 

26.2 

11.2 

44.8 

7.70 

16.  Fine  pollard* 

86-0 

5-60 

6.44 

1.46 

2.60 

1,926 

125.4 

144.2 

32.7 

58.2 

13.53 

17.  Coarse  pollardt 

86.0 

6-20 

7.52 

1.49 

2.58 

1,926 

138.9 

168.4 

33.4 

57.8 

14.36 

18.  Wheat  bran 

86.0 

6-60 

7.95 

1.45 

2.55 

1,926 

147  8 

178.1 

32.5 

57.1 

14.59 

19.  Clover  hay 

84.0 

7-50 

1.25 

1.30 

2.50 

1,882 

168.0 

28.0 

29.1 

56.0 

9.64 

20.  Meadow  hay 

84.0 

6.00 

0.88 

1.50 

1.50 

1,882 

134.4 

19.7 

33.6 

33.6 

6.43 

21.  Bean  straw 

82.5 

5.55 

0.90 

1.11 

0.90 

1,848 

124.3 

20.2 

24.9 

20.2 

3.87 

22.  Pea  straw 

82.0 

5.95 

0.85 

0.89 

t,837 

133.3 

19.0 

19.9 

20.2 

3.74 

23.  Wheat  straw 

84.0 

5.00 

0.55 

0.65 

0.60 

1,882 

112.0 

12.3 

14.6 

13.4 

2.68 

24.  Barley  straw 

85.0 

4.50 

0.37 

0.63  0.50 

1,904 

100.8 

8.3 

14.1 

11.2 

2.25 

25.  Oat  straw  

83.0 

5.50 

0.48 

0.93  0.60 

1,859 

123.2 

10.7 

20.8 

13.4 

2.90 

26.  Mangel  wurzel 

12.5 

1.00 

0.09 

0.25  0.25 

280 

22.4 

2.0 

5.6 

5.6 

1.07 

27.  Swedish  turnips 

11.0 

0.68 

0.13 

0.18  0.22 

246 

13.4 

2.9 

4.0 

4.6 

0.91 

28.  Common  turnips.  .. 

8.0 

0.68 

0.11 

0.290.18 

179 

15.2 

2.5 

6.5 

4.0 

0.86 

29.  Potatoes 

24.0 

1.00 

0.3210.43  0.35 

537 

22.4 

7.2 

9.6 

7.8 

1 50 

30.  Carrots 

13  5 

0 70 

0 1?. 

n 2a  n 2n 

302 

15  7 

2 9 

5 1 

4 5 

0 80 

31.  Parsnips 

15.0 

1.00 

0,42  0^36  0^22 

1 1 

336 

22^4 

9.4 

8.1 

4^9 

1.14 

♦Middlings,  Canielle. 


tShipstuff. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


^50 


The  foregoing  table,  showing  the  composition  of  various  foods  and 
the  estimated  value  of  the  manure  made  by  animals  consuming  a ton  of 
them,  was  prepared  by  John  B.  Lawes,  of  Rothamstead.  The  compo- 
sition of  the  foods  is  undoubtedly  correct ; the  estimated  money  value 
must  be  taken  only  relatively.  The  figures  given  are  in  gold,  and  are 
based  on  English  prices  of  guano  and  other  commercial  manures.  New 
York  prices  are  from  one-quarter  to  one-third  higher. 

It  will  be  seen  that  cotton  seed  cake  makes  the  richest  manure  of 
any  food  in  the  list.  Linseed  oil-cake,  peas,  beans,  malt  dust,  and  bran 
are  among  the  most  valuable  foods.  Coarse  bran  is  frequently  sold  at 
a price  that  would  make  it,  after  deducting  the  value  of  the  manure,  one 
of  the  most  profitable  foods  to  purchase.  Clover  hay  stands  high  in  the 
list. 

Table  showing  the  proportion  of  solid  matter  and  water  in  100  parts  each 
of  the  following  articles  of  diet. 


Designation. 


Wheat 

Peas 

Rice 

Beans  ... 

Rye 

Corn 

Oatmeal 

Wheat  bread. 

Mutton 

Chicken 


Solid 

Matter. 

Water. 

Designation. 

Solid 

Matter. 

Water. 

87 

13 

Lean  beef 

26 

74 

87 

13 

Eggs 

26 

74 

86 

14 

Yeal 

25 

75 

86 

14 

Potatoes 

25 

75 

86 

14 

Pork 

24 

76 

86 

14 

Codfish 

21 

79 

74 

26 

Blood  

20 

80 

51 

49 

Trout 

19 

81 

29 

71 

Apples . 

18 

82 

27 

73 

Pears 

16 

84 

Designation. 

Solid 

Matter. 

Water. 

Carrots 

13 

87 

Beets 

13 

87 

Milk 

13 

87 

Oysters  

13 

87 

Cabbage.. 

8 

92 

Turnips 

7 

93 

Watermelon 

5 

95 

Cucumber 

3 

97 

Table  showing  the  contents  of  circular  cisterns  in  barrels  for  each  foot 


in  depth. 


5 feet 

6 “ . 


.4.66 

.6.74 

,9.13 


8 feet. 

9 “ . 
10  “ . 


11.93 

5.10 

8.65 


Table  shoioing  the  contents  of  circular  cisterns , from  1 foot  to  25  feet  in 
diameter,  for  each  10  inches  in  depth. 


Diameter. 

Gallons. 

Diameter. 

Gallons. 

1 

4.896 

7U 

271.072 

iy2 

11.015 

8 

313.340 

2 

19.583 

844 

353.735 

214 

30.545 

y 

396.573 

3 

44.064 

914 

441.861 

314 

59  980 

iff 

489.600 

4 

..  78.333 

11  

592.400 

414 

99.116 

12  

705. 

5 

122.400 

13 

827.450 

544  . 

148.546 

14 

959.613 

6 

176.253 

15 

1101.610 

614 

206.855 

20 

1958.421 

7Xs 

239.906 

25 

USEFUL  TABLES, 


751 


Table  showing  the  period  of  reproduction  and  gestation  of  domestic 

animals . 


Designation 

Proper  age 
for  repro- 
duction. 

Period  of 
the  power 
of  repro- 
duction in 
years. 

Number  of 
females 
for  one 
male. 

Period  of  gestation  and  incubation. 

Shortest  pe- 
riod, days. 

Mean  peri- 
od, days. 

Longest  pe- 
riod, days. 

Mare 

4 vears. 

10  to  12 

322 

347 

419 

Stallion 

5 

“ 

12  to  15 

20  to  30 

Cow 

3 

it 

10  to  14 

240 

283 

321 

Bull 

3 

it 

8 to  10 

30  to  40 

Ewe 

2 

a 

6 

146 

i<54 

Ei 

Ram 

2 

a 

7 

40  to  50 

Sow 

1 

a 

6 

109 

ii5 

142 

Boar 

1 

(i 

6 

6 to  10 

She  Goat.. . 

2 

« 

6 

iso 

156 

163 

He  Goat — 

2 

a 

5 

20  to  40 

She  Ass 

4 

tt 

10  to  12 

365 

380 

391 

He  Ass.. . . 

5 

a 

12  to  15 

She  Buffalo. 

8 

28i 

308 

335 

Bitch 

2 

a 

8 to  9 

55 

60 

63 

Dog 

2 

« 

8 to  9 

She  Cat 

1 

5 to  6 

*48 

*50 

56 

He  Cat 

1 

9 to  10 

5 to  6 

Doe  Rabbit. 

6 months. 

5 to  6 

*20 

28 

‘35 

Buck  Rab’t. 

6 

a 

5 to  6 

30 

Cock 

6 

€C 

5 fro  6 

12  to  15 

Hen 

5 to  6 

"io 

21 

24 

Turkey 

3 to  5 

24 

26 

30 

Duck 

28 

30 

32 

G0O88 

27 

30 

33 

Pigeon 

16 

18 

20 

Pea  Hen. . . 

25 

28 

30 

Guinea  Hen 

20 

23 

25 

Swan 

40 

42 

45 

Table  showing  the  price  of  pork  per  pound  at  different  prices  per  bushel 


for  corn. 


Corn  per  bushel. 
Cents. 

Pork  per  pound. 
Cents. 

Corn  per  bushel. 
Cents. 

Pork  per  pound. 
Cents. 

12V£ 

1.50 

38  

4.52 

15  

1.78 

40  

4.76 

17  

2. 

42  

5. 

20  

2.38 

45  

5.35 

22  

2.62 

50  

5.95 

25  

2.96 

55  

6.54 

30  

3.57 

60  

7.14 

33  

3.92 

65  

7.74 

35  

4. 

70  

8.57 

Hay  in  a mow  ten  feet  drop,  put  in  in  good  order,  and  not  too  ripe 
when  cut,  ought  to  average  one  ton  to  each  525  cubic  feet.  The  com- 
pression increases  rapidly  as  the  height  increases,  and  a mow  of  the  same 
hay,  fifteen  feet  drop,  would  probably  turn  out  a ton  to  475  cubic  feet, 
if  not  even  to  425  feet.  All  such  guessing,  however,  is  very  hazardous, 
and  it  is  always  safer  to  buy  or  sell  only  by  actual  weight. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  a safe  formula  to  say,  sell  at  400  cubio  feet  and 
buy  at  600  <jubic  feet. 


752 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


Table  showing  the  price  per  cwt.  of  hay  at  given  prices  per  ton. 


Price  per  ton.|| 

c 

»-i 

•3 

a 

V 

•a 

1 hundred. 

2 hundred. 

3 hundred. 

4 hundred. 

5 hundred. 

6 hundred. 

7 hundred. 

8 hundred. 

9 hundred. 

10  hundred. 

11  hundred. 

S 

cts 

cts. 

Sets. 

$cts. 

Sets. 

Sets. 

Sets. 

Sets. 

Sets. 

Sets. 

S cts. 

Sets. 

4 

10 

20 

40 

60 

80 

1.00 

1.20 

1.40 

1.60 

1.80 

2.00 

2.20 

5 

12 

25 

50 

75 

1.00 

1.25 

1.50 

1.75 

2.60 

2.25 

2.50 

2.75 

6 

15 

30 

60 

90 

1.20 

1.50 

1.80 

2.10 

2.40 

2 70 

3.00 

3 30 

7 

17 

35 

70 

1.05 

1.40 

1.75 

2.10 

2.45 

2.80 

3.15 

3.50 

3.85 

8 

20 

40 

80 

1.20 

1.60 

2.00 

2.40 

2.80 

3.20 

3.60 

4.00 

4.40 

9 

22 

45 

90 

1.35 

1.80 

2.25 

2.70 

3.15 

3.60 

4.05 

4.50 

4.95 

10 

25 

50 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3.00 

3.50 

4.00 

4 50 

5.00 

5.50 

11 

27 

55 

1.10 

1.65 

2.20 

2.75 

3.30 

3.85 

4.40 

4.95 

5.50 

6.00 

12 

30 

60 

1.20 

1.80 

2.40 

3.00 

3.60 

4.20 

4.80 

5.40 

6.00 

6.60 

13 

32 

65 

1.30 

1.95 

2.60 

3.25 

3.90 

4.55 

5.20 

5.85 

6.50 

7.15 

14 

35 

70 

1.40 

2 10 

2.80 

3.50 

4.20 

4.90 

5.60 

6.30 

7.00 

7.70 

15 

37 

75 

1.50 

2.25 

3.00 

3.75 

4.50 

5.25 

6.00 

6.75 

7.50 

8.25 

FORCE  OF  WIND. 

The  force  exerted  by  windmills  will  vary  greatly  with  the  velocity  of 
the  wind.  The  following  table  6hows  the  pressure  against  a fixed  sur- 
face ; from  the  velocity  given  in  this  table,  the  average  velocity  of  the 
sails  must  be  deduoted,  and  the  remainder  will  show  the  real  force  ex- 
erted: 


Velocity. 
Miles  an  hour. 

1 

2 

i 

4  

5  

6  

7 

10 

15 

20 

25 

*30  

35 

40  

45 

50 

60 

80 

100 


Pressure 

in  lbs.  on  Description, 

square  ft. 

005  Hardly  perceptible. 

^ j-  Just  perceptible. 

;?^5  j-  Light  breeze. 

180  I 

320  C Gentl®»  pleasant  wind. 

j-^9  j-  Pleasant,  brisk  wind. 

:::::  i:?«iVerJrbtIsk- 

j-  Strong,  high  wind. 

::'::io:i25iVeryhi§h- 

12.500  Storm  or  tempest. 

18.0(0  Great  storm. 

32.000  Hurricane. 

50.000  Tornado,  tearing  up  trees  and  sweeping 

off  buildings. 


VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  WOOD  AS  FUEL. 


The  celebrated  experiments  of  Marcus  Bull,  of  Philadelphia,  many 
years  ago  gave  the  following  results,  showing  the  amount  required  to 
throw  out  a given  quantity  of  heat: 


Hickory 

White  Oak. 
Hard  Maple 
Soft  Maple.. 


.4 

.4  3-4 
6 2-3 
.71-5 


cords. 


Pitch  Pine 

White 

Anthracite  Coal. . 
Bituminous  Coal. 


.9  1-7  cords. 
.9 1-5  “ 

.4  tons. 

.5  “ 


TEMPERATURE  FOR  THE  RISING  OF  CREAM. 


The  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air  has  a great  effect  upon  the 
time  required  for  the  rising  of  the  cream.  Experiment  has  demon- 
strated that,  with  the  thermometer  at 


80  deg.  all  the  cream  will  rise  in  10  hours. 
7?  “ “ “ 12  “ 

68  “ «*  ««  Ifc  “ 


55 

50 

45 


deg.  all  the  cream  will  rise  in  24  hours. 
“ “ “ 36  “ 

««  « <*  43  « 


Weight  of  a bushel  of  agricultural  'produce , etc.,  as  established  by  law  in  the  United  States,  Territories,  and  British  Provinces , 

compared  with  the  most  recent  enactments. 


USEFUL  TABLES, 


753 


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'Mined  within  the  State,  70  lbs. ; without  the  State,  80  lbs.  fForeign— Barley  produced  in  the  Province,  48  lbs.  ^Bituminous— Cannel  Coal,  70  lbs. 


Weight  of  the  bushel  of  agricultural  produce,  etc . ( continued ). 


754 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


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bushel.  In  Michigan,  “Michigan  Salt,”  is  56  pounds  to  the  bushel.  In  Massachusetts  “Salt”  is  70  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

Coal  in  Kentucky  is  76  pounds  per  bushel,  except  Wheeling  coal,  which  is  84,  and  Kentucky  River,  which  is  78  pounds  per  bushel,  and 
Adrian  Branch,  or  Cumberland  River  coal,  which  is  72  pounds  per  bushel.  Cotton  seed  is  33  pounds  to  the  bushel  in  Missouri. 

Sorghum  seed  is  30  pounds  to  the  bushel  in  Iowa  and  Nebraska.  Strained'honey  is  12  pounds  to  the  gallon  in  Nebraska. 

To  reduce  cubic  feet  to  bushels,  struck  measure,  divide  the  cubic  feet  by  56  and  multiply  by  45. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


755 


VELOCITY  OF  WATER  IN  TILE  DRAINS. 


An  acre  of  land  in  a wet  time  contains  about  1,000  spare  hogsheads 
of  water.  An  underdrain  will  carry  off  the  water  from  a strip  of  land 
about  two  rods  wide,  and  one  80  rods  long  will  drain  an  acre. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  size  of  the  tile  required  to  drain  an 
acre  in  two  days’  time  (the  longest  admissible)  at  different  rates  of 
descent,  or  the  size  of  any  larger  area: 


Diameter 
of  Bore. 

2 inches 

Kate 

of  Descent, 
foot  in  100 

2 “ 

50 

2 “ 

it 

20 

2 “ 

« 

10 

3 “ 

it 

100 

3 “ 

it 

50 

3 “ 

it 

20 

3 “ 

1 

it 

10 

4 “ 

it 

100 

4 “ 

1 

it 

50 

4 “ 

1 

ti 

20 

4 “ ... 

1 

a 

10 

Velocity  Hogsheads 

of  current  discharged 

per  second.  in  24  hours. 

22  inches 400 

32  “ 560 

51  “ 900 

73  “ 1,290 

27  “ 1,170 

38  “ 1,640 

67  “ 3,100 

84  “ 3,600 

32  “ 2,500 

45  “ 3,500 

72  “ 5,600 

100  “ 7,800 


A deduction  of  one-third  to  one-half  must  be  made  for  the  roughness 
of  the  tile  or  imperfection  of  laying.  The  drain  must  be  of  some  length 
to  give  the  water  velocity,  and  these  numbers  do  not,  therefore,  apply  to 
very  short  drains. 

CAPACITY  OF  BOXES. 

A box  4 feet  7 inches  long,  2 feet  4 inches  wide,  2 feet  4 inches  deep, 
holds  20  bushels  ; a box  24  in.  x 16  in.  x 28  in.,  5 bushels  ; box,  inches, 
24x11.2x8,  1 bushel,  box,  inches,  12x11.2x8,  % bushel  ; box,  inches,  8x8.- 
4x8,  1 peck  ; box,  inches,  8x8x4.2,  1 gallon  ; box  inches,  4x4x1. 2, 1 quart. 
A cylinder  18)4  in.  inside  diameter,  8 inches  deep,  contains  U.  S.  stand- 
ard bushel.  Any  box  containing  the  same  number  of  cubic  inches  will 
hold  same  quantity  as  above  sizes.  To  obtain  a box  holding  any  por- 
tion or  multiple  of  above  quantities,  divide  or  multiply  any  one  dimen- 
sion of  the  box  accordingly. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  days  from  any  day  m one  month  to  the  same 
day  in  any  other. 


FROM 

Jan. 

•<Ri 

March. 

j April. 

May. 

© 

d 

d 

►-5 

'd 

l-T> 

ti 

d 

<1 

P. 

© 

05 

o 

o 

> 

o 

£ 

Dec. 

January 

365 

31 

59 

90 

120 

151 

181 

212 

243 

273 

304 

334 

February 

334 

365 

28 

59 

89 

120 

150 

181 

212 

242 

273 

303 

March 

306 

337 

365 

31 

61 

92 

122 

158 

184 

214 

i 245 

275 

April 

275 

306 

334 

365 

30 

61 

91 

122 

153 

183 

214 

244 

May 

245 

276 

304 

335 

365 

31 

61 

92 

123 

153 

184 

214 

June 

214 

245 

273 

304 

334 

365 

30 

61 

92 

122 

153 

183 

July 

184 

215 

243 

274 

304 

335 

365 

31 

62 

92 

123 

153 

August 

153 

184 

212 

243 

273 

304 

334 

365 

31 

62 

92 

122 

September  

122 

153 

181 

212 

242 

273 

304 

334 

365 

30 

61 

91 

October 

92 

123 

151 

282 

211 

243 

273 

304 

335 

365 

31 

61 

November 

61 

92 

120 

151 

181 

212 

242 

273 

304 

334 

365 

30 

December 

31 

62 

90 

121 

151 

182 

212 

243 

274 

304 

335 

365 

Explanation. — Find,  in  the  left-hand  column,  the  month  from  any 
day  of  which  you  wish  to  compute  the  number  of  days  to  the  same  day 


756 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


in  any  other  month,  and  follow  the  line  along  until  under  the  latter,  and 
you  have  the  required  number  of  days . Thus,  from  the  12th  of  April  to 
the  12th  of  October,  is  183  days;  from  the  7th  of  March  to  the  7th  of 
June,  92  days. 


Table  showing  the  square  feet  and  the  feet  square  of  the  fractions 

of  an  acre . 


Fractions  of 
an  acre. 

Square  feet. 

Feet  square. 

1 Fractions  of 
an  acre. 

Square  feet. 

Feet  square. 

1-16 

2722*4 

52/4 

*4 

21780 

147*4 

H 

5445 

73% 

1 

43560 

208% 

H 

10890 

104*4 

2 

87120 

295% 

X 

14520 

120*4 

GOVEBNMENT  LAND  MEASURE. 

A township  is  6 miles  square,  and  contains  36  sections,  or  23,040 
acres. 

A section  is  1 mile  square,  and  contains  640  acres. 

A quarter-section  is  half  a mile  square,  and  contains  160  acres. 

A half  quarter-section  is  half  a mile  long,  almost  universally  north 
and  south  and  one-fourth  of  a mile  wide,  and  contains  80  acres. 

A quarter  quarter-section  is  one-fourth  of  a mile  square,  and  con- 
tains 40  acres.  It  is  the  smallest  sized  tract,  except  fractions,  sold  by 
the  government. 

TO  FIND  THE  NUMBEB  OP  BUSHELS  OF  GRAIN  IN  A GRANARY. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  length  in  inches  by  the  breadth  in  inches,  and 
that  again  by  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  2150  (the 
number  of  cubic  inches  in  a bushel),  and  for  heaped  bushels  by  2748, 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  answer. 

Example. — Given  a granary  9 feet  long  by  4 wide  and  6 deep.  How 
many  bushels  will  it  contain? 

Solution. — 108  inches  length,  times  48  inches  width,  times  72  in. 
depth  =373248-f 2150=173.65  bus.  Ans. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  CORN  IN  THE  OBIB. 


After  levelling  the  corn,  multiply  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  house 
together,  and  the  product  by  the  depth,  which  will  give  the  cubic  feet  of 
the  bulk  of  corn:  then  divide  this  last  product  by  12,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  barrels  of  shelled  corn  contained  in  the  house  or 
crib.  If  there  be  a remainder  after  the  division,  it  will  be  so  many 
twelfths  of  a barrel  of  shelled  corn  over. 


Example. 

12  feet  long 
11  feet  broad 

132 

6 feet  deep 

12)792  cubic  feet 

66  barrels  shelled  corn 
5 bushels  in  a barrel 


Memoranda.— 21,500  cubic  inches  will  contain  ten 
bushels  of  shelled  corn,  but  the  same  space  filled  with 
corn  in  the  ear  will  shell  out  rather  more  than  five 
bushels.  These  21,500  cubic  inches  contain  12  cubic 
feet,  and  764  cubic  inches  over.  Now,  two  barrels,,  or 
ten  bushels  in  the  ear,  will  generally,  in  shelling, 
overrun  just  about  these  764  cubic  inches. 


330  bushels  shelled  corn. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


75? 


PLOWING. 


Names  of  Fields. 

'd 

s 

SI 

,d  03 

* 

P 

Breadth  to  give 

an  acre.  Yds. 

Breadth  of  the| 

furrow  slice. 

Inches. 

No.  of  furrows 

in  an  acre. 

Time  that  it 

takes  in  turn - 

1 ing.  Hours 

1 and  minutes. 

Time  taken  in 

turning  the 

soil.  Hours 

and  minutes. 

No.  of  hours  in 

the  day’ s 

work. 

Short  lands 

78 

186 

8 

279 

4 39 

3 21 

8 

Harper’s  Hill 

149 

98 

8 

147 

2 27 

5 33 

8 

Home  Close 

200 

73 

8 

109 

1 49 

6 11 

8 

East  Lake 

212 

69 

8 

103 

1 43 

6 17 

8 

Long  Lands 

274 

53 

8 

79 

1 19 

6 41 

8 

Explanation. — When  the  land  is  no  more  than  78  yards  long,  4 hours 
and  39  minutes  are  spent  merely  in  turning  at  the  ends,  in  a journey  of 

8 hours;  whereas,  when  the  land  is  274  yards  long,  1 hour  and  19  minutes 
are  sufficient  for  that  purpose  in  the  same  length  of  time. 

The  whole  series  of  furrows  on  an  acre  of  land,  supposing  each  to  be 

9 inches  in  width,  would  extend  in  length  to  19,360  yards;  and,  adding 
12  yards  to  every  220,  for  the  average  estimated  ground  traveled  over  in 
turning,  the  whole  work  of  ploughing  one  acre  may  be  given  as  extend- 
ing to  20,416  yards,  or  11  miles  and  nearly  five  furlongs. 

TABLE  FOB  MANUBING  LAND. 

Explanaton. — The  left-hand  column  shows  the  distance  of  the  heaps 
of  manure  in  yards,  the  figures  at  the  top  the  number  of  heaps  in  a load, 
and  under  them  the  number  of  loads  required  for  an  acre  for  any  given 
distance  of  the  heaps: — thus,  if  heaps  of  clay  are  set  3%  yards  asunder, 
and  5 heaps  made  of  a load,  then  under  five  in  the  table,  and  opposite 
3%  yards  in  the  width,  you  will  find  80,  which  shows  the  number  of  loads 
required  for  an  acre.  Again,  if  the  heaps  of  dung  are  7 yards  distant 
from  each  other,  and  8 heaps  made  of  a load,  the  table  shows  that  13 
loads  are  required  to  manure  an  acre. 


o a,  a. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

|5£ 

Heaps 

Heaps 

Heaps 

Heaps 

Heaps 

Heaps 

Heaps 

Heaps 

Heaps 

Heaps 

.3  o.c 

in  a 

in  a 

in  a 

in  a 

in  a 

in  a 

in  a 

in  a 

in  a 

in  a 

p 

load. 

load. 

load. 

load. 

load. 

load. 

load. 

load. 

load. 

load. 

Y ards 

Loads. 

Loads. 

Loads. 

Loads. 

Loads. 

Loads. 

Loads 

Loads. 

Loads 

Loads 

1 

4840 

2420 

1614 

1210 

968 

807 

f 92 

605 

538 

484 

1 ' 2 

2152 

1076 

718 

.538 

431 

359 

1.08 

269 

240 

216 

2 

1210 

605 

404 

303 

242 

202 

173 

152 

135 

121 

2 >4 

775 

388 

259 

194 

155 

130 

111 

97 

87 

78 

3 

5:38 

269 

180 

135 

108 

90 

7? 

68 

60 

54 

3 >4 

396 

198 

132 

99 

80 

66 

57 

50 

44 

40 

4 

303 

152 

101 

76 

61 

51 

44 

38 

34 

31 

4*/i 

240 

120 

80 

60 

48 

40 

35 

30 

27 

24 

5 

294 

97 

65 

49 

39 

33 

28 

25 

22 

20 

5*4 

160 

80 

54 

40 

32 

27 

23 

20 

18 

16 

6 

135 

68 

45 

34 

27 

23 

20 

17 

15 

14 

6!4 

115 

58 

39 

29 

23 

20 

17 

15 

13 

12 

7 

99 

50 

33 

25 

20 

17 

15 

13 

11 

10 

754 

87 

44 

29 

22 

18 

15 

13 

11 

10 

9 

8 

76 

38 

26 

19 

16 

13 

11 

10 

9 

8 

8‘/2 

67 

34 

23 

17 

14 

12 

10 

9 

8 

7 

9 

60 

30 

20 

15 

12 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

954 

54 

27 

18 

14 

11 

9 

8 

7 

6 

6 

10 

49 

25 

17 

13 

10 

9 

7 

7 

6 

5 

758 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


POWER  REQUIRED  TO  GRIND  GRAIN. 


TO  GRIND  GRAIN  WITH  PORTABLE  MILLS: 


Horse  Power. 

Size  of  Stones. 

Revolutions  per 
minute. 

Bushels  corn 
per  hour. 

Bushels  wheat 
per  hour. 

2 to  5 

12  inch. 

800  to  900 

1 to  4 

1 to  3 

5 to  8 

20  “ 

650  to  700 

5 to  8 

4 to  6 

8 to  11 

30  “ 

550  to  600 

10  to  15 

7 to  10 

12  to  18 

36  “ 

450  to  500 

18  to  25 

12  to  15 

20  to  30 

48  “ 

350  to  400 

25  to  35 

15  to  18 

Oat  Meal. — It  takes  about  12  bushels  of  oats  to  make  a barrel  of  200 
lbs.  of  oat  meal;  another  rating  estimates  that  14  lbs.  of  oats  produces 
8 lbs . of  oat  meal — try  it. 

One  bushel  of  buckwheat,  or  50  lbs.,  will  produce  25  lbs.  of  buckwheat 
meal ; more  may  be  obtained,  but  the  quality  will  be  impaired. 

One  bushel  of  good  wheat  (60  lbs .),  is  estimated  to  make  40  lbs.  of 
flour;  i.  e .,  2^  bushels  of  wheat  for  100  lbs.  of  flour. 

A barrel  of  flour  weighs  196  lbs.;  a barrel  of  pork,  200  lbs.;  a barrel 
of  beef,  200  lbs.;  a barrel  of  salt,  180  lbs.;  a firkin  of  butter,  56  lbs.; 
corn,  5 bushels  to  the  barrel ; potatoes,  234  bushels  to  the  barrel. 

The  following  table  gives  nearly  the  following  quantities  of  meal 
flour  and  bread,  viz.: 


Wheat  weighing  60  pounds  makes  45  pounds  of  flour,  and  54  pounds  of  bread 
Rye  “ 54  “ 42  “ “ 56  “ 

Barley  « 48  “ 87J4  “ “ 50  « 

Oats  “ 40  “ 22/,  “ “ 30  « 

HOW  SHALL  WE  SELL  HOGS  ? 


A question  of  financial  importance  to  farmers  is  often  asked  of  each 
other  in  regard  to  the  shrinkage  of  hogs  in  dressing  to  decide  what 
should  be  the  difference  in  the  price  between  live  and  dressed  hogs.  A 
close  calculator  selected  twenty  pigs,  they  were  well  fed  and  fattened 
though  not  large,  with  the  following  results.  We  give  below  the  exact 
weights,  alive  and  dressed: 


No.  Live  weight.  Dressed  weight. 

1 ....172 143 

2 ....151 128 

3 ....155 130 

4 ....126 104 

5 ....135 116 

6 ....163 136 

7 ....130 108 

8 ..  .136 114 

9 ...153 128 

10  ....148 120 

Total,  live  weight 2,935. 


No. 

Live  weight. 

Dressed  weight. 

11 

....131 

12 

....176 

13 

....148 

118..  . . 

14 

....153 

128 

15 

....164 

16 

....148 

120 

17 

....133 

115 

18 

168. 

19 

...132... . 

20 

....113 

90 

Total,  dressed  weight.. 2, 447. 


Shrinkage,  488  pounds,  or  a trifle  over  one-seventh.  He  was  offered 
$4.00  per  100  for  the  lot  on  foot,  but  sold  for  $5.10  dressed,  a gain  of 
$7.62  in  favor  of  dressing,  and  the  rough  lard  was  sufficient  to  pay  for 
butchering.  Farmers  can  look  this  over  at  their  leisure,  and  decide  hoiy 
they  will  sell. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


759 


STRENGTH  OF  ICE. 

Ice  2 inches  thick  will  bear  men  on  foot. 

Ice  4 inches  thick  will  bear  men  on  horseback. 

Ice  6 inches  thick  will  bear  cattle  and  teams  with  light  loads. 

Ice  8 inches  thick  will  bear  teams  with  heavy  loads. 

Ice  10  inches  thick  will  sustain  a pressure  of  1,000  pounds  per  square 
foot. 

This  supposes  the  ice  to  be  sound  through  its  whole  thickness,  with- 
out “ snow  ice.” 

SHRINKAGE  OF  GBAIN. 

Farmers  rarely  gain  by  holding  on  to  their  grain  after  it  is  fit  for 
market,  when  the  shrinkage  is  taken  into  account.  Wheat  from  the  time 
it  is  threshed  will  shrink  two  quarts  to  the  bushel,  or  six  per  cent. , in  six 
months,  in  the  most  favorable  circumstances.  Hence,  it  follows  that 
ninety -four  cents  a bushel  for  wheat  when  first  threshed  in  August,  is  as 
good,  taking  into  account  the  shrinkage  alone,  as  one  dollar  in  the  fol- 
lowing February. 

Corn  shrinks  much  more  from  the  time  it  is  husked.  One  hundred 
bushels  of  ears,  as  they  come  from  the  field  in  November,  will  be  re- 
duced to  not  far  from  eighty.  So  that  40  cents  a bushel  for  corn  in  the 
ear,  as  it  comes  from  the  field,  is  as  good  as  50  in  March,  shrinkage  only 
being  taken  into  account. 

In  the  case  of  potatoes — taking  those  that  rot  and  are  otherwise  lost 
— together  with  the  shrinkage,  there  is  but  little  doubt  that  between 
October  and  J une,  the  loss  to  the  owner  who  holds  them  is  not  less  than 
thirty-three  per  cent. 

This  estimate  is  taken  on  the  basis  of  interest  at  7 per  cent.,  and 
takes  no  account  of  loss  by  vermin. 

SIZE  OF  NAILS. 


The  following  table  will  show  at  a glance  the  length  of  the  various 
sizes,  and  the  number  of  nails  in  a pound.  They  are  rated  3-penny  up 
to  20-penny: 


No. 

Length  in  inches. 

Nails  per  lb. 

No.  Length  in  inches. 

Nails  per  lb. 

2-nennv 1 

557.... 

8-nennv. . . . 

..  234 

101.... 

4 “ 

134 

535.... 

10 p “ .... 

....2M 

68.... 

5 “ 

m 

12  “ .... 

....3  

54.... 

6 « 

2 

177  ... 

20  “ .... 

....334 

7 « 

234 

From  the  foregoing  table  an  estimate  of  quantity  and  suitable  size 
for  any  job  of  work  can  easily  be  made. 


GROWTH  AND  LIFE  OF  ANIMALS. 

Man  grows  for  20  years  and  lives 

The  Horse  grows  for  5 years,  and  lives 

The  Ass  grows  for  5 years,  and  lives 

The  Ox  grows  for  4 years,  and  lives 

The  Cow  grows  for  4 years,  and  lives 

The  Hog  livee 

The  Sheep  lives 

The  Camel  grows  for  8 years,  and  lives 

The  Lion  grows  for  4 years,  and  lives 

The  Dog  grows  for  2 years,  and  lives 

The  Cat  grows  for  1%  years,  and  lives . 

The  Hare  grows  for  1 year,  and  lives 

The  Guinea  Pig  grows  7 months,  and  lives 


90  or  100  years. 
30 
.30 

.15  to  20 
20 

.12  to  15 
.10 
.40 
,4C 

12  to  14 
9 or  10 
8 

. 6 or  7 


7u0 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


The  Beaver  lives 80  years. 

The  Deer  and  Wolf  live 20  “ 

The  Fox  lives 14  to  16  “ 

The  Squirrel  lives 7 “ 

The  Rabbit  lives  7 “ 

The  Eagle  lives  100  <f 

Geese  live 20  “ 

Hens  and  Pigeons  live 10  to  15  “ 


The  Elephant,  100  years;  Codfish  14  to  17  years;  Eels,  10  years;  Crocodile,  100  years; 
Queen  Bees,  4 years;  Drones,  4 months;  Worker  Bees,  6 months. 


TABLE  OF  WEIGHTS, 

Showing  estimated  number  of  pounds  of  barbed  wire  required  to  fence  space  or  dis- 
tance mentioned,  with  one,  two  or  three  lines  of  wire,  based  upon  each  pound 
of  wire  measuring  one  rod  (16 % feet),  by  H.  B.  Scott  & Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


ONE  LINE. 

TWO  LINES. 

THREE  LINES. 

1 Square  Acre 

50%  lbs. 
12%  “ 

36  “ 

101%  lbs. 
25%  “ 

72  “ 

152  lbs. 

1 Side  of  a Square  Acre 

38  “ 

1 Square  Half  Acre . . 

108  “ 

1 Square  Mile 

1280  “ 

2560  “ 

3840  “ 

1 Side  of  a Square  Mile 

320  “ 

640  “ 

960  « 

1 Rod  in  Length 

1 “ 

2 « 

3 “ 

100  Rods  in  Length 

100  Feet  in  Length 

100 

6 1-16  « 

200  “ 
12%  “ 

300  « 

18  3-16  “ 

SHINGLES. 

Shingles  are  usually  16  inches  long,  and  a bundle  of  shingles  is  20 
inches  wide,  and  contains  24  courses  in  the  thickness  at  each  end ; hence, 
a bundle  of  shingles  will  lay  one  course  80  feet  long.  When  shingles 
are  exposed  4 inches  to  the  weather,  1,000  will  cover  107  square  feet; 
4)4  inches,  120  square  feet;  5 inches,  132  square  feet;  6 inches,  160 
square  feet. 


DUE  ABILITY  OF  SHINGLES. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  average  durability  of  shingles  in  ex- 
posed situations: 


Rafted  Pine  Shingles,  from  20  to  35  years.  I Cedar from  12  to  18  years. 

Sawed,  clear  from  sap,  “ 16  to  22  “ Spruce “ 7 to  11  “ 

“ “ with  sap,  “ 4 to  7 “ | 


Note— By  soaking  shingles  in  lime-water,  their  durability  is  considerably  in- 
creased. 


BELATIVE  HAEDNESS  OF  WOODS. 

Taking  shell  bark  as  the  highest  standard  of  our  forest  trees,  and 
calling  that  100,  other  trees  will  compare  with  it  as  follows: 


Shell  Bark  Hickory 100 

Pignut  Hickory 96 

White  Oak 84 

White  Ash 77 

Dogwood 75 

Scrub  Oak 73 

White  Hazel 72 

Apple  Tree 70 

Rea  Oak 60 

White  Beech  65 

Black  Walnut 65 

Black  Birch 62 


Yellow  Oak... 

White  Elm 

Hard  Maple... 

Red  Cedar 

Wild  Cherry  . . 
Y ellow  Pine . . . 

Chestnut 

Yellow  Poplar 

Butternut 

White  Birch... 
White  Pine  — 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


761 


ROPES. 

Table  showing  what  weights  hemp  rope  will  bear  with  safety. 


CIRCUMFERENCE. 

POUNDS. 

CIRCUMFERENCE. 

POUNDS. 

1 inch. 

200 

3 inch. 

1800 

134  “ 

312.5 

334  “ 

2112.5 

1 K “ 

450 

334  “ 

2450 

134  “ 

612.5 

324  “ 

2812.5 

2 “ 

800 

4 “ 

3200 

234  “ 

1012.5 

5 “ 

5000 

m “ 

2 24  “ 

1250 

1512.5 

6 “ 

7200 

Note. — A square  inch  of  hemp  fibres  will  support  a weight  of  9200  pounds.  The 
maximum  strength  of  a good  hemp  rope  is  6400  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Its 
practical  value  not  more  than  one-half  this  strain.  Before  breaking,  it  stretches 
from  one-fifth  to  one-seventh,  and  its  diameter  diminishes  one-fourth  to  one-seventh. 
The  strength  of  manilla  is  about  one-half  that  of  hemp.  White  ropes  are  one-third 
more  durable. 


TABLE. 


A man  travels 

A horse  trots 

A horse  runs  

Steamboats  run 

Sailing  vessels  run 

Slow  rivers  flow 

Rapid  rivers  flow 

A moderate  wind  blows, 

A storm  moves 

A hurricane  moves 

A rifle  ball  moves 


Per  Hour.  Per  Second. 


. 7 

U 

10  “ 

. 20 

29  “ 

. 18 

(( 

26  “ 

. 10 

u 

14  “ 

. 3 

(( 

4 “ 

. 7 

u 

10 

. 7 

(( 

10  “ 

. 36 

u 

52  “ 

. 80 

<c 

117  “ 

u 

ACCURATE  WOOD  MEASURE.— LENGTH 


EIGHT  FEET. 


WIDTH. 

HEIGHT  IN  FEET. 

HEIGHT 

IN  INCHES. 

Feet.  Inches . 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

1 6 

20 

40 

60 

80 

2 

3 

5 

7 

8 

10 

12 

13 

15 

17 

18 

7 

21 

41 

62 

82 

2 

3 

5 

7 

8 

10 

12 

14 

15 

17 

18 

8 

21 

42 

64 

85 

2 

4 

5 

7 

9 

11 

13 

14 

16 

18 

20 

9 

22 

44 

66 

88  1 

2 

4 

6 

8 

9 

11 

13 

15 

17 

18 

20 

10 

23 

45 

68 

91 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

11 

13 

15 

-7 

19 

21 

11 

23 

47 

70 

94 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

15 

17 

19 

21 

3 0 

24 

48 

72 

96 

2 

~T 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

1 

25 

49 

74 

99 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

17 

18 

20 

22 

2 

25 

51 

76 

101 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

13 

15 

17 

19 

21 

23 

3 

26 

52 

78 

104 

2 

4 

7 

9 

11 

13 

15 

17 

20 

22 

24 

4 

27 

53 

80 

107 

2 

5 

7 

9 

11 

14 

16 

18 

20 

23 

25 

5 

27 

55 

82 

109 

2 

5 

7 

9 

11 

14 

16 

18 

20 

23 

25 

6 

28 

56 

84 

112 

2 

5 

7 

9 

12 

14 

16 

18 

21 

23 

26 

7 

29 

57 

86 

115 

3 

5 

8 

10 

12 

15 

17 

19 

22 

24 

27 

8 

29 

59 

88 

117 

3 

5 

8 

10 

12 

15 

17 

19 

22 

24 

27 

9 

30 

60 

90 

120 

3 

5 

8 

10 

13 

15 

18 

20 

23 

26 

28 

10 

31 

61 

92 

123 

3 

5 

8 

10 

13 

16 

18 

21 

23 

26 

29 

11 

31 

63 

94 

125 

3 

5 

8 

10 

13 

16 

18 

21 

23 

26 

29 

4 0 

32 

64 

96 

128 

3 

5 

8 

11 

13 

16 

19 

21 

24 

27 

29 

Explanation.— Find  the  width  of  the  load  in  the  left  hand  column  of  the  table ; 
then  move  to  the  right,  on  the  same  line,  till  you  come  under  the  height  in  feet,  and 


7G2 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


you  have  the  contents  in  feet;  then  move  to  the  right  on  the  same  line  till  you  come 
to  the  height  in  inches,  and  you  have  the  additional  contents  in  feet  for  the  height  in 
inches.  The  sum  of  these  two  gives  the  true  contents  in  feet.  For  loads  12  feet  long, 
add  one-half,  and  for  4 feet,  subtract  one-half. 


Example.— If  a load  of  wood  be  2 feet  10  inches  wide,  and  3 feet  7 inches  high, 
what  are  the  contents?  Against  2 feet  10  inches,  and  under  3 feet,  stands  68;  and 
under  7 inches  at  the  top,  stands  13;  then  13  plus  68  equals  81,  the  true  contents  in 
feet. 


BBIOKS. 

Bricks  may  be  estimated  at  24  to  a cubic  foot,  and  five  courses  to 
one  foot  in  height.  But  as  bricks  are  not  often  of  full  size,  the  following 
allowances  are  made  for  each  square  foot  of  the  surface  on  the  face  of  a 
wall,  namely: 

8 inch  wall 16  to  a square  foot  1 16  inch  wall 32'to  a square  foot. 

12  “ “ 24  “ “ | 20  “ “ 40  « “ 


CHIMNEYS. 

Bricks,  for  chimneys,  may  be  estimated  for  each  foot  in  height,  as 
follows: 


Size  of 

Size  of 

No.  of  Bricks 
to  each  foot 

Size  of 

Size  of 

No.  of  Bricks 
to  each  foot 

Chimney. 

Flue. 

in  height. 

Chimney. 

Flue. 

in  height. 

16x36  ... 

30 

16  x 24  . . . , 

40 

20  x 20  .... 

12  x 12.. 

20  x 24  ... 

45 

TABLE  SHOWING  HOW  MANY  SACKS  ARE  REQUIRED  AT  DIFFERENT  WEIGHTS  TO 
PUT  UP  ONE  BARREL  OF  FLOUR. 


No.  lbs.  in  Sack. 

Sacks 
in  bbl. 

lbs. 

No.  lbs.  in  Sack. 

Sacks 
in  bbl. 

lbs. 

5 

39 

1 

55 

3 

31 

10 

19 

6 

60 

3 

16 

15 

13 

1 

65 

3 

1 

20 

9 

16 

70 

2 

56 

25 

7 

21 

75 

2 

46 

30 

« 

16 

80 

2 

36 

35 

5 

21 

85 

2 

26 

40 

4 

36 

90 

2 

16 

45 

4 

16 

95 

2 

6 

50 

3 

46 

100 

96 

CORD-WOOD  ON  AN  ACRE. 

To  estimate  the  quantity  of  cord-wood  on  an  acre  of  woodland 
requires  experience.  A person  who  has  been  engaged  in  clearing  land 
and  cutting  wood  could  give  a very  close  estimate  at  a general  glance, 
but  other  persons  would  make  the  wildest  guesses.  An  inexperienced 
person  may  commence  as  follows:  Measure  out  four  square  rods  of 
ground;  that  is,  thirty-three  feet  each  way,  and  count  the  trees,  averag- 
ing the  cubic  contents,  as  near  as  possible,  of  the  trunks,  and  adding 
one-fourth  of  this  for  the  limbs.  Then,  as  128  cubic  feet  make  a cord, 
and  the  plat  is  one-fourth  of  an  acre,  the  result  is  easily  reached.  Fairly 
good  timber  land  should  yield  a cord  to  every  four  square  rods.  A tree 
two  feet  in  diameter  and  thirty  feet  high  to  the  limbs,  will  make  a cord 


USEFUL  TABLES.  703 

of  wood  if  it  is  growing  in  close  timber,  and  the  limbs  are  not  heavy . 
If  the  limbs  are  large  and  spreading,  such  a tree  will  make  1/4 

cords.  A tree  one  foot  in  diameter  will  make  one-fourth  as  much  as  one 
twice  the  diameter.  In  estimating,  it  is  necessary  to  remember  this  fact. 

ROUND  TIMBER. 

Round  timber,  when  squared,  is  estimated  to  lose  one-fifth;  hence,  a 
ton  of  round  timber  is  said  to  contain  only  40  cubic  feet. 

Sawed  timber,  as  joists,  plank  and  scantlings,  are  now  generally 
bought  and  sold  by  board  measure.  The  dimensions  of  a foot  of  board 
measure  is  1 foot  long,  1 foot  wide,  and  1 inch  thick. 


TO  MEASUBE  BOUND  TIMBEB. 

Rule. — Take  the  girth  in  inches  at  both  the  large  and  small  ends, 
add  them,  and  divide  their  sum  by  two  for  the  mean  girth;  then  multi- 
ply the  length  in  feet  by  the  square  of  one-fourth  of  the  mean  girth  in 
inches;  divide  the  product  by  144,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  contents 
in  cubic  feet. 

Example. — What  are  the  cubic  contents  of  a round  log  12  feet  long, 
54  inches  girth  at  the  large  end,  and  34  at  the  small  end  ? 

Solution. — 54  plus  34  88-:-2=44  inches  mean  girth. 

Then  12  length  times  121  inches  (the  square  of  ^ mean  girth)= 
1452-:-144=10  1-12  cubic  feet.  Ans. 

SQUARE  TIMBER. 


TO  MEASUBE  SQUAEE  TIMBEB. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  breadth  in  inches  by  the  depth  in  inches,  and 
that  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  divide  the  product  by  144,  and  the  quo- 
tient will  be  the  contents  in  cubic  feet. 

Example. — What  are  the  cubic  contents  of  a square  log  12  feet  long 
by  20  inches  broad  and  18  deep  ? 

Solution. — 20  times  18=360  times  12=4320- :-144=30  cubic  feet. 

Ans. 


COMPUTE  WEIGHT  OF  CATTLE. 


The  following  table  is  compiled  from  two  English  works  on  th® 
gubject: 


Girth. 

Length. 

Renton’s  Table. 

Cary’s  Table. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

stone. 

lb. 

stone,  lb. 

5 0 

21 

0 

21  00 

5 0 

4 0 

24 

0 

24  00 

5 6 

3 9 

27 

1 

27  00 

5 6 

4 0 

4 

6 0 

4 6 

38 

8 

38  11 

6 0 

5 0 

43 

43  (X) 

6 6 

45 

9 

45  07 

6 6 

4 9 

48 

0 

48  00 

7 0 

5 6 

64 

6 

. 64  07 

7 0 

6 0 

70 

5 

. 70  03 

8 0 

6 6 

99 

8... 

. 99  12 

8 0 

5 

47 


7(34 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


TABLE  OF  SIMPLE  INTEREST,  AT  SIX  PER  CENT,, 

TOR  EACH  DAY  TO  A MONTH,  PROM  $1  TO  $100. 


DAYS  IN  THE  MONTH. 


◄ 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

o 

2 

5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

8 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

0 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

9 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

10 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2; 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

20 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

8 

8 

8 

9 

9 

9 

10 

10 

10 

30 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8, 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10 

11 

11 

12 

12 

13 

13 

14 

14 

15 

15 

15 

40 

1 

1 

o 

2 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

7 

8 

9 

9 

10  11 

11 

12 

13 

13 

14 

15 

15 

16 

17 

17 

18 

19 

19 

20 

20 

50 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

23 

24 

25 

26 

60 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20  21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

70 

1 

2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23  24 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

33 

34 

35 

36 

80 

1 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 

9 

11 

12 

13 

15 

16 

17 

19 

20 

21 

23 

24 

25 

27128 

29 

31 

32 

33 

35 

36 

37 

39 

40 

41 

90 

2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

9 

11 

12 

13 

15 

16 

18 

19 

21 

22 

24 

25 

27 

28 

30  31 

33 

35 

36 

38 

39 

41 

42 

44 

45 

47 

100 

2 

3 

5 

7 

8 

10 

12 

13 

15 

17 

18 

20 

22 

23 

25 

27 

28 

30 

32 

33  35 

37 

38 

40 

42 

43 

45 

47 

48 

50 

51 

Explanation.— Find  the  amount  in  the  left-hand  column,  then  follow  the  line 
of  figures  until  you  come  to  the  column  giving  the  number  of  days  at  the  head,  and 
you  have  the  amount  of  days  to  one  month;  then,  by  adding  together,  you  have  the 
interest  of  as  many  months  as  required  on  amounts  from  one  dollar  to  one  hundred. 


TABLE  OF  SIMPLE  INTEREST,  AT  SEVEN  PER  CENT., 

POR  EACH  DAY  TO  A MONTH,  PROM  $1  TO  $100. 


DAYS  IN  THE  MONTH. 


a 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14|l5 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23  24 

25 

26 

27| 

28 

29 

30 

31 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

°l 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

o 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

o 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

o 

4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

K 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

o 

A 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

0 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

O 

7 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

g 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

9 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

in 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

20 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

8 

j 8 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10 

10 

11 

11 

12 

12 

30 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10 

11 

12  12  13 

13 

14 

14 

15 

16 

16 

17 

17 

18 

40 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

8 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

12 

13 

14 

15 

1516,17 

18 

18 

19 

20 

21 

21 

22 

23 

24 

50 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16  17 

18 

19  20  21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

2y 

30 

60 

1 

2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

20 

21 

22 

23  24  25 

26 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

35 

36 

70 

1 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 

9 

11 

12 

13 

15 

16 

17 

19 

20 

21 

23 

24 

26 

27  28  29 

31 

32 

34 

35 

36 

38 

39 

40 

42 

go 

2 

3 

5 

6 

8 

9 

11 

12 

14 

15 

17 

18 

20 

21 

23 

25 

26 

28 

29  31  32184 

35 

37 

38 

40 

41 

43 

44 

46 

48 

90 

3 

5 

7 

9 

10 

12 

14 

16 

17 

19 

21 

22 

24 

26 

28 

29 

31 

33  35  36  38 

40 

41 

43 

45 

47 

48 

50 

52 

54 

100 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

13 

15 

17 

19 

21 

23 

25  27 

29 

30 

33 

35 

36|38  40  42 

44  46 

48 

50 

52 

54 

56 

58 

59 

Explanation.— Find  the  amount  in  the  left  hand  column,  then  follow  the  line  of 
figures  until  you  come  to  the  column  giving  the  number  of  days  at  the  head,  and  you 
have  the  amount  of  days  to  one  month:  then,  by  adding  together,  you  have  the  in- 
terest of  as  many  months  as  required,  on  amounts  from  one  dollar  to  one  hundred. 


RATE  OF  WAGES  PER  WEEK,  RANGING  FROM  FIFTY  CENTS  TO  TWO  DOLLARS  AND  SEVENTY-FIVE  CENTS. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


765 


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RATE  OP  WAGES  PER  WEEK,  RANGING  PROM  THREE  DOLLARS  TO  SEVEN  AND  A HALF  DOLLARS. 


'66 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


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RATE  OF  WAGES  PER  WEEK,  RANGING  FROM  EIGHT  DOLLARS  TO  FIFTEEN  DOLLARS. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


767 


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768 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


BOARD  BY  THE  WEEK. 

The  following  table  will  also  answer  for  calculating  the  amount  of  wages  by  the 
week  or  month  of  hired  girls,  servants,  etc.,  who  are  compelled  to  labor  on  the  Sab- 
bath, being  calculated  for  seyen  days  in  the  week. 

Multiply  these  tables  by  four,  and  you  have  wages  by  the  month. 


Showing  the  rate  of 
board  per  day,  at 
$1.00  per  week. 

Showing  the  rate  of 
board  per  day,  at 
$1.25  per  week. 

Showing  the  rate  of 
board  per  day,  at 
$1.50  per  week. 

Showing  the  rate  of 
board  per  day,  at 
$1.75  per  week. 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

l... 14*4 

2 28*4 

3  4224 

4  67 

5  71 

6  8534 

7  l.Off 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  1724 

2  35% 

3  53*| 

4  71*| 

5  89*4 

6  1.07*4 

7  1.25 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  21*4 

2  43 

3  64*4 

4  8524 

5  1.07 

6  1.28*6 

7 1.50 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  25 

2  50 

3  75 

4  1.00 

5 1.25 

6  1.50 

7  1.75 

At  $2.00 

At  $2.25. 

At$2.50. 

At  $2.75. 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  28*4 

2  57 

3  8524 

4  1.14*4 

5  1.422£ 

6  1.71*<£ 

7  2.00 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  32 

2  64*4 

3  9614 

4  1.28*4 

5  1.60*4 

6  1.92% 

7  2.25 

Days.  Dols.c. 

1  3534 

2  71*6 

3  1.01*4 

4  1.43 

5  1.7834 

6  2 14*4 

7  2.50 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  39*4 

2  78*| 

3  1.1734 

4  1.57 

5  1.96*4 

6  2.3524 

7  2.75 

At  $3.00. 

At  $3.25. 

At  $3.50. 

At  $3  75. 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  43 

2  8524 

3  1.2834 

4  1.71*6 

5  2.14*4 

6  2.57 

7  3.00 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  46*4 

2  93 

3  1.38*6 

4  1.8524 

5  2.32*4 

6  2.78*6 

7.. 3.25 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1 50 

2  1.00 

3  1.50 

4  2.00 

5  2.50 

6  3.00 

7  3.50 

Days.  Dols.  c.. 

1  53*4 

2  1.07 

3  1.60*6 

4  2.14*4 

5  2.6724 

6  3.21*| 

7  3.75 

At  $4.00. 

At  $4.50. 

{At  $5.00. 

At  $6.00. 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  57 

2  1.14*4 

3 1.71*4 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  64*4 

2  1.28*6 

3 1.9224 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  71*6 

2  1.43 

3  2.14*4 

Days.  Dols.  c 

1  8524 

2  1.71*6 

4  2.28*6 

5  2.85*6 

6  3.4224 

7  4.00 

4  2.57 

5  3.21*4 

6  3.85-24 

7  4.50 

4  2.85% 

5  3.57 

6  4.71*6 

7  5.00 

5  4.28*6 

6  5 14*4 

7  6.00 

At  $7.00. 

At  $8.00. 

At  $9.00. 

At  $10.00. 

Days.  Dols.c. 

1 1.00 

2 2.00 

3  3.00 

4  4.00 

5  5.00 

6  6.00 

7 7.00 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  1.14*4 

2  2.28*4 

3 3.42M 

4  4.57 

5  5.71*6 

6.. 6.8524 

7 8.00  ! 

Days.  Dols.c. 

1 1.28*4 

2  2.57 

3  3.8534 

4  5.14*4 

5  6.43 

6  7.71*6 

7  9.00 

Days.  Dols.  c. 

1  1.4224 

2  2.85*6 

3  4.28*6 

4  5.71*4 

5  7.14*4 

6  8.57 

7  10.00 

USEFUL  TABLES. 


769 


household  weights  and  measures — dry  measure. 


Wheat  flour v 

Corn  meal 

Butter  (soft) 

Loaf  sugar  (crushed) 

White  sugar  (powdered) 

Best  brown  sugar 

Eggs — Ten  eggs  weight. 


I pound  of  1 6 oz.  is  I quart 

i “ 20  ounces  is  I “ 

I <<  I U j « 

I “ I “ 

i “ i ounce  I “ 

i “ 2 ounces  i “ 


i 


LIQUID  MEASURE. 

Four  large  tablespoonfuls  aie a gill. 

Eight  large  tablespoonfuls  are I gill. 

Two  gills a pint. 

A c )mmon  sized  tumbler  holds 34  a pint* 

A common  sized  wine  glass  holds 34  a giH* 

Two  pints  are I quart. 

Four  quarts  are I gallon. 


About  twenty-five  drops  of  any  thin  liquid  will  fill  a common  sized  tea- 
spoon. 

Four  tablespoonfuls  will  generally  fill  a common  sized  wine  glass. 

Four  wine  glasses  will  fill  half  a pint  tumbler,  or  a large  coffee  cup. 

A part  black  bottle  holds  in  reality  about  a pint  and  a half — sometimes 
not  as  much. 

A tablespoonful  of  salt  is  about  one  ounce. 


dry  measure. 

Half  a gallon  is  a Quarter  of  a peck. 

One  gallon  is Half  a peck. 

Two  gallons  are One  peck. 

Four  gallons  are Half  a bushel. 

Eight  gallons  are One  bushel. 

MEASURE  FOR  MEDICINE. 

One  tumbler contains  about 8 ounces. 

One  teacup “ “ 4 “ 

One  wine  glass “ “ 2 “ 

One  tablespoon “ “ 34  “ 

One  dessertspoon “ 2 drachms 

One  teaspoon “ “ i “ 

AVOIRDUPOIS. 

1 6 drams  (drs) i ounce — oz. 

1 6 ounces I pound — lb. 

25  pounds 1 quarter — qr. 

4 quarters.  __ loo  weight — cwt. 

2c  cwt „ 1 ton 


770 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


LIQUID  MEASURE. 


4 gills  .. 

2 pints  __ 

4 quarts  _ 

31^  gallons 

2 barrels . 


1 pint — pt. 

1 quart — qt. 

1 gallon — gal* 

1 barrel — bbl. 

1 hogshead — hhd. 


DRY  MEASURE. 

pint — pt. 
quart — qt. 
peck — pk. 
bushel — bu. 
quarter, 
chaldron. 

CAPACITY  OF  FREIGHT  CARS. 

Nominally  a car  load  is  20,000  pounds. 


4 gills -I 

2 pints I 

8 quarts T I 

4 pecks , I 

8 bushels I 

36  bushels 1 


It 

is 

also 

60  barrels  of 

1 4 

if 

it 

70 

“ 

it 

it 

it 

it 

70 

<< 

it 

a 

“ 

90 

(t 

“ 

a 

tt 

«( 

130  to 

160 

“ 

it 

a 

« 

200 

sacks 

ft 

<t 

6 i 

if 

6 cords 

ti 

tt 

a 

ft 

18  to 

20 

head 

a 

it 

50  “ 

60 

ft 

it 

“ 

80  « 

100 

ti 

it 

ft 

it 

430  bushels  “ . 

it 

tt 

ft 

300 

“ 

it 

a 

it 

340 

“ 

“ _ 

it 

it 

it 

360 

“ 

“ 

ft 

it 

it 

370 

a 

“ 

it 

it 

ft 

400 

u 

a 

ft 

" 

43° 

<( 

it 

it 

ft 

tt 

680 

« 

ft 

if 

“ 

1,000 

“ 

“ 

a 

ft 

a 

20,000 

lbs. 

« 

u 

it 

it 

6,000 

feet 

“ 

it 

a 

it 

9,000 

ti 

ft 

if 

“ 

17,000 

ft 

“ 

a 

tt 

ft 

13,000 

if 

a 

ft 

“ 

y2  less 

it 

ti 

a 

if 

a 

M “ 

“ 

a 

fi 

ti 

1 «< 

tt 

it 

ft 

ro 

AO. OOO 

40,000 


Whisky. 

.Salt. 

.Lime, 

.Flour. 

-Eggs. 

.Flour. 

.Wood. 

.Cattle. 

.Hogs* 

Sheep, 

.Irish  potatoes. 
Barley. 

Wheat. 

Flax  seed. 
Apples. 

Corn. 

Potatoes. 

Oats. 

Bran. 

Butter. 

Lumber. 

Solid  boards. 

Siding. 

Flooring. 

Hard  lumber. 
Green  lumber. 
Large  timbers. 
Shingles. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


771 


STANDARD  MEASURES. 

The  ton  used  in  the  returns  and  calculations  of  the  United  States  census 
is  the  net  ton  of  2,000  pounds. 

The  ton  used  in  the  Treasury  Department  in  its  statements  of  imports 
and  exports,  is  the  gross  ton  of  2,240  pounds. 

The  values  of  foreign  imports  are  given  in  gold,  and  of  domestic  exports 
in  currency. 

The  United  States  standard  gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches,  or  7.48  or 
nearly  7 y2  gallons  in  a cubic  foot. 

A bushel  (Winchester)  contains  2,150.42  cubic  inches,  1.224  cubic  feet, 
or  nearly  cubic  feet,  or  9.31  gallons.  It  is  i8^£  inches  in  diameter  and  8 
inches  deep. 

RULE. — To  find  the  number  of  gallons  divide  the  number  of  cubic  inches  con- 
tained in  the  vessel  by  2^1  ; > r divide  by  2150.42,  and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of 
bushels  the  vessel  contains;  or  if  the  contents  are  given  in  cubic  feet,  then  multiply 
them  by  7.48  (or  7^)  to  find  the  number  of  gallons;  or  to  find  the  number  of  bushels, 
divide  the  cubical  contents  by  1.244  (or  1 %). 

COMMERCIAL  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


A barrel  of  beef,  etc 200  pounds. 

“.  “ “ rice 60  “ 

“ “ flour . 196  “ 

“ “ “ soap 256  “ 

‘‘  “ “ cider  and  other  liquid 300  “ 

“ “ “ herrings 3734  “ 

»*  “ “ beer : 36  gallons. 

A gallon  of  honey 12  pounds. 

“ “ “ molasses _ 11  “ 

“ quintal  of  fish 100  “ 

“ firkin  of  butter ; 56  “ 

“ bag  of  hops  (nearly) 350  “ 

“ tt  a w00l 240  “ 

A commercial  bale  of  cotton  in  America  is 400  “ 

MISCELLANEOUS  MEASURES. 

A ‘‘hand”  used  in  measuring  horses  is 4 inches. 

A “league”  is 3 miles. 

A “fathom”  is 6 feet. 


A geographical  mile  is  in  proportion  to  the  statute  mile  as  60  to  69.5. 

A degree  is  equal  to  60  geographical  miles,  or  69)^  statute  miles. 

The  nautical  mile  is  6,082  feet; 

In  artificers’  measurements  the  inch  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts, 
called  “seconds,”  marked  thus  ”;  each  second  is  again  divided  into  twelve 
parts,  called  “ thirds,”  marked  thus  ”’.  In  making  the  calculations,  “ feet 
multiplied  by  feet,  give  feet;”  “feet  multiplied  by  inches,  give  inches;” 
“ feet  multiplied  by  seconds,  give  seconds;  ” inches  multiplied  by  inches,  give 
seconds;”  “ inches  multiplied  by  seconds,  give  thirds.”  This  mode  of  calcu- 
lation adopted  by  artificers  is  called  duodecimals , going  by  twelfths  in  place  of 
tenths,  as  in  decimal  calculation. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


T(2 

TO  ESTIMATE  AMOUNT  OF  HAY  IN  A MOW. 

Ten  cubic  yards  c f meadow  hay  weigh  a ton.  When  the  hay  is  taken 
out  of  old  stacks,  eight  or  nine  cubic  yards  will  make  a ton.  Eleven  or  twelve 
cubic  yards  of  clover  when  dry,  weigh  a ton. 

TO  MEASURE  HAY  IN  THE  STACK. 

Measure  half  way  down  between  the  ground  and  the  peak  of  the  stack. 
Multiply  this  width  by  itself,  and  multiply  by  .7854.  This  will  be  the  area 
covered  by  the  stack.  Then  multiply  the  area  by  the  height  to  where  the 
width  was  measured.  If  these  measurements  are  in  leet  the  sum  found  is 
the  cubic  feet  in  the  stack. 

Example: — A stack  is  12  feet  high,  and  has  an  18  feet  base,  how  much 
hay  does  it  contain?  Ans. — The  width  half  way  between  the  ground  and  the 
peak  is  9 feet;  9x9=81,  and  8lx. 7854=63. 6174x6  ft=38i.7044  cubic  feet; 
500  cul  ic  feet  of  timothy,  orchard  grass,  millet  or  Hungarian  grass  make  a ton, 
or  a cube  8 feet  each  way;  350  feet  will  make  a ton  or  a cube  7 feet  each  way, 
if  the  stack  is  very  solid  and  %vas  cut  when  dead  ripe;  700  feet,  or  a cube  9 
feet  each  way,  will  make  a ton,  if  the  hay  is  mixed  with  clover;  800  feet  will 
make  a toil,  if  it  is  all  clover,  or  light  meadow  n^y. 

MASONS’  AND  BRICKLAYERS’  MEASURES. 

Masons’  work  is  measured  either  by  the  cubic  foot,  or  the  perch.  The 
perch  is  1 634  feet  long,  1 y2  feet  wide,  and  1 foot  deep,  and  therefore  contains 
24^  cubic  feet. 

RULE. — To  find  the  number  of  perches  in  a piece  of  masonry,  first  find  the  num- 
ber of  cubic  feet  the  wall  contains  and  divide  by  24^. 


MEASURE  OF  LENGTH  OR  LINEAL  MEASURE  DISTANCE. 


3 barleycorns 1 inch. 

12  inches 1 foot. 

3 feet 1 yard. 

534  yards  or  1634  feet I pole. 

40  poles  or  660  feet I furlong. 

8 furlongs  or  5280  feet 1 mile. 


MEASURE  OF  SURFACES  OR  SQUARE  MEASURE. 


144  square  inches 

9 square  feet__. 

303^  square  yards  . 

40  square  poles. . 

4 roods  

640  acres 


1 square  foot. 
I square  yard. 
I square  pole. 
1 rood. 

1 acre. 

I square  mile. 


NOTE. — An  error  is  often  made  in  supposing  the  term  square  inches  and  “inches 
square”  to  denote  the  same  thing-,  but  the  difference  is,  that  “twelve  square  inches”  is 
only  the  twelfth  part  of  a foot,  and  twelve  inches  square  is  144  square  inches. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


773 


MEASURE  OF  SOLIDITY  OR  CUBIC  MEASURE. 


1728  cubic  inches I cubic  foot. 

27  cubic  feet.. I cubic  yard. 

40  cubic  feet  of  rough  or  ^ T fnn 

50  cubic  feet  of  hewn  timber.  _ J 

42  solid  feet 1 ton  of  shipping. 

NOTE. — While  square  measure  is  based  upon  the  square  of  numbers,  which  is 
found  by  multiplying’  any  number  into  itself,  as  4X4 — 16,  which  is  the  square  of  four, 
Cubic  measure  is  based  by  multiplying  any  number  twice  into  itself,  as  4X4X4 — 64, 
which  is  the  cube  of  four.  Surface  has  only  length  and  breadth;  a solid  body  has 
length,  breadth  and  thickness. 

LAND  SQUARE,  OR  GUNTER’S  CHAIN  MEASURE. 


links 


2.295 
20.661 
62.5 
10.000 
2.5 
10 

NOTE.— A chain  is  equal  to.ioo  links,  or  7o3  inches,  or  22  yards,  or  66  feet;  but 
the  length  varies  in  different  countries. 


chains. 


I 

square 

link. 

I 

a 

foot. 

I 

a 

yard. 

I 

ii 

pole. 

I 

it 

chain. 

I 

ii 

rood. 

I 

ii 

acre. 

DENTITION  OF  CATTLE. 

j. — Table  of  Early  Average , the  Breed  and  Other  Causes  Forming  Early 

Development. 

1 year  and  9 months,  2 prominent  incisors. 

2 « ^ “ 4 <(  “ 

2 “ “ 9 “ 6 “ “ 

3 “ “ 3 “ 8 

2. — Table  of  Late  Average,  the  Breed  and  Other  Causes  Retarding  Early 

Development . 

2 years  and  3 months,  2 prominent  incisors. 

2 <«  (t  p t«  ^ ««  a 

^ <(  «<  ^ «<  ^ <<  <« 

3 “ “ 9 “ 8 “ “ 

At  the  end  of  about  two  years  they  shed  their  first  fore  teeth,  which  are 
replaced  by  others,  larger,  and  not  so  white;  and  before  five  years  all  their 
incisive  teeth  are  renewed.  These  teeth  are  at  first  equal,  long,  and  pretty 
white;  but  as  they  advance  in  years  they  wear  down,  become  unequal  and 
black. 

The  horns  also  give  a correct  evidence  of  the  age  of  neat  cattle.  During 
the  first  three  years  of  the  animal’s  life  these  appendages  continue  to  grow, 
being  impelled  by  a horny  cylinder,  after  which  the  button  moves  from  the 
head.  Thus  the  horns  continue  growing  as  long  as  the  animal  lives,  as  is  in- 
dicated by  the  annual  joints,  which  are  easily  distinguished  in  the  horn  after 
the  creature  is  three  years  old,  counting  three  years  for  the  point  of  the  horn, 
and  one  year  for  each  of  the  joints  or  rings. 


774 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


DENTITION  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  colt  is  born  with  io  grinders. 

At  1 2 days  old  the  colt  has  four  front  teeth. 

At  4 weeks  old  it  has  four  more  front  teeth. 

At  8 months  old  the  corner  teeth  appear. 

At  I year  old  the  corner  teeth  have  attained  the  height  of  the  front  teeth. 

At  2 years  old  the  colt  has  the  kernel  (the  dark  substance  in  the  middle 
of  the  teeth’s  crown)  ground  out  of  all  the  front  teeth. 

In  the  third  year  the  middle  front  teeth  are  being  shifted. 

At  3 years  old  the  middle  front  teeth  of  the  colt  are  substituted  by  the 
horse  teeth. 

At  4 years  old  the  next  four  front  teeth  are  shifted. 

At  5 years  old  the  corner  teeth  are  replaced. 

At  6 years  old  the  kernel  is  worn  out  of  the  lotver  middle  front  teeth 
and  the  bridle  teeth  have  attained  their  full  growth. 

At  7 years  old  a hook  has  been  found  on  the  corner  tooth  of  the  upper 
jaw,  the  kernel  of  the  teeth  next  to  the  middle  front  is  worn  out,  and  the  bri- 
dle teeth  begin  to  wear  off. 

At  8 years  old  the  kernel  is  worn  out  of  all  the  lotver  front  teeth  and 
begins  to  decay  in  the  middle  upper  fronts. 

At  9 years  old  the  kernel  has  wholly  disappeared  from  the  upper  middle 
front  teeth,  the  hook  on  the  corner  teeth  has  increased  in  size,  and  the  bridle 
teeth  lose  their  points. 

At  io  years  old  the  kernel  is  worn  out  of  the  teeth  next  to  the  middle 
fronts  of  the  upper  jaw. 

At  1 1 years  old  the  kernel  has  entirely  vanished  from  the  corner  teeth  of 
tbe  same  jaw. 

At  12  years  old  the  croton  of  all  the  front  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  has  be- 
come triangular,  and  the  bridle  teeth  are  much  worn  down. 

As  the  horse  advances  in  age  the  gums  shrink  away  from  the  teeth, 
which  consequently  receive  a long,  narrow  appearance,  and  their  ^kernels  have 
become  changed  into  a darkish  point,  gray  hairs  increase  in  the  forehead  over 
the  eyes,  and  the  chin  assumes  the  form  of  an  angle. 

After  a horse  is  9 years  old  a wrinkle  appears  at  the  upper  corner  of  the 
lower  lid  and  every  year  thereafter  he  has  one  well  defined  wrinkle  for  each 
year  of  his  age  over  nine.  If  for  instance  a horse  has  three  wrinkles,  he  is 
twelve;  if  four,  he  is  thirteen.  Always  add  the  number  of  wrinkles,  and  it 
will  give  the  horse’s  age. 

HOW  TO  DETECT  WATER  IN  MILK. 

Dip  a well-polished  knitting-needle  into  a deep  vessel  of  milk,  and  with- 
draw it  immediately  in  an  upright  position.  If  the  milk  is  pure  some  of  it 
will  hang  to  the  needle ; but  if  water  has  been  added,  even  in  small  propor- 
tions, the  fluid  will  not  adhere. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


775 


AGE  OF  SHEEP. 

A sheep  has  32  teeth,  8 incisors  or  cutting  teeth  in  the  fore  part  of  the 
under  jaw  above  and  below  on  each  side.  The  mouth  of  the  lamb  newly 
dropped  is  either  without  incisor  teeth,  or  it  has  two.  Before  the  animal  is 
2 months  old  it  has  8.  Between  14  and  1 6 months  old  they  are  fully  grown; 
between  that  time  and  2 years  old  the  two  middle  incisors  are  shed,  and  two 
prominent  broad  teeth  appear  in  their  stead.  At  3 years  old  there  are  4 cen- 
tral teeth;  at  4 there  are  6;  and  at  5 years  old  the  whole  8 incisors  are  broad 
and  large,  and  the  mouth  is  considered  full.  After  sheep  pass  5 years  old 
there  are  no  certain  rules  of  telling  the  age ; they  are  then  considered  as  old 
sheep,  though  they  may  be  valuable  breeders  until  much  older.  When  six  or 
seven  years  old  the  teeth  become  slender,  loose,  and  begin  to  break  off  or  fall 
out. 


AGE  OF  GOATS. 

The  age  of  these  animals  is  known  by  the  teeth,  the  marks  being  the 
same  as  those  of  the  sheep,  and  also  by  the  annual  rings  on  their  horns. 

POULTRY  AND  EGGS. 


Weight  of  Various  Breeds  of  Poultry. 


Black  Polish  cock,  3 years  old 

— 5 

pounds 

3 

ounces. 

Black  Polish  hen,  3 years  old 

--  3 

tt 

4 

tt 

Golden  Polish  cock 

- 5 

“ 

0 

it 

Golden  Polish  hen 

- 3 

it 

8 

a 

Silver  Polish  hen _ _ 

--  3 

“ 

1 

a 

Silver  Hamburg  hen 

- 3 

it 

4 

Game  cock 

--  4 

a 

10 

it 

Game  hen 

--  3 

a 

0 

»< 

Pheasant  Malay  cock 

--  7 

“ 

0 

4* 

Pheasant  Malay  hen 

--  5 

a 

1 

46 

Pheasant  Malay  pullet,  17  months  old 

--  5 

<( 

3 

46 

Dorking  cock 

7 

« 

0 

46 

Dorking  hen 

6 

8 

46 

Cochin  China  cock,  16  months  old  (moulting).. 

._  6 

it 

5 

46 

Cochin  China  hen 

- 4 

a 

6 

it 

Malay  cock,  16  months  old 

6 

a 

14 

“ 

Malay  hen,  16  months  old 

--  4 

it 

8 

. 6 

Black  Spanish  cock,  4 months  old 

._  2 

“ 

11 

“ 

Black  Spanish  pullet 

1 

tt 

11 

it 

Turkey  cock,  16  months  old 

__i6 

a 

0 

it 

Turkey  hen,  3 to  4 years  old . 

..  8 

tt 

6 

a 

White  China  gander,  6 months  old 

12 

a 

13 

a 

White  China  goose 

_.ii 

a 

l3 

it 

776 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


NUMBER  OF  EGGS  PER  ANNUM. 


Experience  shows  that  the  laying  capacities  of  the  principle  varieties  of 
fowls  averages  about  as  follows : 


Eg-g-s  to  lb. 


Light  Brahmas 7 

Dark  Brahmas 8 

Partridge  Cochins 7 

Black,  White  and  Buff  Cochins , 7 

Plymouth  Rocks 8 

Houdans 8 

LaFleche 7 

Creve  Coeurs 8 

Black  Spanish 7 

Leghorns 8 

Hamburgs 9 

Polish  9 

Dominique 9 

Games 9 

Bantams 16 


Lay  per  year. 

I30 

I30 

13° 

115 

UO 

150 

I30 

140 

I40 

l6o 

150 

125 

135 

I30 

90 


THE  TIME  REQUIRED  FOR  THE  FULL  AMOUNT  OF  CREAM 
To  rise  to  the  surface  of  new  milk  at  different  temperatures  may  be  ascer- 
tained from  the  following  table. 

10  to  12  hours  if  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  77  degrees  Fahr. 

18  to  20  “ “ “ “ “ 68  “ “ 

24  “ “ “ “ “ 55  “ “ 

36  “ “ “ “ “ 50  “ •< 


THE  AMOUNT  OF  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE  OBTAINED  FROM  MILK, 


Is  shown  in  the  following  table,  and  is  the  result  of  practice  : 

loo  lbs.  of  milk  contains  about  3 lbs.  of  pure  butter. 

100  lbs.  “ “ “ 7.8  lbs.  of  cheese. 

100  lbs.  “ averages  “ 3.5  lbs.  of  common  butter. 

100  lbs.  “ “ •*  1 1.7  lbs.  of  cheese. 

100  lbs.  of  skim  milk  yields  13.5  lbs.  of  skim  milk  cheese. 

TO  CLEAR  A WELL  OF  FOUL  AIR. 

Put  a quart  or  two  of  unslaked  lime  into  a bucket,  and,  before  lowering  it 
into  the  well,  pour  a sufficient  quantity  of  water  on  the  lime  to  slack  it;  then 
let  it  down  to,  but  not  into,  the  water.  In  a few  minutes  the  well  will  be 
clear  of  foul  air,  the  slacking  lime  either  taking  up  the  noxious  air,  or  forcing 
it  out  of  the  well. 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


777 


TO  CUT  GLASS. 

In  the  absence  of  a regular  glass-cutter,  glass  may  easily  be  cut  with  the 
point  of  a file  or  other  hard  steel  tool,  by  wetting  freely  with  camphor  dis- 
solved in  turpentine.  Ragged  edges  of  glass  may  in  like  manner  be  smoothed 
with  a flat  file. 

TO  MARK  TOOLS. 

Warm  the  metal  slightly,  and  rub  the  polished  steel  with  wax  or  hard 
tallow,  till  a film  gathers.  Then  write  your  name  on  the  wax  with  a sharp 
point,  cutting  through  to  the  steel,  and  remove  all  the  particles  of  wax  cut 
out.  A little  nitric  acid  poured  on  the  markings  will  eat  or  bite  in  the  letters 
into  the  metal.  After  half  an  hour  wipe  the  acid  and  wax  off  with  a hot 
towel,  and  the  markings  will  be  clearly  defined. 

TO  TEMPER  SAWS,  CHISELS,  AND  OTHER  EDGED  TOOLS. 

The  quality  cf  the  steel  should  be  uniform  throughout,  and  if  rather  too 
hard,  so  much  the  better,  for  use  will  reduce  the  temper.  The  best  method  is 
to  melt  a sufficient  quantity  of  lead  to  cover  the  cutting  part  of  the  tool. 
Having  previously  brightened  the  tool’s  surface,  plunge  it  into  the  melted  lead 
for  a few  minutes,  till  it  gets  sufficiently  hot  to  melt  a candle,  with  which  rub 
its  surface;  then  plunge  it  in  the  lead  again,  and  keep  it  there  till  the  steel 
assumes  a straw  color,  but  be  careful  not  to  let  it  turn  blue ; but  if  it  should 
asstime  that  color  take  it  out,  rub  it  again  with  tallow,  and  let  it  cool.  If  it 
should  be  too  soft  wipe  the  grease  off,  and  repeat  the  process  without  the  tal- 
low, and  when  it  is  sufficiently  hot  plunge  it  into  cold  spring  water,  or  water 
and  vinegar  mixed.  By  a proper  attention  to  these  directions,  and  a little 
practice,  any  one  has  it  in  his  power  to  give  a proper  temper  to  the  tools  he 
may  use. 

TO  SAW  IRON. 

Iron  brought  to  a red  heat,  and  then  placed  in  a vise,  may  be  severed 
with  an  old  saw  without  difficulty. 

TO  PRESERVE  NAILS  FROM  RUSTING. 

Heat  them  (but  not  red  hot)  on  a shovel  over  the  fire,  and  then  drop  them 
into  a vessel  containing  train  oil.  They  absorb  the  oil  and  last  many  years. 

TO  MEND  IRON  POTS. 

Take  two  parts  of  sulphur  and  one  part,  by  weight,  of  fine  black  lead. 
Put  the  sulphur  in  an  old  pan;  hold  it  over  the  fire  until  melted;  then 
add  the  black  lead ; stir  well  until  all  is  mixed  and  melted  ; then  pour  out  on 
an  iron  plate  or  smooth  stone.  When  cold,  break  in  small  pieces.  If  a 
crack,  place  sufficient  quantity  on  and  solder  with  a hot  iron.  If  a hole, 
drive  in  a copper  or  iron  rivet,  and  solder  it  over  with  cement. 


778 


USEFUL  TABLES. 


CRACKS  IN  STOVES. 

Cracks  or  joints  in  a stove  may  be  readily  closed  in  a moment  with  a 
composition  consisting  of  wood-ashes  and  a little  common  salt,  made  into  a 
paste  and  plastered  over  the  crack.  The  effect  is  equally  certain  whether  the 
stove  be  cold  or  hot. 

CEMENT  FOR  JOINING  CHINA,  GLASS/  ETC. 

Beat  the  whites  of  eggs  well  to  a'froth;  let  them  settle ; add  grated  or 
sliced  cheese  and  quicklime.  Work  the  compound  lip  into  a smooth  paste; 
apply  a little  to  the  broken  edges,  and  join  them  together.  This  cement  will 
endure  both  fire  and  water. 

BED  BOTTLE  WAX. 


Resin pounds,  "j  Melt  ■ together.  This  wax  will  be 

Beeswax ^ pound  1- found  excellent  for  sealing  fruit  cans 

Venetian  red 1%  pounds.  J or  jars. 


GLUE. 

The  best  glue  is  really  known  by  its  transparency,  and  being  of  a rather 
light  brown  color,  free  frofn  clouds  and  streaks.  Dissolve  this  in  water,  and 
to  every  pint  add  half  a gill  of  best  vinegar  and  half  an  ounce  of  isinglass. 
The  better  the  glue  the  more  force  it  will  exert  in  keeping  the' two  parts  to- 
gether ; therefore,  in  all  large  joints,  the  glue  should  be  applied  immediately 
after  boiling.  Glue  loses  much  of  its  strength  by  frequent  remelting;  that 
glue,  therefore,  which  is  newly  made  is  much  preferable  to  that  which  has 
been  reboiled. 

A Portable  Glue  is  made  as  follows:  Boil  one  pound  of  best  glue, 
strain  it  very  clear;  boil  also  four  ounces  of  isinglass;  put  it  into  a double 
glue-pot,  with  half  a pound  of  fine  brown  sugar,  and  boil  it  pretty  thick ; then 
pour  it  into  plates  or  moulds.  When  cold,  it  is  portable  and  ready  for  imme- 
diate use.  It  dissolves  quickly  in  warm  water,  or  may  be  softened  in  the 
mouth. 

A Liquid  Glue  is  made  as  follows : Dissolve  the  glue  in  boiling  water, 
using  only  enough  water  to  reduce  the  glue  to  liquid  form.  It  is  then  re- 
moved from  the  fire,  and  sufficient  alcohol  poured  in  to  bring  it  to  the  right 
consistency,  stirring  it  briskly.  It  is  kept  in  a bottle,  with  a piece  of  India 
rubber  or  bladder  tied  over  the  mouth,  and  will,  it  is  said,  preserve  its  proper- 
ties for  years.  It  is  thus  always  ready  for  use,  without  the  trouble  of  prepar- 
ing, when  wanted.  In  very  cold  weather  it  may  need  to  be  warmed  a little. 

PUTTY. 

To  Make  Putty. — Putty  is  made  by  mixing  whiting  with  linseed  oil  to 
the  consistency  of  dough.  It  must  be  worked  well. 

Putty  made  with  glycerine  in  place  of  oil,  will  keep  soft  for  a long  time. 

Hard  Putty  is  quickly  softened  by  pouring  kerosene  oil  on  it,  or  by 
passing  a hot  poker  slowly  on  or  over  it. 


X WES  9 8 02 

*C-  W* 


% / ritapJsK 


